French borrowings in English. Borrowings from the Russian language in the English vocabulary

Chapter I. Borrowings in the lexical system of the language

Borrowings constitute a special layer of vocabulary both in terms of nomination processes and in terms of motivation. Being one of the possible answers to the needs of nomination arising as a result of language contacts and expansion under the influence of other linguistic societies, they represent a certain economy of linguistic effort when generating speech, since ready-made units of a foreign language are used to fill the nominative gaps that have arisen in a given language . At the same time, the loss of the previous associative connections that existed in the language from which they were borrowed entails the loss of a source of motivation that may be inherent in the borrowed words in the language. This causes significant difficulties in recognizing their meaning in the process of speech perception.
Borrowing as a process of using elements of one language in another is due to the contradictory nature of a linguistic sign: its arbitrariness as a force allowing borrowing and involuntariness as a factor preventing borrowing. This, apparently, explains the fact that the process of borrowing in modern English, as well as in the Russian language, according to available data, is very unproductive. In quantitative terms, it is significantly inferior to such processes of nomination as word formation and semantic derivation (word formation). The above, however, does not mean that the share of borrowings in modern English is not so large. Borrowed from approximately 50 languages ​​of the world, lexical units make up almost 75% of the vocabulary of the English language and include layers of vocabulary borrowed from various historical eras and under the influence of various conditions of development and existence. Among them
– historical, geographical, social, economic, cultural and other conditions. Being the result of a long historical interaction of languages, borrowing as a process and borrowing as a result of this process are of significant interest for the history of language, within which not only the reasons for borrowings, but also their source languages ​​receive detailed coverage. Also noteworthy are the ways, forms and types of borrowings, as well as the transformations that a borrowed word undergoes in a new linguistic environment. Borrowings are interesting, first of all, for the impact they have on the systemic structure of the vocabulary of a particular language, as well as for their special status in the language that borrowed them, if a number of genetic characteristics are preserved.
This influence is most obvious when the process of borrowing involves not only individual units, but entire groups of words between which certain relationships existed in the source language.
A significant number of borrowings from the English language (e.g. `rural`
(`rural`) – from the Latin `ruralis`, `rus`, `ruris` (`village`, `arable land`,
`field`); `cardiac` (`heart`) – from the Greek `kardiakos`, `kardia`
(“heart”), etc.) turn out to be genetically derivative in the source language and are characterized by structural-semantic dependence and deducibility. Provided that both members of such word-formation pairs are borrowed, the derivational relations between them are preserved in the borrowing language.
E.g., gloss – `gloss`, `marginal note`, `interpretation`; glossary
`glossary`, `dictionary`; dynasty – `dynasty`, dynastic – `dynastic`, etc. Given the group nature of borrowings in the English language, there is not only a replenishment of the subsystem of simple and derivative words. A significant number of morphologically distinct units arise, whose complexity is well felt by native English speakers. As a result, new word-formation models are formed. Thus, both the composition of morphemes in the English language and its word formation are significantly expanded.
(derivative) possibilities.

The life of borrowed words in a new language is especially interesting. This is very important when translating from English and into English from other languages.
Many borrowings, under the influence of the system into which they entered, undergo significant phonetic, grammatical and even semantic changes, adapting, respectively, to the phonetic, grammatical and semantic laws of this system.
The process of assimilation can be so deep that the foreign language origin of such words is not felt by native English speakers and is discovered only with the help of etymological analysis[v]. This is most true, for example, for Scandinavian and early Latin borrowings like get - `receive`, skill - `skill`, sky - `sky`, - skirt `skirt`, skin –
`skin`, they – `they`, street – `street` and others. In contrast to fully assimilated and assimilated borrowings, partially assimilated foreign language units retain traces of their foreign origin in the form of phonetic, (e.g. garage, chaise-longue, chic), grammatical (e.g. singular - datum, nucleus, antenna, plural - datd, nuclei, antennae) and semantic features (e.g. taiga, tundra, borsch, shchi, pelmeni, vodka, valenki, samovar, matrioshka, kopeck, rouble, knout and other borrowings from the Russian language, denoting realities and concepts alien to the English). In order to adequately describe them in explanatory dictionaries of the English language, lexicographers widely use encyclopedic information informing about places of distribution, forms of existence, methods of using designated objects and phenomena. Thus, when interpreting the words taiga and tundra, along with indicating the generic characteristics and differential features that make it possible to see the specificity and difference of these realities from the realities that are closest and known to native speakers of English, instructions are given climate zone, geographic range: taiga – swampy coniferous forest of Siberia, beginning where the tundra ends; tundra
–treeless plain characteristic of arctic and subarctic regions. The description of the borrowed names of monetary units such as rouble also implies an indication of both the fact that this is a monetary unit that occupies a certain place in the general system of monetary units, and the country in which it is in circulation: rouble – see money table: 100 kopecks, Russia .

1.1. Etymological classification of vocabulary

From an etymological point of view, all vocabulary is divided into original and borrowed.

Borrowing vocabulary is a consequence of the rapprochement of peoples on the basis of economic, political, scientific and cultural ties. In most cases, borrowed words enter the language as a means of denoting new things and expressing previously unknown concepts. Borrowed words can also be secondary names for already known objects and phenomena. This happens if the borrowed word is used to characterize a subject in a slightly different way, if it is a generally accepted international term, or if foreign words are forcibly introduced into the language (during military occupation or the implantation of a new religion).
The history of a language reveals all the processes that occurred in a language at different stages of its existence. The causes (factors) of changes that are inherent in the language itself are called linguistic (or interlinguistic), and factors associated with the history of the people, with the general development of human society, are called extralinguistic . These two concepts and two sides of the history of language are constantly in contact.

Polysemantic words are usually borrowed in one of their meanings, and the scope of the meaning of the word when borrowed, as a rule, narrows.

Borrowings from Latin and French played a major role in the development of the vocabulary of the English language. The Scandinavian languages ​​also had some influence on the English vocabulary.

The borrowing of Latin vocabulary is mainly associated with three events in the history of the English people: Roman rule (from the 1st to the 5th centuries AD), the adoption of Christianity in England (VI-VII centuries) and the cultural surge in the Renaissance (XV- XVI centuries)

The influence of the French language on English was especially strong during the period of French domination in the country, when a national English language had not yet emerged. The French invasion of England in 1066 marked the beginning of the Norman Conquest. French was the official language of England for a long time, and bilingualism existed in the country. Some vocabulary was borrowed later: after the restoration of the Stuart dynasty and in connection with the French bourgeois revolution of 1789.

In the 11th century England was part of the power Danish king, which also included
Denmark and parts of Norway and Sweden. This period is called in history the period of the Scandinavian conquest of England. The influence of Scandinavian dialects on the English language was expressed not only in the borrowing of vocabulary. It is generally accepted that the Scandinavian influence to a certain extent contributed to the reduction and disappearance of endings in English words ah, that is, ultimately, the formation of a characteristic analytical structure of the English language.

The “analyticism” of the language is expressed in a special grammatical structure, in which the connection of words in a sentence is carried out mainly in accordance with a certain word order and through function words - prepositions and conjunctions.

Old English was a synthetic language: the connection of words in a sentence was expressed mainly by changing the words themselves. In Old English, a system of inflectional forms was developed: nouns had a developed system of declension and a category of grammatical gender, adjectives agreed with nouns in gender, number and case, verbs had special forms to express perfective and imperfective forms, etc.

Borrowing vocabulary can occur orally and in writing. In the case of oral borrowing, words are quickly assimilated into the language.
Words borrowed in writing retain their phonetic, spelling and grammatical features longer.

Borrowing can be direct, and also occurs with the help of an intermediary language. Intermediary languages ​​were, for example, Latin (many Greek words came into English through Latin) and French (from which many Latin words were borrowed).

Among the main ways of borrowing vocabulary are transcription, transliteration, tracing and semantic borrowing.

Transcription (phonetic method) is a borrowing of a vocabulary unit in which its sound form is preserved (sometimes slightly modified in accordance with the phonetic features of the language into which the word is borrowed). In this way, the words football, trailer, jeans sport, labor, travel, people, castle, fortress and others were borrowed from the English language. In English, regime, ballet, bouquet and many others are borrowed from French. Such words are characterized by the fact that their general sound complex turns out to be new for the borrowing language, although each of their constituent sounds, with rare exceptions, is replaced by the sound of the language into which they fall.

Transliteration is a method of borrowing in which the spelling of a foreign word is borrowed: the letters of the borrowed word are replaced with letters of the native language. When transliterating, the word is read according to the rules of reading the native language. The words cruise, motel, club were borrowed from English into Russian using the method of transliteration. Many proper names are also transliterated when borrowed from English: Washington
(Washington), Texas (Texas), London (London). In the English language there are many words of Greek, Latin and French origin, which have retained their graphic features, although they are read according to the rules of the English language.

Tracing is a method of borrowing in which the associative meaning and structural model of a word or phrase are borrowed.
Calques are borrowings in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression, i.e., its exact reproduction by means of the receiving language while preserving the morphological structure and motivation.
When tracing, the components of a borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and combined according to the model of a foreign word or phrase. For example, the German noun Vaterland, translated in parts, gave the English tracing paper Fatherland; Russian noun
“suicide” is a calque of the Latin suicide (sui – `oneself, cide – `murder); The English noun self-service, borrowed into the Russian language by tracing, has the form `self-service`.

Such tracings are, for example, many borrowings from the Indian language that have become international: pale-face, pipe of peace
`peace pipe`. There are many cripples among borrowings from Russian: palace of culture, house of rest.

A large number of words and phraseological units based on Latin and French have been created in English using the tracing method.
Calques are, for example, the following vocabulary units: below one`s dignity – `below one’s dignity (from Latin infra dignitatem); under consideration – `discussed’ (from Latin sub juice); vicious circle –
“vicious circle” (from Latin circulus vitiosus); masterpiece – `masterpiece’ (from French chef d`oeuvre) still life – `still life (from French nature mort); pen name – `pseudonym’ (from French nom de plume) and others.

Semantic borrowing is the borrowing of a new meaning, often figurative, to a word already existing in the language. The words pioneer and brigade existed in the English language even before the penetration of “Sovietism” into it, but they received the meanings: “member of a children’s communist organization” and “work collective” under the influence of the Russian language of the post-October period.

Semantic borrowings occur especially easily in closely related languages. A number of examples can be found among Scandinavian borrowings. For example, the Old English verb dwellan, “to wander, linger,” under the influence of the Old Norse dveljawun, developed in modern English into dwell, “to live.” Thus, in terms of sound, dwell goes back to English, and in terms of semantics to the Scandinavian verb.

There are more cases of semantic borrowing among nouns than among verbs. The noun gift in Old English did not mean a gift, but “a ransom for a wife” and then, as a result of association by contiguity -
`wedding`. The Scandinavian word gift meant “gift, gift,” and this was reflected in the meaning of the original word. The following words got their modern meanings from Scandinavian: bread (in Old English `piece of bread`), dream (in Old English `joy`), holm (in Old English `ocean, sea`), plow (Old English)
`measure of land`).

Tracing, transcription, transliteration, semantic borrowing as methods of borrowing should be distinguished from translation methods of the same name. Without differing in their mechanism, they differ in their final results: when translating, the vocabulary does not increase, whereas when borrowing, new vocabulary units appear in the “piggy bank”.

Since the process of assimilation of foreign language elements begins from the moment they are introduced into the language by translators, it is appropriate to say a few words about the technique of translating specific foreign names. When translating words and expressions with unclear associative meaning, as well as when translating names of realities, transcription, less often transliteration, tracing and explanatory translation (transferring the meaning of a foreign word or phrase using the means of the native language without preserving the motivation and form) can be used. For example, translating the word the Speaker with the phrase
“chairman of the House of Commons”, the words backbenchers with the phrase “ordinary members of the English parliament”, etc. During an explanatory translation, the translated word may be given in a footnote, in this case
“speaker” and “backbangers”. When tracing, transcribing and transliterating, it is sometimes necessary to resort to comments (for example, “eggheads” in
The USA mockingly calls intellectuals and intellectuals).

A technique that is a type of explanatory translation and tracing can also be used - replacing associative meaning.
However, this does not exclude the need for comment. The abuse of transcription and tracing as translation methods clogs the language. If the motivation is unclear, transcription and tracing without commentary are unacceptable, since translation in the proper sense of the word in this case is absent.

As a result of the influence of other languages ​​on the English language, several changes have occurred in its vocabulary, the most notable of which are the following:

1) Many foreign vocabulary units appeared in the English language, especially words borrowed from French, Latin and Greek (Greek words were borrowed through Latin). Knowing the meanings of the most common roots of Greek and Latin origin helps to reveal the motivation of borrowed words and understand their meaning. Familiarity with the semantics of the most common Greek and Latin roots is also necessary for the correct pronunciation and spelling of common terms and common words.

Some Greek and Latin roots in modern English words.

E.g. Audio, lat. `listen` /auditorum, audience/;
Bios, Greek `life` /biology, biography/;
Centum, lat. `hundred` /cent, century, centenary/;
Demos - `people` /democracy, demography/;
Grapho, Greek `write` /graphic, phonograph/;
Homos, Greek `same` /homonym, homophone/;
Lexis, Greek `word`; lexicon, Greek `dictionary` /lexicology, lexicography/;
Onoma, Greek `name`/synonym, antonim, pseudonym/;
Phone, Greek `sound` /phonetics, phoneme, phonology/;
Scribe, scriptum, lat. `write`, `written` /describe, subscribe, scriptwriter, inscription/;
Tele, Greek `far`, `far` /telescope, telegraph/;
Video, lat. `see`; visus lat. 1) `vision`; 2) `view`, `spectacle` /visible, vision, revise, television, evidence/;
Vita, lat. `life` /vital, vitality, vitamin/.

2) Foreign word-forming elements appeared in the English language. As a rule, affixes are not borrowed separately, but are isolated from the stream of borrowed words, then joining the original stems and creating new words with it. English has many Latin and French affixes: anti-, re-, pro-, counter-, -ism-, -age-, -able-,
-ous, etc.

3) Under the influence of borrowings, many original English words fell out of use or changed their meaning.
For example, instead of Old English words that respectively expressed the concepts
`river, battle, army, astronomy, arithmetic, poetry` appeared French or Latin and Greek words borrowed through French
`river, battle, army, astronomy, arithmetic, poetry`, Scandinavian pronouns they, them replaced Old English words with the same meaning; Under the influence of the Scandinavian words sky and anger, the English nouns heaven and wrath narrowed their meaning.

4) Many different style, evaluatively inadequate synonyms have appeared
(mainly of Romanesque origin).

5) One of the consequences of borrowing was the emergence of etymological doublets. Etymological doublets are words that etymologically go back to the same base, but have different meanings, pronunciations and spellings in the language. For example: catch and chase, goal and jail, channel and canal.

The emergence of etymological doublets is explained by fairly specific reasons. The same word could be borrowed at different times or from different sources. For example, the Latin canalis “channel” came into English through a dialect of central France in the form channel and through a dialect of northern France in the form canal, and these forms were differentiated by meaning. The Latin quies, quietus "rest", borrowed directly into English has the form quiet, the same word, which came through the French language, exists in the language as quite. As a result of the penetration (in different periods) into the English language through French of the Latin noun corpus “body”, the etymological doublets corps “corps” and corpse “corpse” were created.

Most of the currently existing etymological doublets are of Romance origin. However, there are also English-Scandinavian doublets
(disk and disc, shirt and skirt) and native English (shade and shadow, scale and shell).
In modern English, etymological doublets can be synonyms or false synonyms (shade and shadow, frail and fragile) or have a similar form and be false homonyms (liquor and liqueur, through and thorough, corpse and corps). Differentiation of such words is important for practical language acquisition.

The historical commonality of many etymological doublets may not be felt at the present time. Such doublets differ in form and meaning, and their comparison is carried out only when studying the language from a historical perspective. In practical terms, such words do not present any difficulty, since they are not similar in modern consciousness either structurally or semantically. For example, host and guest, hotel and hostel, ounce and inch, prune and plum. Some etymological doublets were acquired directly opposite meanings, as, for example: ward - a person under guardianship and guard - guard; the one who protects.

6) As a result of borrowing, the English language was replenished with international words. International words are words that are found in many languages, but have minor phonetic differences associated with the pronunciation features of each language. For example: address, address (English), adresse (French), Adresse (German); Telegraph (German); socialism, socialism (English), socialisme (French), Sozialismus (German)
International words are etymological doublets, derived in most cases from Greek and Latin roots.

7) Many words have appeared whose pronunciation and spelling do not correspond to the norms of the English language. They exhibit some grammatical features. Features of borrowed words that have not been fully assimilated into the language include the following:

*In words borrowed from French in a later period, the letter g is read as [zh]: genre, prestige; the combination ch is read as [w]: machine, chauffeur; the final consonant is unreadable: corps, ballet.

*In words of Greek origin, the sound [k] is expressed in writing by the letter combination ch: Christ, character; the letter p before s is not readable: psychology, psychiatry; the sound [f] is conveyed in writing by the letter combination ph: alphabet, emphasis; in the middle of the word, instead of i, y is written: sympathy, physics.

Chapter II. The influence of individual linguistic cultures on the formation of the lexical composition of the English language

2.1. Borrowings from Scandinavian languages

In this chapter we will try to examine in more detail the issue of French and Scandinavian borrowings in the English language, as the most important for the formation of the vocabulary of modern English.
Although the problem of the origin of the vocabulary of a language is not limited to the problem of borrowings.

In the vocabulary of modern English, various historical layers, unequal in origin, character and volume, can be more or less clearly separated from each other. In this case, the following classification of words is generally outlined:
1. Words undoubtedly borrowed: a) from Scandinavian languages; b) from French; c) from Latin and Greek; d) from the Russian language e) from other languages.
2. The old lexical fund of the English language, that is, the totality of words of modern English minus the above borrowings.
3. Words that are not borrowed or old, but formed at a relatively later time from borrowed or old material. The peculiarity of this category is that it is distinguished only insofar as whole, ready-made words are meant; but if we keep in mind the roots directly, then the words of this category can be classified into the various groups listed above (not counting those cases that are not clear at all). So, for example, the modern English word eatable is formed from the verb eat with the help of the suffix –able–, borrowed from French, and, therefore, as a whole cannot be an old word; but by its root –eat– it belongs to the old lexical stock.

English belongs to the Western subgroup of Germanic languages, and therefore words representing the old stock of the English language very often find etymological parallels in other Germanic languages: compare, for example, English house, German Haus, Dutch huis, Norwegian hus, Swedish hus; English day, German Tag, Dutch dag, Norwegian dag, Swedish dag.

Naturally, there are especially many etymological parallels to the original English words in the languages ​​of the West Germanic subgroup, in particular in German: compare English night, German Nacht; English way, German Weg; English book German Buch etc.

When talking about borrowing, one should take into account a number of circumstances that complicate this already difficult problem. By the way, the very concept
“borrowing” is relative, conditioned by our actual knowledge.

Usually we call a word a borrowing if it is possible to indicate the actual source of this borrowing. However, many words not included in borrowings in this way may turn out to be borrowings from some unknown source or very ancient borrowings.
For example, the modern English word inch “inch”, borrowed from the Latin language in a very ancient era (Latin uncia 1/12 of any measure), acts on an equal footing with the modern English concept foot “foot”, and if it were not for If the foreign language source of the word inch is known, then it would, without a doubt, be classified as a native English word.
It is also necessary to distinguish between borrowings resulting from direct mass communication between Englishmen and speakers of other languages. As is known, the Middle English language developed over a long period of time under the continuous influence of, on the one hand, the Scandinavian dialects brought by the Scandinavian conquerors in the 9th-11th centuries, and on the other, the French language,
"brought" to England by the Norman conquerors in 1066. The influence of the Scandinavian languages ​​and the French language in these periods should be especially emphasized as disproportionately more significant and profound than the influence of other languages ​​or the influence of the Scandinavian languages ​​and the French language in other periods of the history of the “Aglitic” language.

The influence of Scandinavian languages ​​is associated with the conquest of England by the Scandinavians during the 9th-11th centuries. Approximately the same level of socio-economic and cultural development of the conquerors determined the penetration into the English language of words denoting objects and phenomena of objective reality already known to the English.

Compare anger – ґгневґ (Middle English, anger – ґmisfortune, trouble, frustration, anger; from Scandinavian and Old Norse, angr – grief, sadness); fellow – ґguy, ґtovarishchґ (Med. English felawe – ґcomrade, companion, guy; from Old Norse felagi – `comrade, companion, accomplice`); fit – `adjust, supply, install, correspond`
(cf. English fitten – `arrange`; Old Sk. fitja – ґto bindґ); weak
–`weak` (Middle English weik, Old veikr) and other words.

From the above list it is quite obvious that borrowings from the Scandinavian languages ​​were ordinary, everyday, widely used words associated with concepts that already had a synonymous expression in English: compare cf. angry `irritated, angry`, wrooth `angry, angry`; skye `cloud, clouds`, heaven –`sky, heavens`; taken `take, grab, start`, niman `take, grab`; they
`they`, hi, heo, he `they`.

To fully understand the reason for the above nature of Scandinavian borrowings, it is necessary to take into account that the English language, on the one hand, and the Scandinavian languages ​​brought to England, on the other hand, were closely related languages. It is known that in the case of closely related languages ​​we observe a special relationship, since such languages ​​can more or less easily be used simultaneously in the same process of communication. This relationship between languages ​​was called “potential-dialectal”.

In the era of the Scandinavian conquest, it is more correct to speak not about different languages, but about different dialects of the same language. It is necessary to take into account that a language is identical to itself (the same language, although in different dialect variants) and to the extent that all the various components of the language (words, types of their construction, changes and combinations, means of forming sentences, etc.) ) are somehow interconnected by mutual dependence into a specific, albeit diverse system. This system, which arose as a result of interaction, was introduced into the process of regular communication, forming a single “network” without significant breaks.
Thus, certain words penetrated from Scandinavian dialects into English ones, for the most part not due to the fact that they were associated with any new concepts for the English, but due to the fact that in the process of regular and mass communication between the English and Scandinavians, data words turned out to be more convenient for adequate expression of thoughts. It can be assumed, for example, that the word they replaced the corresponding Middle English word hi (heo, he) due to the fact that in the system of personal pronouns during this period there was significant homonymy, which to a certain extent was eliminated by the introduction of the Scandinavian dialect variant they.
In the vast majority of cases, however, there was interaction between English and Scandinavian dialect variants due to their regular identification as variants of the same word. As a result of this interaction, a third variant appeared in the language, combining the features of both dialect variants (both English and Scandinavian).

Compare modern English ken `outlook, circle of knowledge`, `know`
(used in Scotland): in Old English the corresponding verb cennan (a Danish word) had the meaning 'to notify, announce', the meaning of
`to know` appeared under the influence of the Old Norse Kenna `to teach, to know`; modern English dwell `to live, inhabit, be, dwell in detail, linger': the meaning of `to linger' goes back to the Danish dwellan
`to lead away, interfere, deceive, make mistakes`, and the meaning of `to live` to Old English. dvelza, scand. `live`.

The indicated nature of the penetration of Scandinavian roots into the English language determined that “Scandinavianisms” in the vocabulary of the English language in the overwhelming majority of cases, from the very moment of their appearance, belonged to commonly used vocabulary. In most cases, they remained in this part of the vocabulary in the future: anger, angry, fellow, fit, get, hit, leg, low, skill, take, want, week, till, they and the like. In some cases, they even replaced the corresponding English synonyms (they and take) or pushed them to the periphery of the dictionary language (sky in English heaven, skin in English hide). To this it is necessary to add the following: Scandinavian borrowings not only represented commonly used words, but also gave a large number of derivative words: hap - `chance, happy accident`, haphazard - `case, chance`, haphazard - `random`, hapless - `unfortunate, ill-fated`, happen –
`happen`, happening – `incident, event`, happy – `happy`, happily –
`happily`, happiness – `happiness`, `perhaps` – `possible`; weak
`weak`, weaken - `to weaken, grow weaker`, weak-headed - `feeble-minded, easily drunk', weak-kneed - `weak on his feet`, weakling - `weak-willed person`, weakness - `weakness` and others.

In the system of modern English, Scandinavian borrowings function on a par with native English words, no different from the latter. True, some of these words are phonetically characterized by the presence of an initial word, which, as is known, in native English words turned into [w] (sky, skin, skill, scathe and others). However, this feature does not particularly highlight Scandinavian borrowings, since in modern English the presence of initial [sk], thanks to the massive penetration of foreign words, is not something exceptional: scobs –
`sawdust, shavings`, scoff – `mockery`, scope – `span, coverage`, scorch –
“scorch”, score – “notch”, Scotch – “Scottish”, scout – “scout” and many others.

Borrowings from the same Scandinavian languages ​​in a later period should be considered from a completely different perspective. These borrowings in the overwhelming majority of cases are not commonly used words, have no or almost no derivatives and differ in their phonetic and orthographic appearance: tungsten, geyser, ski and others. Such lexical units in the vocabulary of modern English have the character of single inclusions and, in general, are no longer similar to early borrowings from Scandinavian languages, but to later borrowings from German, Dutch and other Germanic languages ​​(we will talk about them later): waltz - `waltz `, nickel - nickel, zinc - zinc, Luftwaffe -
`aviation` and the like.

2.2. Borrowings from French

The French borrowings of the era of the Norman Conquest are of a completely different nature than the early Scandinavian borrowings. Here it should be taken into account, first of all, that the French language, in relation to the English language, took a dominant position as the language of the court, the feudal nobility, government agencies, schools, and in general as the main language of writing (along with Latin). In this regard, French words, unlike Scandinavian ones, in their mass clearly reflect the position, lifestyle, activities and interests of those social strata that exclusively or predominantly used the French language: action
–action (Middle English accioun – `action, accusation`: from Old French accioun); agreeable – `pleasant, agreeable` (Middle English agreable: from Old French agreable); beauty – `beauty` (cf. English beautee: from old French beate); carpenter – carpenter (carpenter: from Old French carpentier); duke - duke (duk: from old French duc) and many others.

The dominance of the French language ends in the second half of the 16th century, but the largest number of borrowings from it occurred precisely at this time: the English language, displacing French, especially needed to enrich its vocabulary with the elements that the latter had.

It should be noted, however, that the French language initially spread in England mainly in the form of the Norman dialect, mixed with elements of north-eastern French dialects. Already in the 13th century. French began to lose the character of a living spoken language in England and gradually turned into a traditional official language (now the French language is assigned the role of official in the field of international document management
(like Latin - in the medical field)). In this regard, later borrowings are created primarily not from Anglo-French, but from Central French (Parisian or French), which prevailed in
XIII century.

As can be seen from the above examples, borrowings from the French language, in contrast to Scandinavian borrowings, were specific terms-names associated with new concepts introduced by the Norman conquerors. Most of these borrowings have remained on the periphery of the vocabulary and are unique in their phonetic and structural features of the language: they constitute a large group of polysyllabic words, typical primarily for literary and scientific languages ​​and are characterized by a specific word-formation structure.
However, over time, some words have become common, everyday and commonly used: for example, face - face (la face), gay - cheerful (gai), hour - hour (l'heure), ink - ink (les encre), joy - joy (la jolie), letter - letter (la letter), money - money (la monnaie), pay - pay
(payer), river - river (la riviеre), table - table (la table), place (la place), large (large), change (changer), minute (la minute), second (la second), mountain ( la montagne), soil (le sol), air (l'air), flower (la fleur), fruit (le fruit).

Due to the fact that a huge number of lexical units were borrowed from French into English, many of which had a complex word-formation structure, the influence of the French language greatly affected the system of English word formation.
Certain French suffixes and prefixes found in borrowed words could be extracted from these words and used to form words from the original roots.
For example: the suffix –able, extracted from borrowings such as acceptable
– acceptable when accept – accept; suffix –ence – from difference, excellence, evidence, violence;

In addition, borrowings from French have increased the incidence of conversion in English. The fact is that there were many parallel borrowings from the same basis from the French language. In the English language system, they took shape in the paradigms of various parts of speech: honour - honor (honour: from Old French honur, honour) - honour - to honor (ca. honouren: from Old French honorer), etc.

However, it would be erroneous to assume that all pairs of words of French origin that are correlated by conversion in modern English represent parallel borrowings. Much more often, only one of the words was borrowed into English from French, and the other was created by conversion on the basis of this word only later: abuse - abuse, insult - formed from abuse - to mistreat, abuse, insult (ca. abusen - to abuse, to mistreat , insult, deceive: from old French abuser) and others.

At the same time, cases of conversion due to parallel borrowing from French and cases of conversion that arose on the basis of one French borrowing in the English language itself are outwardly no different from each other: let’s compare, on the one hand, honor – (to) honor; labor – (to) labor; note – (to) labor; note – (to) note; pain – (to) pain, etc., and on the other hand, abuse – (to) abuse; act – (to) act; direct – (to) direct, etc.
This once again proves that the distinction in the system of modern English between such cases as honor (honor) - honour (honor) and cases such as abuse (insult) - abuse (offend) on the basis of their different origins has no basis no reason. These cases have had different histories, but at present they stand in exactly the same relationship, and therefore must be recognized as identical from the point of view of modern English.

Later borrowings from the French language are especially highlighted.

First of all, these borrowings are few in number. In addition, these borrowings for the most part have no or almost no parallel single-root formations, and often differ in their sound and spelling shell.

Borrowings from the French language continue to replenish the vocabulary to this day. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, they were predominantly bookish in nature. However, in the period immediately following the end of World War II, the English language borrowed French words as a result of the lively interaction between the American army and the French people.
Particularly interesting is the influence of French words on English vocabulary in Lately(late 20th century). French borrowings appear in many areas of life. This includes politics, social life, sports and recreation. They saturate the English language with colors, make it special, and enliven it.

Despite the fact that modern English consists of approximately one-third words of Romance origin, it has not lost its originality as a Germanic language. A large number of French and other foreign borrowings not only enriched this language, but to some extent compensated for the insufficiently developed system of word-formation means for expressing new concepts or shades of meaning. Many borrowings from the French language were determined historically:

Words associated with feudal relations: feudal, baron, vassal, liege, chivalry (some of these words, which at that time reflected feudal ideology in their meaning, later received a general meaning: command, obey, serve, noble, glory, danger)

Almost all titles, with the exception of king, queen, earl, lord and lady, are of Norman-French origin.

Words related to public administration people, nation, government, power, authority, court, crown, etc.

Words related to monetary relations: money, property.

Words meaning family relationships: parent, spouse, cousin, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece.

A large number of military terms and words related to war. All names of military ranks.

There are numerous words meaning pleasure and entertainment: feast, leisure, pleasure, delight, ease, comfort, chase and many card terms: trump, ace, cards.

Legal terms: accuse, court, crime, felony, defendant, defendant, attorney, etc.

French words were used to describe the professions of artisans who served the feudal lords: tailor, butcher, painter, carpenter, joiner.

It must be pointed out that the Franks, Goths and Burgundians, who conquered the Romanized Gauls and adopted their language, brought many Germanic words into popular Latin. Therefore, it is not surprising that among French borrowings there are many words of Germanic origin: banner, blank, blanket, blue, choice, coat, dance, garden, gay, pocket, ticket, war. And the last thing that should be said in this paragraph: French borrowings can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from Latin ones, or more precisely, it is difficult to distinguish direct Latin borrowings from indirect ones. For example, the word figure could come directly from Latin
(figura) and from French (figure).

2.3. Borrowings from Latin

Even before the settlement of the Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes on
In the British Isles, there were trade relations between these tribes and the Romans, which left some traces in their languages. The borrowings of this period, which is commonly called the first period of Latin borrowings, reflect the nature of the cultural, economic and military relations of the Roman and Germanic tribes. New words usually express new concepts that arose in connection with the introduction to the higher culture of the Roman people of this period. Such borrowings include the following words: port (Lat. portus), cycene (kitcen) from Lat. coquina, piper (pepper) from Lat.
Piper et al. The assumption that these words were borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons even before moving to the British Isles is based on comparative historical analysis. By comparing the lexical composition of various Germanic languages ​​and dialects, comparative historical linguistics has established the commonality of many words of Latin origin in these languages. Naturally, the assumption arose that the Anglo-Saxons brought these words with them. However, the presence of many of these words in the language of the Celts, with whom the Anglo-Saxons came into contact on the islands, does not make it possible to accurately establish, due to the lack of monuments, whether these words came into Old English directly from the Latin language or were borrowed from the Celtic language already in territory of Britain.

The bulk of Latin borrowings are associated with the introduction of Christianity in 597. Most of these borrowings express church and religious concepts. The general rise of culture associated with the introduction of Christianity entailed the emergence of new concepts that needed appropriate linguistic design. New words appeared from the Latin language, denoting concepts from the sphere of culture and everyday life.
Let us give examples of Latin words that found their way into Old English and have been preserved in modern English.

1. Household items, tools, implements: ancor (anchor) from

Lat. ancora; box (box) from Lat. buxus; cealc (chalk) from Lat. calcem; paper (paper) from Lat. paryrus; pyle (pillow) from Lat. pulvinus; post

(post) from Lat. postis; purs (purse) from Lat. bursa; sicol (sikle) from

2. Items of clothing: cappe (cap) from Lat. cappa; socc (sock) from Lat. soccus.

3. Measures of weight and length: circul (circle) from Lat. circulus; pund (pound) from Lat. pondo; ynce (inch) from Lat. incia.

4. Names of animals, birds and fish: assa (ass) from Lat. asinus; camel

(camel) from Lat. camelus; turtle (turtle) from Lat. turtur; really

(trout) from Lat. tructa.

5. Plant names: palm (palm) from Lat. palma; pere (pear) from Lat. pirum; rose (rose) from Lat. Rosa; lilie (lily) from Lat. lilium; plante (plant) from Lat. planta

6. Words related to religious concepts: engel (angel) from Lat. angelus; biscop (bishop) from Lat. episcopus; cyrice (church) from Lat. cyriaca; munuc (monk) from Lat. monachus; nunne

(nun) from Lat. nonna; papa (pope) from Lat. papa.

In total, according to the calculations of the English linguist Bo, by the end of the Old English period there were about 450 Latin borrowings, not counting derivative words and proper names.
A significant number of Latin words entered the English language during the 11th-
XIII centuries, during the Norman conquest. However, these words, for the most part, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.

The largest number of words borrowed by the English language from Latin are so-called book borrowings. These are words that entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less susceptible to all kinds of changes, especially semantic ones. This is logical to explain by the fact that book borrowings, over a long period of time, are limited to the scope of their use
- literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.
Most of the Latin book borrowings in English occur during the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, during the Renaissance in England. In the works of Wycliffe[x], Langland, and Chaucer, there are over a thousand Latin words that have not previously been attested in English. During the Renaissance, words from the fields of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms, etc. appeared. A list of these words cannot be given within a short chapter. To do this you need to compile a special dictionary.

Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological characteristics, for example, verbs with the suffix –ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of the first conjugation, such as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix –ute- in the infinitive, obtained from the stem of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of the third conjugation, such as prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with stems -ant- and -ent-, for example, evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.

The subsequent centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases these are so-called
“learned words”, often preserving the features of the morphological character of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.

Finally, in modern English there are also borrowings that have completely retained their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotations from the Latin language.
The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in scientific prose styles, in business documents, and in elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include expressions such as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine qua non, and so on.

As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words by one language from another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages ​​come into contact.
This is precisely the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appear in English twice: once from French, once directly from Latin. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time, which is necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as new. The result is etymological French-Latin doublets.
Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be included among the Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later interpreted as word-forming morphemes.
However, in linguistic literature they are usually called borrowed affixes.

Thus, the Latin language had a significant influence on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, prepared the way for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological affinities. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word came into English from French or Latin.

Among the borrowed Latin words, a certain group of words stands out, which in one or another sound form, grammatical design and semantic content can be found in a number of languages ​​- international words. It was the Latin language that gave the most significant number of such words. This is explained by the fact that Latin in the era of feudalism was for many countries of Western Europe the international language of science, and in some countries it was even a literary language. The Latin language retained its significance as the language of science until the 17th-18th centuries. Modern medicine, chemistry, botany, zoology, philosophy, politics, and art still widely use Latin bases to denote newly emerging concepts.
Of the Latin words borrowed by the English language and which are international words, the following words can be mentioned: obligation, constitution, alibi, agriculture, microscope, modern, laboratory, program, system, socialism, communism, capitalism, climate, radius, tradition and so on.

Words that date back to the period of borrowing before 800 may have entered English through the Celtic language and were associated with the Roman rule that lasted for the first four centuries AD.
Britain, or get into the language of the Angles and Saxons on the continent. Be that as it may, they testify to a higher material culture of the Romans than that of the Celtic and Germanic tribes of that time and mean specific things and concepts previously unknown to the Anglo-Saxons.
E.g.: port – lat. portus, wall port – lat. vallum, wine shaft – Old English. win, lat. vinum, mile wine – OE mil, lat. milia (passuum), a thousand (steps).

The abundance of borrowings in the English language has led to the formation of a large number of doublets. Doublets are two or more words that have a common root and common origin, but which, developing in different ways, receive slightly different sound design and meaning. E.g. derivatives from the verb facere: factor, factory, faculty, defect, defeat.

Many Latin names have been preserved in toponymy. Yes, lat. castrum fortification, fort, had a plural, castra with the grammatically related meaning camp, whence OE. ceaster and modern – caster, Chester in different geographical names. For example: Lancaster,
Dorchester, Manchester, Winchester.

All words in this group were borrowed orally, completely assimilated and included in the main vocabulary of the English language. At the same time, they submitted to the grammatical structure of the English language, losing those grammatical forms that were characteristic of them in the Latin language, and also submitted to all those natural phonetic changes that occurred in the words of the English language throughout its history.

There is another group of Latin borrowings: they are carried out not orally, but in books, and denote mainly abstract concepts: basis, area, crisis, idea, ratio, stimulus. There are many verbs and adjectives among them: operate, cultivate, demonstrate, evolve, educate, admit, permit, complete, accept, affect, locate, separate, senior, junior, minor, inferior, exterior, superior, dependant.

The most important features of words of Latin-Romance origin are the following: the predominance of disyllabic and polysyllabic stems with prefixes, and the prefixes end in a consonant: ab-, ad-, corn-, dis-, ex-, in-, im-, il-, sub-; doubling consonants: bb, cc, ft, 11, mm, nn, pp, rr, ss, tt.

2.4. Loanwords from Celtic languages

As is known, the Germanic tribes - the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who moved to the British Isles in the 5th century, met with the original population of these islands - the Celtic tribes. However, due to the low cultural and economic development of the tribes, the influence of the Celtic languages ​​on Old English was negligible. This influence actually amounted to the borrowing of several words from the Celtic languages, which have been preserved in modern English to the present day. A relatively larger number of Celtic words were borrowed into English in later periods from Gaelic (Ireland) and Scots. As examples of early borrowings from their Celtic languages, the following words can be mentioned: bard - bard, singer, poet; bin - bag, basket (for wine, grain); brat - child, shoot, offspring; brock - badger; down- hill; dun - grayish brown.

This, the earliest period of borrowings from Celtic languages, also includes Latin words borrowed by Celtic tribes from Latin during the period of the Roman conquest of the British Isles.

But since these words came into English from Celtic languages, they are naturally regarded as Celtic borrowings. These are words such as: bannock - unleavened cake; cross - cross; pillion - saddle cushion; plaid - plaid.

Some place names are also early Celtic loanwords into English, for example: Aberdeen, Ben Lomond, Dunbar,
Kildare, Dunstable, Billigshurt.
From later borrowings, we can mention the following words that penetrated into the English language from the Welsh, Irish and Scottish languages: coracle - a fishing boat woven from willow and covered with leather; cromlech - cromlech (Celtic structure of the Bronze Age); eisteddfod - a collection of Welsh bards; flannel - flannel; flummery - a dish made from wheat or oats; also any sweet dish made from flour, eggs and sugar.

All these words are borrowed by English from Welsh.
(Celtic group). With the exception of the last two words, all of them are a kind of rarities, that is, rarely used words.

From another Celtic language - Scottish, the following words came into English: сlan - clan, clan (in Scotland); claymore - an old broadsword (Scottish highlanders); сrag - rock, cliff; glen - narrow valley; loch - lake, narrow sea bay; veel - the name of a fast (Scottish) dance; slogan - slogan, appeal tartan - checkered woolen material;
The following words were borrowed from the Irish language: banshee - a spirit whose groans foreshadowed death; bog - swamp, quagmire; galore - in abundance shamrock - shamrock shillelagh - baton spalpen - slacker tory - tory, conservative

2.5. Borrowings from Russian

Borrowings from the Russian language, especially in the post-October era, require special consideration.
In English, as in other Germanic languages, even in ancient times there were words that had common roots with words of Slavic languages, and, apparently, were borrowed from the dialects of Slavic tribes in
XII century. These are words such as: honey, milk, hemp, plow and others, Old English: meodu, modern. English mean; Old English henap, modern English hemp; Old English meolk, modern English milk; Old English ploz, modern English plow.

An early borrowing from the Russian language includes the word sable
(sable). In the period of the XII-XIII centuries, as is known, sable fur occupied an important place as a product of exchange, performing the function of a monetary unit. In English dictionaries this word was recorded already in the 14th century, and, in addition to the meaning of the noun “sable”, it is also given in the meaning of the adjective
"black".

A large number of Russian borrowings in the English language appear, however, already in the 16th century, after the establishment of more regular economic and political ties between Russia and England.

The Russian words that penetrated into the English language at that time in their meaning are various kinds of names of trade items, names of ruling, class, officials and subordinates, institutions, names of household items and geographical names.
During this period and somewhat later, Russian words such as beluga, sterlet, rouble, pood, czar, ztarosta, moujik, kvass, shuba, vodka, samovar, troika, babushka, pirozhki were borrowed.

Some special terms also creep in. For example: siberite ( special kind ruby), uralite (asbestos slate). Many of these words have entered the English vocabulary and are used by English writers.

In the 19th century, with the growth of the people's democratic liberation movement in Russia, words appeared in the English language that reflected this socio-political movement. For example, Decembrist - Decembrist, nihilist - nihilist, nihilism, nihilistic, narodnik, intelligentsia. Of course, the roots of such words as nihilist, Decembrist, intelligentsia are Latin. However, these words are borrowings from the Russian language, since they arose in
Russia, in connection with certain phenomena of Russian reality and as such penetrated into other languages.

In addition to the above-mentioned words, during the period of the 18th-19th centuries. Other Russian words are also penetrating into the English language. Many of these words, such as ispravnik, miroed, obrok, barshina and others, are currently historical terms in Russian and are found in English only in historical descriptions or in historical novels. Russian borrowings that have penetrated into the vocabulary of the English language, like any other borrowings, are transformed in their sound appearance and grammatical structure, obeying the internal laws of development of the English language. This can be clearly seen in the example of such words as kopeck, knout, sterlet and others, the sound appearance of which is transformed according to the laws of English pronunciation. The plural of most nouns borrowed from the Russian language is formalized in English according to the grammatical norms of the English language - stepspes, sables and the like.

Many borrowed Russian words form derivatives based on word-formation models of the English language - narodism, nihilistic, to knout, sable (as an adjective) and so on.

In the “pre-October” period, words were borrowed mainly related to the peculiarities of Russian nature and life and items of trade with
Russia: sable sable; astrakhan karakul; sterlet sterlet; steppe steppe; verst verst; izba hut, etc.

Among them there are phonetic borrowings, where a new sound complex is borrowed for a new concept: Soviet, sputnik, bolshevik, kolkhoz, activist, agitprop and so-called calques, i.e. a literal translation of elements of Russian words and expressions while preserving the morphological structure: house of rest or translations, sometimes even explanatory translations: shock-worker, five-year-plan, collective-farm woman (collective farmer).

Only towards the end of the 19th century, words associated with the growth of the socio-political movement “leaked” into the English language, as well as into other languages ​​of the world, from the Russian language. During the 20th century, we observe Russian words in the English language, indicating the interest of the English people in political events in Russia.

Russian borrowings also played a big role in improving modern philosophical and political terminology of all languages, including English.

2.6. Borrowings from German language

The English vocabulary contains a significant number of words borrowed from the German language. At the same time, there are not so many German vocabulary units that are part of the English vocabulary.
The fact is that a very large number of words borrowed from the German language and related to the field of science are formations from Latin and Greek roots, that is, these are, in fact, international words, although they were borrowed from German sources. Many Greek and Latin words have become international prefixes. For example, anti-, counter-, inter-, sub, ultra-, Greek suffixes are widely used in all languages: -ist, -ism, -isk.

Borrowings from the German language, first of all, include words that express concepts of a socio-political and philosophical nature. Most of them took shape in English in translated form, that is, in the form of tracing paper. The tracing of a number of phrases and complex words of the German language was facilitated by the close relationship of the German and English languages.

The first borrowings from the German language date back to the 16th century. During this period, words related to trade and military affairs were borrowed; names of some plants; words characterizing people and others.
For example: halt (stop!), lance-knight (landsknecht), kreuzer (kreuzer, name of the coin), junker (cadet).

Already in the 16th century, active development of ore deposits began in England and metallurgy developed. Germany at that time was an advanced country in mining and metallurgical industry. From Germany to
Mining specialists arrive in England. During the reign of Elizabeth I
Tudor organized two industrial companies led by Germans. It is very likely that as a result of direct communication with people speaking German, German words were first adopted orally.
These words appear in written documents no earlier than the 17th century. Mining terms such as zinc, bismut, cobalt and others came into English from German.

In the 17th century, new borrowings appeared from the field of trade and military affairs. For example, groschen (pennies); drillinq(training); plunder
(robbery); staff (headquarters); fieldmarshal (field marshal) and others.

In the 18th century, the influence of the German language turned out to be weaker than in the previous century. This is obviously due to the general political and economic decline of Germany after the Thirteen Years' War.

In the second half of the 18th century, the following words related to the field of geology, mineralogy and mining were borrowed: iceberq, wolfram, nickel, qletscher.

In the 19th century, the scope of borrowing expanded significantly. A number of borrowings from the humanities, social life and politics appear.
Many terms are borrowed (from the fields of chemistry and physics, philology, art). Many of these borrowings are calques or are international words. Words related to lexicology are, for example: ibdogermanic (Indogermanisch), Middle English
(Mittelenglisch), umlaut, ablaut, grade (Grad), breaking, folk etymology
(Folksetymologie), vowel0shift (Lauterverschieburg), loanword (Lehnwort).

Words denoting products and household items: marzipan, kohl-rabi, schnapps, kummel, kirsch, vermuth.
Words from the field of music: leitmotiv, kapellmeister, claviatur, humovresgue.

Animal names: spits, poodle.

Borrowings of the 20th century are characterized by a noticeable predominance of words related, directly or indirectly, to war. In the period after the year, a number of words are borrowed to denote concepts and realities that appeared during the Hitler regime. The most famous of them: Black Shirt (Schwarhemd), Brown Shirt
(Braunhemd), der Euhrer, gauleiter, Gestapo, Hitlerism, Nazi, Stormtroopers
(Stumabteilung), the Third Reich (third empire), blitzkrieg, bunker,
Luftwaffe, Wehrmacht.

2.7. Borrowings from Dutch

The vocabulary of the English language reflects the close trade, military and economic ties between England and the Netherlands, maintained over a long historical period. All English trade until the 16th century was limited to the Baltic and
North Seas. Lively communications were maintained between English ports and the ports of the Hanseatic League. A large number of words related to shipbuilding, navigation, and trade were borrowed from the Dutch language during that period.

Another group of borrowings reflects the military relations, both allied and hostile, between the two countries.

The largest group of borrowings consists of words reflecting economic ties between England and the Netherlands. Some words were borrowed from the first Dutch settlers in North America. A number of borrowings are associated with the colonization of South Africa by the Dutch. Colonial conquests are also associated with the borrowing of a number of words from the languages ​​of the colonial population, which entered the English vocabulary through the Dutch language. Finally, a small group of borrowings relates to the field of art.

The earliest borrowing from Dutch is the word pack
(bale, package) - 1225 g.

The largest number of borrowings from the Dutch language entered the English vocabulary during the 14th-17th centuries. Of these, the most famous are the following: bulwark (bastion); ledger (accounting book); keel
(keel); freight (freight); hose (hose); skipper (skipper); rover (pirate); deck (deck); spool (spool); nap (nap on cloth).

The 17th century became the heyday of the famous Flemish school of painting. This is reflected in the vocabulary of the English language in the form of a number of borrowings related to art, for example: easel
(easel); landscape (landscape); sketch (sketch).

2.8. Borrowings from Italian

Economic and political ties between England and Italy began to develop rapidly in the 14th century. The English economy was linked to Italian manufacturing, which could not exist without English wool.
Preparations for the Hundred Years' War were carried out by Edward III with the money of Florentine bankers. These economic and political connections are reflected in the vocabulary of the English language, which, starting in the 14th century, borrows Italian words related to trade, manufacturing and warfare.

However, the Italian language had its strongest influence during the era
Renaissance. We know the importance that literature and art
There were revivals for the entire European culture. England also experienced this influence. Acquaintance with Italian literature of this period, travel to Italy, study of its painting, sculpture and architecture, interest in Italian music, in the country itself, all this was reflected in a number of borrowings from the Italian language.

It should be noted that, due to the wide distribution of Italian borrowings in European languages, some Italian words were borrowed into English not directly, but through other languages.
For example, barouche (Italian word baroccio - baroque); cohl-rabi (Italian cavoli rape - kohlrabi) are borrowed from the German language. Most Italian words before the 16th century were borrowed through French, and only from the 16th century did borrowings appear directly from the Italian language.

The earliest (XIV-XV centuries) borrowings relate to trade and military affairs. Thus, the following words were borrowed from the field of trade and finance: ducat, million, pombard. From the field of military affairs and navigation: alarm
(alarm), brigand (bandit), bark (barge).

In the 16th century, economic ties with Italy gave rise to new borrowings: carat (carat), traffic (traffic), porcelain (porcelain), contraband (smuggling), bankrupt (bankrupt), soldo (soldo), battalion, squadron, citadel, pistol.
However, the largest number of words borrowed from the Italian language are associated with the field of art (literature, painting, music, architecture).
For example: sonnet, stanza, motto, model, miniature, madonna, fresco.

Other borrowings from this period: bandit, biretta, mustachio, lottery, bravo, duel, cavalcade, escort, artichoke, gondola.
In the 17th century, the number of borrowings related to public life, trade, as well as art and music increases, for example: manifesto, intrigue, bulletin, risk, umbrella, balcony, corridor, pedal, solo, opera, vivace, piano, largo, allegro, grotto, volcano, cascade.

In the 18th century, the continuing fascination with Italian musical culture caused a new influx of musical terms from the Italian language during this period, words such as soprano, falsetto, viola, cantata, mandolin, trombone, trio, fantasia, aria, tempo, obligate, crescendo, andante appeared.
Words were borrowed from other types of art: picturesque, costume, terracotta, dilettante.

In the 19th century, some words were borrowed to reflect the political struggle in Italy. For example, carbonary, cammorra. The group of borrowings related to science is increasing, however, the largest number of borrowings, as in the previous two centuries, came from the field of music and art. Examples include the following words: sonatina, cavatina, legato, prima donna, diva, fiasco, studio, replica.

Borrowings from the early 20th century include: autostrada, duce and fascist (the latter word is related to the Latin word fasces - the name of the emblem of the executive branch in Ancient Rome(a bunch of birch twigs with an ax stuck in the middle)).

It is worth adding that in English, as in a number of other European languages, some Italian phraseological combinations are used, for example, sotto voce (in a whisper, in an undertone), traditori and others.

2.9. Borrowings from Spanish

Like loanwords from Italian, Spanish loanwords began appearing in English in the 16th century. Historical events that caused an influx of borrowings are associated with the Great Geographical Discoveries of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. What followed the discovery of America
(1492) and the opening of the sea route to India (1498), the development of trade, the colonization of South and North America by the Spaniards and, subsequently, the cooperation of England with Spain led to the borrowing of a number of Spanish words, as well as words from the languages ​​of the people subjected to colonization.

The earliest borrowings associated with the Spanish language entered the English vocabulary back in the 19th century through the French language.
Some of them are words of Arabic origin, reflecting trade relations with the East and the influence of Eastern culture, for example, cotton, zenith. In the 15th century, several more such borrowings were made: lemon, tare (container) - directly from Spanish.

In the 16th century, close economic and political ties between Spain and
England, on the one hand, and Spain and France, on the other, contributed to the penetration of a number of Spanish words into the English language, both directly from Spanish and through French.

In the first half of the 16th century, thanks to dynastic ties between
Between England and Spain there were many Spaniards in England, from whom the English learned a number of words related to Spanish morals and trade. The military conflict between the two countries at the end of the 16th century also left its traces in the English vocabulary.

From Spanish borrowings of this period, the following words can be cited as examples: infanta, don, hidalgo, renegade, bravado, armada, comrade, mulatto, mosquito.
Of the most famous words borrowed in the 17th century, we cite the following: cargo, guitar, castanet, toreador, matador, duena, dona, embargo, parade, escapade.

Among the borrowings made in the 18th century, one can note the names of Spanish dances, games and foods, items of clothing, and socio-political terms. For example, quadrille, bolero, picador, marinade, caramel, flotilla, cigar.

Most borrowings from Spanish in the 19th century were made in the Americas. Some of these borrowings entered the English vocabulary through American literature. Among these borrowings we can mention: querilla (root of Germanic origin: werra-war), cigarette, lasso, mustang.

As can be seen from the above examples, most borrowings from the Spanish language retain their appearance and are usually used in English for stylistic purposes, most often to give “local flavor” to the narrative. Among the Spanish words that have firmly entered the vocabulary of the English language and are no longer perceived as barbarisms, the following words can be distinguished: cotton, zenith, renegade, grenade, alligator, banana, cargo, guitar, guerilla, cigarette, cafeteria, tango, rumba.

Recent and widely used loanwords include dinero, macho, amigo, gringo, el nino(a) and others.

2.10. Borrowings from Portuguese

Borrowings from the Portuguese language are almost entirely associated with trade relations that arose as a result of geographical discoveries. Compared to Spanish, borrowings from Portuguese are not as numerous.
Just like from the Spanish language, words were borrowed to denote new concepts and realities associated with the life and customs of the indigenous population of the colonies, with the flora and fauna of these colonies, as well as words denoting new items of trade.

Some Portuguese words have been borrowed through French. Through the Portuguese language, words were also borrowed from the languages ​​of the peoples of Brazil, Guiana, Africa, India and others.

Of the few borrowings from the Portuguese language, we will only mention the following: marmalade, flamingo, madeira, buffalo, coco(nut), port
(wine), guinea, caste, mandarin.

2.11. Borrowings from Arabic

Borrowings from Arabic reflect the diverse cultural and trade ties between Europe and the East. Long Arab occupation of Spain
(VIII-XV centuries), Crusades (XI-XIII centuries), opening of the sea route to
India and the defeat of the Great Armada (late 16th century), which served as a stimulus for the revival of England's trade with the East, and, in the modern era, the colonization and subordination of a number of Arab countries to English influence - all these historical events left their mark on the vocabulary of the English language in the form of borrowings related to trade with Arab countries, their way of life and natural conditions.
Particularly noteworthy is the influence that the culture of the ancient Arabs had on the development of culture and science in medieval Europe. In the era of the early Middle Ages, in the age of scholasticism, when scientific thought in Europe froze, when the connection with the heritage of the ancient Greeks was severed, science moved forward in the East. The ancient Arabs achieved significant success in the fields of mathematical sciences, astronomy, and medicine.

With the beginning of the Renaissance, interest in the scientific achievements of the East arose in Europe. The teaching of Arabic is being introduced at universities (including Oxford), and the works of Eastern scientists written in Arabic are being studied and translated.
It should be noted that just as Latin was the language of scientists in medieval Europe, Arabic was the language of science for the ancient East.
Some Arabic words were borrowed from medieval Latin and from there found their way into English. At the same time, a number of Persian and Indian words, as well as some words of Greek origin, were borrowed through Arabic. A number of borrowings from Arabic entered the English vocabulary through: Italian, Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, and French. Borrowings from the field of science relate mainly to the XIV-XVI centuries.

Here are some examples of borrowings from Arabic: caliph, mameluke, shekh, hashish, nadir.

The following words of Arabic origin were borrowed through the French language: caliber, sultan, magazine.

Via Italian: algebra, carat, tariff.

Via Portuguese: apricot.

Via Latin: alcohol.
The word assassin, borrowed by English through Italian, means “hashish-eating” and is associated with the fact that people who attempted to kill the leaders of the crusaders first intoxicated themselves with hashish.

2.12. Borrowings from Persian

Borrowings from Persian have entered English in a variety of ways. The prevalence of the Persian language in the ancient world led to the borrowing of Persian words by languages ​​such as Arabic, Urdu
(or Hindi), Turkish, Greek. Thanks to trade with Persia, Persian words were borrowed into Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and French. Of all these languages, Persian words found their way into the English language at appropriate periods in history. Direct borrowings from the Persian language date back to modern times, that is, from the end of the 15th century onwards to the present day.

The earliest borrowings from Persian date back to the Old English period and penetrated into English through Greek and Latin. During the Middle English period, borrowings came through the French language.
Subsequently, during the early modern English period, several Persian words were borrowed through medieval Latin. Direct borrowings begin in the 16th century.

The earliest borrowings include words borrowed from the ancient Persian language by Greek, and from it penetrated into the English language: satrap, tiard. These words reflect concepts related to the reign of
Darius 6th century BC) In the 13th century, the word scarlet was borrowed through the French language.
In the 14th century, the following words were borrowed through French: tiger, azure, and through Latin - arsenic, salamander.

In connection with the development of English trade that followed the opening of the sea route to India, the British came into direct contact with Persian-speaking peoples. It should also be taken into account that the main language of India itself, Hindi, contains a very large number of Persian words, and thus Persian words were borrowed by the British in India. The result of direct acquaintance with Persia and
India borrowed words characterizing the local situation: shah, dervich, toman, divan, caravan, bazaar, caravan serai, padichah, dinar, shawl.

2.13. Borrowings from Indian languages

The bulk of borrowings from Indian languages ​​are words from Urdu and Hindi.

The beginning of the penetration of borrowings from Indian languages ​​dates back to the 16th century and is associated with the first steps of England towards the “development” of the fabulous riches of India, which became more accessible thanks to the opening of the sea route to this country. However, the massive influx of Indian words refers to the following,
The 17th century, at the very beginning of which the West Indian Campaign was organized, which marked the beginning of the enslavement of India and the plunder of its natural resources. Colonization began with the West Indian Campaign
India, English settlements were founded in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta. In a fierce struggle with France for the possession of India, England won, and India became part of the British Empire.

Borrowings from Indian languages ​​relate to the social structure, customs, national characteristics of life, trade and industry.

For example, nabob - nabob, maharadja (h) - maharajah, bungalow - bungalow, house with a veranda, jut - jute, jungle - jungle, cashmere - cashmere, pyjamas - pajamas.

COURSE WORK

in the discipline "Fundamentals of the theory of language learning"

Lexicology

Borrowings in English

MANAGEMENT..………………………………………………………………………………………...…3

1. DISCLOSURE OF THE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE BORROWING. ITS DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS.................................................... ............................………………………….…5

2. REASONS FOR BORROWING FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORDS. HISTORY OF STUDYING THE REASONS OF BORROWING.................................................... ............................................9

3. LIVING ENGLISH AS A CONTINUALLY DEVELOPING ENGLISH

PHENOMENON ….......................................……………………… .......................…………...15

3.1. Examples of languages ​​and borrowings that influenced modern English.................................................... ........................................................ ..............................16

4. RESULTS OF THE BORROWING PROCESS. THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE BORROWING IN THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE......................................................... ........................................................ ……………………….20

CONCLUSION.....……………………………………………………...………………..24

LIST OF REFERENCES AND SOURCES USED………………………………………………………………………………...………...26

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the topic: The presented work is devoted to the topic “Borrowings in English”. The problem of this study has relevance in the modern world. This is evidenced by the frequent raising and further study of issues of linguistic borrowing, which extend their influence to a wide variety of areas of activity, both of certain generations and the development of nations as a whole. No language is “pure” - all have impurities and borrowings. English is no exception. It contains words from Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Hindi and many other languages. And, therefore, the study of the above problem has been and will be of a relevant nature, due to the close connection of language borrowings with the general history of the past and the prospects for the development of languages ​​in the future.

Target: Studying the topic “Borrowings in the English language” from the point of view of the latest domestic and foreign research on similar issues of linguistic borrowing as a process. Determining the role of linguistic borrowing in the formation and development of the English language.

Based on the goal, the following were identified: Tasks :

Study the theoretical aspects and nature of linguistic borrowings involved in the formation and development of the English language;

Determine the criteria and possibilities of linguistic borrowings in speech;

Outline the trends in the development of the topic “Borrowings in the English language”.

Object This study is to analyze and identify the nature of linguistic borrowings in the English language.

Subject research is an analysis of the conditions of linguistic borrowings in English, consideration of individual issues formulated as the objectives of this study,

1. DISCLOSURE OF THE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE BORROWING. ITS DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS.

Borrowing- this is a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in the language; also such a foreign language element itself. This is an integral component of the functioning and historical change of language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment; It is also a full-fledged element of the language, which is part of its lexical wealth, serving as a source of new roots, word-forming elements and precise terms.

Borrowing in languages ​​is one of the most important factors in their development. The process of borrowing lies at the very basis of linguistic activity.

Sound and formal uniformity within a language is a consequence of borrowing by some individuals from others; In the same way, the borrowing of elements of the lexicon of one language by another language occurs - through the interaction of their speakers.

The proportion of borrowed elements in languages ​​is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign language elements penetrating the language, and due to the action of the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word.

In each language the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages ​​of one family; words common to a group, subgroup of related languages; native words of a particular language; borrowed words. Using the English example, it looks like this:

Indo-European words (common to many languages): mother , brother , daughter , wolf , meat , hear , hundred , be , stand ;

German words: bear, finger, say, see, white, winter ;

West German words: age, ask, give, love, south;

Proper English (Anglo-Saxon words): lady, lord, boy, girl ;

Borrowings:

Related languages: knight, low, flat, fellow, sale(from Old Norse), rummer, napper, fitter(from Dutch);

From another language system: Soviet, sputnik, steppe, taiga(from Russian), judo, samurai, sumo(Japanese), xylophone, epoch, echo(Greek).

This is a generally accepted classification of the vocabulary of the English language. But it cannot be called unequivocally true. For example, words taken for Indo-European may well be borrowed from other proto-languages, because trade and other relations between peoples have existed since ancient times.

Words borrowed in the most ancient times and completely assimilated by the receiving language are not perceived as foreign, and establishing their origin is often difficult even for a linguist ( table- from French).

It is often difficult to establish which language from a group or subgroup is the source of a word (word figure could have come directly from Latin figura, and through French figure). Another difficulty is the distinction between the terms “origin of a word” and “source of borrowing.”

Many words are borrowings of the second or more degree (for example, the word valley came to English from Latin via French).

Despite some inaccuracies, this classification demonstrates the scale of the phenomenon: we see that most words in the English language are borrowed - in an earlier or later era, from a close or distant language system.

Borrowing words is a natural and necessary process of language development. Lexical borrowing enriches the language and usually does not harm its originality at all, since it preserves its main vocabulary, and, in addition, the grammatical structure inherent in the language remains unchanged, and the internal laws of language development are not violated. There can be many reasons causing this process: military-political dependence, intensive language contacts associated with resettlement or geographic proximity; the spread of religion and culture or the high level of technical civilization inherent in another linguistic community; long-term, targeted language policy of one region in relation to another. As a rule, in the process of influence of one linguistic community on another, the interaction of several of these factors is observed. But the most important motivating factor leading to the emergence of borrowings is the borrower's awareness of the fact that another language can bring values, achievements or lifestyles that attract recognition. In other words, another linguistic community is perceived as more progressive.

Consideration of borrowed words can be done in different ways. The history of the English language, which studies the structure of the language, its phonetic, grammatical and lexical features in various eras of language development, studies the vocabulary of the English language in each given period of its development. Therefore, in the history of a language, borrowings from other languages ​​are usually considered in relation to a given period of the language’s existence. In other words, all borrowings are considered simultaneously in a given era. In this work, examining the state of the vocabulary of the English language as a whole, we examine borrowings in the languages ​​from which these borrowings came into the English language under study, in all periods of their development. This is the purpose of the course work.

Borrowings in different languages ​​have different effects on the enrichment of vocabulary. In some languages ​​they did not have such an influence that could significantly affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowing in different historical eras had such a significant impact on the vocabulary of the language that even function words, such as pronouns and prepositions borrowed from other languages, replaced the original function words. Since borrowing as a process is inherent in each language and integral to the lexical composition of the English language in particular, this topic is always important and relevant, it has enough material for consideration and research.

2. REASONS FOR BORROWING FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORDS. HISTORY OF STUDYING THE REASONS OF BORROWING.

Many linguists have been studying the reasons for borrowing foreign words since the beginning of the 20th century. However, the identification of the reasons for borrowing was carried out without a sufficiently clear differentiation of linguistic and external, non-linguistic reasons. Thus, in the work of L.P. Krysin it is indicated that

E. Richter considers the main reason for borrowing words to be the need to name things and concepts. Other reasons are also listed, different in nature - linguistic, social, mental, aesthetic, etc., the need for new linguistic forms, the need for the division of concepts, for a variety of means and their completeness, for brevity and clarity, for convenience and etc. The process of linguistic borrowing itself was considered by him in inextricable connection with cultural and other contacts of two different linguistic societies, and as a part and result of such contacts.

Following L.P. Krysin, M.A. Breiter identifies the following reasons for borrowing::

1) Lack of a corresponding concept in the cognitive base of the receptor language. He noted cases when borrowings were used to denote concepts that were new to the receptor language and not available in the source language. Since this does not quite correspond to Breiter’s first reason, it is clarified: in the receptor language there is a need to designate an “actively pulsating” phenomenon in life; the exact word is not immediately found in one’s own language, but in another language (in a foreign language) there are two units that, when combined, are suitable for a name (in English). That is, it is not so much borrowing as the formation of a new English word from non-English elements. The author gives various examples that are understandable to native English speakers, but do not have an equivalent in another language (from where the borrowing occurred). Here we can talk about the separate borrowing of two elements and combining them into a complex name in the receptor language. This model of word composition is productive in various languages ​​and corresponds to word formation processes in others. The actualization of this word-formation model exists in languages ​​at the so-called everyday level, words that are not used in scientific works, but are widespread in the everyday life of a particular people. Such words are rarely used in official documents, but such wording of borrowings is widespread in the media, which indicates the particular popularity of such words. The variability of their spelling does not always indicate the first stage of assimilation, since such variability may be a consequence of the illiteracy of the compiler of a document containing such a borrowed word.

2) Lack of a corresponding (more accurate) name (or its “loss” in competition with borrowing) in the receptor language.

M.A. Breiter notes that about 15% of new words are borrowed due to the lack of a corresponding name in the receptor language. It is noted that the line between this and the previous group is blurred, since in some cases it is difficult to say whether this concept is new for the receptor language. The author also includes in this group those borrowings that, for some reason (easier to pronounce, shorter, more transparent in their etymology, more specifically in semantics) replaced (partially or completely) previously mastered or original language units. Sometimes it is not a question of repression, but of a redistribution of semantic roles: in some situations it is appropriate to use only a foreign word, in others - a native English word. The use of borrowings can be regarded as a result of overcoming the wide polysemy of the original word. In this case, we can use L.P. Krysin’s formulation “the need for specialization of the concept.”

The reason for borrowing often determines the function of a foreign word.

In the case of the coexistence of borrowing and the original or previously acquired name, the function of the borrowed one is to designate the reality of another culture or stylistic marking of the text, and English equivalents are used to describe reality.

3) Providing a stylistic (emphatic) effect. The emphatic function can also be determined by homophony, connecting interlingual meanings. The effect of this factor is infrequent and is designed for a high degree of linguistic competence of speakers.

4. Expression of positive or negative connotations that the equivalent unit in the receptor language does not possess. The author points out that among Russian speakers there is a widespread idea that, for example, Japanese technologies are more progressive than English ones, foreign banks are more reliable, foreign goods are of higher quality. This attitude, according to the author, is widely used in advertising, where borrowings are used to actualize positive connotations.

It should be noted that the excessive use of borrowings in advertising and the media causes a negative reaction from a fairly large, and mostly “old”, segment of the population, therefore creating a positive connotation with the help of borrowings is a controversial issue at all times.

Turning to the list of reasons for borrowing proposed by L.P. Krysin, the above statements are confirmed. L.P. Krysin emphasizes the scope of use of foreign language vocabulary and, at the same time, social aspects:

1. The need to name a new thing, a new phenomenon, etc.

2. The need to distinguish between concepts that are similar in content, but still differ.

3. The need for specialization of concepts - in one area or another, for one purpose or another.

4. The tendency that a whole object, not divided into separate components, should be designated “whole” and not by a combination of words.

5. Socio-psychological reasons and factors for borrowing: the perception by the entire group of speakers or part of it of a foreign word as more prestigious, “scholarly”, “beautifully sounding”, as well as the communicative relevance of the designated concept.

Taking into account the above, it can be noted that intralinguistic reasons for borrowing are mainly indicated. Also, it was mentioned about external, extra-linguistic reasons for borrowing foreign vocabulary: intensification of connections with other peoples, states, changes in the mentality of English-speaking people.

Borrowings from many historical periods, in part or in full, meet the reasons listed above.

The range of concepts and phenomena of purely English origin is limited. Therefore, borrowing an already existing nomination along with the borrowed concept and subject is considered simpler and more effective.

In almost every thematic group, the majority of borrowings are lexemes that appeared in the English language as a result of satisfying the need to name a new thing or concept.

Words forming quasi-synonymous series have fairly easily identified semantic differences.

The terminology of computer technology that has developed on the basis of the English language is easily replenished with new terms of foreign language origin. A similar process can be observed in sports terminology, as well as in the vocabulary of uncodified subsystems of the language, such as the argot of drug addicts, prostitutes, hippies, musicians and others, where anglicisms or calques of English words predominate.

The tendency to establish a correspondence between the non-division of an object and single-element, single-lexicality is observed in the case when an empty cell is filled in, which corresponds to a certain meaning, but the denoting - in the form of a separate word - is absent (a descriptive phrase is used instead). As mentioned above, this reason for borrowing is closely related to the first reason and almost always they should be considered together, although the second reason can be called narrow, more specific: the speaker saves speech effort, language involves filling some cell with a nomination.

Among the socio-psychological reasons influencing the borrowing process is an increase in the number of speakers and knowledge of different languages. The large flow of people leaving the country, living for a long time in other countries and returning back is the reason for the frequent switching to other languages, the so-called “code-switching”. In such cases, the speaker not only uses borrowings in speech, he switches from one language to another. The influence of emigration on the borrowing process is not as high as a wide knowledge of various languages, which is essential for the borrowing process.

Many linguists point to the not very frequent, but still prestige of a foreign word in some situations compared to English.

L.P. Krysin calls this phenomenon “increase in rank”: a word that in the source language names an ordinary object, in the borrowing language refers to an object that is in one sense or another more significant, more prestigious, etc. The expressiveness of novelty is one of the persistent reasons for borrowing as more prestigious, significant, and expressive. Borrowings have the advantage over English synonyms that they certify the speaker socially in certain areas more highly, emphasize the level of awareness and claim the superiority of a certain group (youth) using this vocabulary.

A powerful impetus for the development of the process of borrowing foreign language vocabulary is its use in the speech of authoritative individuals during popular programs. Many famous TV programs in England feature non-English speaking people, after which the level of borrowing in English increases, especially among young people. Among the social and public reasons for the entry of borrowings into the English language, L.P. Krysiny included the “communicative relevance of the concept” and the corresponding word. If a concept affects important areas of human activity, then the word denoting this concept naturally becomes common. Over time, the relevance of a word may be lost and, conversely, a word borrowed at the beginning of a century may reach the peak of its use at the end of the century.

So, external reasons for borrowing “join” with internal ones (for example, communicative relevance) through socio-psychological ones, this is especially noticeable in the shift of the “speaker / listener” antinomy in favor of the former in a pronounced tendency to replace the Russian descriptive phrase with one word. The number of English-speaking people who know foreign languages ​​has increased significantly. It was often the case that in a speech situation, a borrowed word becomes more prestigious than an English one, the expression of its novelty is attractive, it can emphasize the high level of information content of the speaker. The use of borrowings in the speech of an authoritative person (or in advertising) can become an impetus for his assimilation into English speech.

3 . LIVING ENGLISH AS A CONSTANTLY DEVELOPING PHENOMENON.

Since English is a living language, this factor suggests that English as a phenomenon is constant and developing. Something new comes, the unnecessary disappears. The problem is that in the course of the long history of its development, the English language has absorbed a significant number of foreign words, which in one way or another entered the dictionary. (See Appendix No. 1) Among these words there are both function words and derivational morphemes. This speaks not only of the expansion and richness of English.

Such a large number of borrowed words in the English language has given rise to some linguists to argue that the English language has lost its originality, that it is a “hybrid language.” Even in the early Middle Ages, the English language accepted a large number of borrowings from Scandinavian languages ​​(including such basic words as “skin” - skin and even “she” - she). The most massive flow of borrowings is medieval, after the Norman Conquest, from Old French; as a result, almost half of the English vocabulary has Romance roots. In modern times, a large number of scientific terms and new borrowings from continental languages ​​entered the language. But these facts do nothing to assuage linguists’ doubts about the originality of the language. Most of the words in English have always been and will remain original. With all this, the English language itself is the largest supplier of borrowings.

3.1. Examples of languages ​​and loanwords that have influenced modern English.

Words from other languages ​​"loanwords".

The trend of borrowing foreign words continues to this day. They come from different languages ​​of the world, often from the sphere of modern technologies (computer, Internet, biotechnology, sports, entertainment, business and changes in society).

Many words borrowed from other languages ​​are words for different types of food. For example, latte (the Italian word for coffee with big amount milk), taqueria (a type of restaurant in Mexican Spanish) and radicchio (from Italian; meaning a type of lettuce).

Words from American English.

The importance of American English is growing every day. This is due to America's dominant position in the economic market and its enormous influence on other nations through cinema, music and other cultural spheres. There are a number of words that are not new in the United States, but have recently become widely used throughout the world. For example, majorly (slang extremely) has become widely used, and thus entered the list of new English words (without the AmE mark) in some dictionaries. The borrowing of American words related mainly to the world of business, youth, pop music, the Internet and computers is a very prominent trend in the British language.

Aliens from French.

In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans, and French became the language of prestige and power. During this period, many words from French passed into English. Especially those related to power (duke, duchess, count, countess), government (parliament, government) or law (accuse, attorney, crime). Other borrowings related to fashion (dress, apparel), art (music, poem) and moral qualities (courtesy, charity).

Words that existed in English to convey the same phenomena as borrowings did not necessarily disappear. They often lived side by side with French ones, but were used in a simpler context. For example, the lower classes of English society left in their vocabulary such words as cow, sheep, swine (all of them were taken from the ancient English period). At the same time, the French words beef, mutton, pork came into speech to designate these animals when talking about food (meat). This is due to the fact that meat was eaten mainly by rich people from high society, who were required to know French.

Borrowings from Latin.

Latin - the language of the church - has always played important role. In some cases, English, French and Latin words with the same meaning exist side by side in the English language. For example, help (English), aid (French), assistance (Latin) or book (English), volume (French), text (Latin). Many Latin words were borrowed into English in the 16th and 17th centuries. Basically, they were part of the written language and were used in the field of intellectual work (species, specimen, tedium, squalor, antenna). Some of the words came into the language in their original form (see those listed above), but there were also those that adapted to the English spelling (history, maturity, polite, scripture). In the 17th century, English-speaking citizens became concerned that Latin words were pouring into the English language. Playwright Ben Jonson satirized this trend in his play Poetastar (1601). One of her heroes produced words, many of which were supposed to be humorous and exaggerated: barmy froth, chilblained, clumsy, clutched, conscious, damp, defunct, fatuate, furibund, glibbery, incubus, inflate, lubrical, magnificate, oblatrant, obstupefact, prorumpted, puffy, quaking custard, reciprocal, retrograde, snarling gusts, snotteries, spurious, strenuous, turgidous, ventositous.

Despite the fact that the words were invented to ridicule the then-existing reality, many of them have become entrenched in the language and are still used in everyday speech. For example, clumsy, conscious, damp, defunct, puffy, reciprocal, retrograde, spurious and strenuous.

In the 17th century, English was in contact with other significant European languages, and this was reflected in a variety of borrowings, for example from French (colonel machine, cartridge), Spanish (armada, banana, galleon) and Italian (ballot, carnival, madrigal).

Celtic borrowings.

Borrowings from Celtic languages ​​in English are few in number, and in most cases belong to dialect vocabulary or to the vocabulary of the lower strata of the population. Of interest is the counting system of British sheep farmers, which is derived from the numerals of the extinct Cumbrian language. The syntactic calque of the Celtic languages ​​is based on the Continuous tense system, which is absent in other Germanic languages.

Scandinavian borrowings.

From Danish as a result of the Scandinavian conquest (from about 870). This group of borrowings is not very numerous, but it includes very frequent words. Here are some examples: they, them instead of hie, hem (hem is preserved in colloquial expressions like I met "em yesterday); take, cut, get, instead of which the English words would be given in modern language *nim, *snide, *werth; are , fellow, gear, ill, happen, happy, husband, kick, law, leg, low, odd, rove, rug, scale (meaning “scales”), scalp, skill, skin, skip, skull, tight, ugly, wrong, etc. nay, fro, skirt, dike, sky, screech, for which English parallels are preserved nay, from, shirt, ditch, welcome, shriek; suffixes in toponymy: -by, -beck, -thorp(e), -fell , -toft, -thwaite from the Scandinavian words byr “village”, bekkr “stream”, thorp “village”, fjall “mountain”, topt “estate”, thveit “fenced area” and others; examples of names: Rugby, Welbeck, Scunthorpe, Micklefell, Lovestoft, Applethwaite; flock, mug and some others came through the Anglo-Norman language; nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam - words reflecting new realities for the English, came from modern Scandinavian languages ​​in the 19th-20th centuries .

Scandinavian loanwords are difficult to distinguish from English words proper, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. The characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into sibilants: /k/ and /g/ - in certain conditions, /sk/ - always.

European borrowings of the 20th century.

In the first half of the 20th century, a large number of words from the German language penetrated into the British natural science vocabulary, including individual morphemes, for example eigen-. The penetration of German vocabulary continues during World War II for military terms and virtually ceases after the war.

Purist tendencies.

At different times, purists tried to cleanse the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist said: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use short, expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words.” (English: Avoid Latin derivatives; use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllables). The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this saying is Anglo-Saxon.

4. RESULTS OF THE BORROWING PROCESS. THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE BORROWING IN THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

The phenomenon of borrowing has a great influence on the language and causes serious changes in it. As a result of this process, alien elements appear in languages ​​- words and parts of words - which for the most part do not clog the language (which, however, happens with thoughtless borrowing), but enrich the fund of its lexical and morphological capabilities. Often hybrid words arise - words, part of which is borrowed, and the other part - originally exists in a given language (artless - borrowed root art-, dislike - borrowed suffix -like). Words appear that refer to barbarism and exoticism. Mixed languages ​​(Creole, pidgin English) emerge. Numerous international and pseudo-international words appear, which will be discussed in more detail below. These are the most obvious results of the borrowing process. But there are others, less clearly expressed, but no less significant.

One result is the emergence of a large number of doublets (words of identical origin), having different phonemic structure and meaning, since they were borrowed from different sources or in different historical periods, or are the result of a particular development of the word in the language. In English, the main source of doublets are words of Latin origin, coming directly from Latin or through the French language (canal - channel, major - mayor, liquor - liqueur, fact - feat). Some doublets appeared as a result of borrowing from different dialects of the same language (assay - essay (from different dialects of French)) or from the same language at different periods of time (dish - earlier, disk - later borrowing from Latin). Also, doublet pairs arise when the connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word is lost; Thus the Latin persona became two English words: person and parson. There are also exceptional cases of etymological triplets: cattle – chattel – capital (all words come from the Latin capital).

Secondary borrowing is another result of this process. In this case, in the language, along with a previously borrowed and assimilated word, a new word appears, coinciding in form with the previously borrowed one, but having a different meaning, up to homonymy. For example, along with the previously borrowed word pilot in the meaning of “a specialist who controls an aircraft,” at the end of the twentieth century the word pilot appeared in the meaning of “an athlete who controls a high-speed sports vehicle,” which also came from French. Another newest borrowing is the word pilot meaning “trial release” printed edition" Also, a new meaning of a word may appear in the receiving language as a result of the functioning of this borrowing in it; for example, the word format was borrowed from German through French to mean “the size of a printed publication, sheet”, and later acquired the meaning of “a form of organization and presentation of data in computer memory.” In such cases, the question arises whether these words are homonyms or meanings of a polysemantic word. To solve it, the traditional principle of the presence of common semantic components is used: if they are present, we can talk about the meanings of a polysemantic word (pilot as a pilot and pilot as an athlete), if absent, we can talk about homonymous relations (pilot as a trial issue of a printed publication in relation to other meanings of the word) .

Borrowings have had a very important influence on English grammar. Thanks to the borrowing of the typical French structure of + Noun to express the relation of belonging (legofthetable), the English language has lost its endings. Also, under the influence of borrowings, 2/3 of the original English words were forced out of the language (Anglo-Saxon equivalents of the words face, money, war and others). Many native words have acquired a reduced stylistic connotation compared to borrowings (compare the English calf, pig, cow and the corresponding words of Scandinavian origin veil, pork, beef).

One of the consequences of the borrowing process is international and pseudo-international words. International words are words that have become widespread in many languages ​​of the world as a result of simultaneous borrowing into several languages. These are mainly words of Greco-Latin origin (Greek: autonomy, system, analysis; Latin: principle, nation, volume, progress). Internationalisms also include words from other national languages ​​(Italian sonata, façade, balcony; French etiquette, omelette, gallant; Arabic algebra, alcohol, coffee; Indian jungle, punch, verandah; Russian steppe, nihilist). National variants of internationalisms differ not only in spelling and pronunciation, but also in meaning, which should be taken into account when translating. Thus, in French and English, the word ambition has a neutral meaning “striving for a goal,” while Russian ambition has a negative connotation; family (English), familia (Spanish), Familie (German) mean “family”, the Russian word surname in this meaning is rarely used and is considered obsolete. Such cases often lead to the appearance of “false friends of the translator,” or pseudo-international words - lexical units of two languages, similar in sound and spelling, but partially or completely diverging in meaning. Pseudo-international words can be divided into groups according to the degree of similarity:

1) words that have the same spelling and pronunciation, but completely different meanings (accurate - precise, not neat; complexion - complexion, not complexion; magazine - magazine, not a store);

2) words that, in addition to spelling and pronunciation, coincide in some meanings, but not always in the most common ones (authority - power, less often - authority; pretend - pretend, less often - pretend; solid - solid, and not just solid) ;

3) words that are close, but not identical in spelling and sound, and accordingly have different meanings (adapt - adapt, adopt - accept; data - data, date - date; later - later, latter - the last of those listed, letter - letter, letter);

4) names of measures that are consonant, but do not coincide in quantity (pound (English from Latin through German) - 453.59 g, Pfund (German) - 500 g, pound (Russian) - 409.5 g, ; centner (English from Latin via German) – 45.36 kg, Zentner (German) – 50 kg, centner (Russian) – 100 kg.)

CONCLUSION.

Borrowing as a process is multifaceted; it has certain causes, types and results. The reasons for borrowing lie both within a particular language system and outside it. The need to borrow a foreign language element that arises within a language is explained by the inaccuracy of the existing name or its absence due to the novelty of the designated object for the culture that uses this language. External reasons for the appearance of borrowings arise as a result of contacts between people speaking different languages. Borrowed words facilitate communication, and also often carry a socio-psychological load in the form of connotations that are absent in the correspondences of the receiving language. Borrowing can occur between different languages, both close and distant in terms of kinship. The effects of this process on the target language are varied; they affect not only the lexical level of the language, but also grammar, which is clearly visible in the example of the English language, the grammatical system of which has radically changed as a result of the loss of cases caused by the influence of the French language.

Borrowing as an element of language also has its own specifics: such elements exist at different levels of the language, but not in equal quantities. The largest number of them is at the level of words, the smallest – at the level of stable phrases.

Borrowings in the English language were reviewed and studied from the point of view of the latest domestic and foreign research. The role of linguistic borrowing in the formation and development of the English language is indicated in view of the fact that the process of borrowing provides the prospect and opportunity for the development of the language itself in the process of “building up” the vocabulary and connecting it in the international arena with other languages. The initially set objectives of this course work were also completed, since, having familiarized ourselves with numerous works of scientists in the field of lexicology, it was found that, despite the high percentage of borrowings, the English language cannot be classified as a language of international origin or as one of the Romance languages. The local element contains a huge number of words, but the grammatical structure remains intact. The criteria and possibilities of linguistic borrowings in speech remain practically unchanged to this day.

Trends in the development of the topic “Borrowings in the English language” are also relevant in view of the constant need to study both the history of the past and build future prospects for the state and development of the English language as a language of international scope and use.

Thus, the modern vocabulary of the English language has changed and been supplemented over many centuries and now has a large number of words in its stock. But, despite this, it did not turn into some kind of “hybrid” and in no way lost its originality. The English language remained the language of the Germanic group with all the characteristic features inherent in it throughout its development, and the changes that it underwent in connection with borrowings only enriched its vocabulary.

LIST OF REFERENCES AND SOURCES USED.

1. Breiter M.A. Borrowings in the English language: history and prospects: A manual for foreign students of Russian studies. - Vladivostok: Dialogue Publishing House, 2003.
2. Vinokur G.O. Notes on English word formation. - Moscow, 1999.
3. Krysin L.P. Foreign words in modern life. English language of the late twentieth century. - Moscow, 1996.
4. Krysin L.P. Foreign words in English. - Moscow, 2006.
5. Rosen E.V. New words and stable phrases in the German language. - Moscow, 1991.

6. Antrushina G.B., Afanasyeva O.V., Morozova N.N. “Lexicology of the English language”, Higher Education, Bustard, 2003.

7. Reutovich, Yu.S. Lexical assimilation of German borrowings in English / Yu.S. Reutovich // Theory of communication. Linguistic meanings. Issue 2. Sat. scientific articles: MSLU. – Moscow, 2002.

8. Cheremisina, T.I. Functional aspect of unassimilated borrowings in modern English. - Moscow, 2001.

9. Kabakchi, V.V. English language of international communication/Cross-culturalEnglish. – St. Petersburg: Perm, 2004.

10. Vinokurova V.N. Patterns of development of the semantic structure of lexical borrowings in modern English, 2005.

11. Brunner I.V. Lexicology of modern English. - Moscow., 1999.

12. Sekirin V.P. Borrowings in English. - Moscow, 2004.

13 Atrashevskaya, O.T. Lexical fields with semantically correlative native and borrowed units. Communication theory. – Moscow 2006.

14. Latyshev, L.K. Translation technology / L.K. Latyshev. – M.: NVI-THESAURUS, 2001. – 280 p.

16. Smirnitsky A.I. Lexicology of the English language. - Moscow, 2000.

15. Fadeev V.I. Russian words in English. – Novosibirsk, 1999.

16. Ozhegov S.I., Shvetsova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. - Moscow, 1995.

17. Muller, V.K./Big English-Russian Dictionary/ V.K. Muller, A.B. Shevnin, M.Yu. Brodsky. – Ekaterinburg, 2005.

18. Wikipedia - free encyclopedia: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki.

19. For those who need English: http://www.study.ru/index.html.

20. Khomenko, S.A., Tsvetkova, E.E., Basovets, I.M. Fundamentals of the theory and practice of translation from English. – Moscow, 2004.

APPENDIX No. 1 “Composition of borrowings in the English language.”

Municipal budgetary educational institution

"Secondary school No. 166" Sovetsky district of Kazan

City scientific and practical conference “Days of Science”

Foreign Languages ​​Section

Research

"Borrowings in English"

Completed by: 9a grade student

Safina Elmira Renatovna.

Head: English teacher

Karimova Leilya Rafkatovna.

Kazan 2015

Introduction……………………………………………………………………..........2

The role of borrowings in the development of vocabulary in the English language..3

Classification of borrowings………………………………………………………4

Sources of borrowing…………………………………………………………….4

3.1 Scandinavian borrowings………………………………………………………..4

3.2 Latin borrowings…………………………………………..5

3.3 French borrowings…………………………………………..6

3.4 Italian borrowings……………………………………………………7

3.5 Spanish borrowings………………………………………………………9

3.6 Relevance of the study…………………………………………..10

4.
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………10

5.
Bibliography……………………………………………………………11

Introduction
The topic of this scientific work relates to the field of lexicology. As you know, vocabulary is the most dynamic aspect of a language in any period of time. In our work, we consider borrowing as one of the main ways of word formation in the English language.
Many linguists have been studying the reasons for borrowing foreign words. However, the identification of the reasons for borrowing was carried out without a sufficiently clear differentiation of linguistic and external, non-linguistic reasons. Previously, the main reason for borrowing words was the need to name things and concepts. But other reasons are also listed, different in nature - linguistic, social, mental, aesthetic, the need for new linguistic forms, the need for the division of concepts, a variety of means and their completeness, brevity and clarity, convenience, etc. The process of language borrowing itself is most often considered in inextricable connection with cultural and other contacts of two different linguistic societies and as part and result of such contacts.
Target - identification of features and ways of borrowing lexical units in English.
Research objectives:

explore different types of borrowings;


explore the borrowing process;


consider periods of borrowing and their connection with historical events.


To do this, I examined in detail the history of Britain, the history of the language, and also analyzed some words. An attempt was also made to systematize and classify borrowings, based on the research of specialists in the field of linguistics.
The role of borrowings in the development of English vocabulary
The role of borrowings in different languages ​​is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions of the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages. English, more than any other language, had the opportunity to borrow foreign words: first in the Middle Ages from foreign invaders, and later under the conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves. It is estimated that the number of native words in the English dictionary is only about 30%.
Depending on specific historical conditions, it either increases or falls.
Classification of borrowings
According to the source and era of borrowing in the vocabulary of the English language, the following are distinguished:
1) Celtic borrowings.
2) Latin borrowings of the first centuries of our era, i.e., those that came even before the arrival of the Angles and Saxons to the British Isles (the so-called 1st layer of Latin borrowings).
3) Latin borrowings of the 6th-7th centuries, i.e., the era of the introduction of Christianity in England (the so-called 2nd layer of Latin borrowings).
4) Scandinavian borrowings from the era of Scandinavian raids (VIII-IX centuries) and especially the Scandinavian conquest (X century).
5) Old French borrowings (XII-XV centuries), due to the Norman conquest.
6) Latin borrowings of the 15th-16th centuries, i.e., associated with the Renaissance (the so-called 3rd layer of Latin borrowings).
7) New French borrowings after the 16th century.
8) Borrowings from Greek, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, Russian, German and other languages, due to economic, political, cultural, etc. ties with the corresponding peoples.
9) Sovietisms, i.e. borrowings from the Russian language of the post-October period.
I looked at groups of Latin, Scandinavian, French, Italian and Spanish borrowings.
Sources of borrowing.Scandinavian borrowings.
The influence of Scandinavian languages ​​is associated with the conquest of England by the Scandinavians during the 9th-11th centuries. Approximately the same level of socio-economic and cultural development of the conquerors determined the penetration into the English language of words denoting objects and phenomena of objective reality already known to the English.
In most cases, they remained in this part of the vocabulary in the future: anger, angry, fellow, fit, get, hit, leg, low, skill, take, want, week, till, they, etc.
In the system of modern English, Scandinavian borrowings function on a par with native English words, not differing from them in any way. True, some of these words are phonetically characterized by the presence of an initial word, which, as is known, in native English words turned into [w] (sky, skin, skill, and others).
Latin loanwords
The bulk of Latin borrowings are associated with the introduction of Christianity in 597. Most of these borrowings express church and religious concepts. New words appeared from the Latin language, denoting concepts from the sphere of culture and everyday life, namely:
1. Household items, tools, implements
2. Items of clothing
3. Measures of weight and length
4. Names of animals, birds and fish
5. Plant names
6. Words related to religious concepts
In total, according to the calculations of the English linguist Bo, by the end of the Old English period there were about 450 Latin borrowings, not counting derivative words and proper names.
Most of the Latin book borrowings in English occur during the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, during the Renaissance in England. Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological characteristics, for example, verbs with the suffix –ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of the first conjugation, such as separate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix –ute- in the infinitive, obtained from the stem of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of the third conjugation, such as prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with a base on –ant- and –ent-, for example, evident, transparent, obedient. The subsequent centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases, these are so-called “learned words”, often retaining the morphological features of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium.
Finally, in modern English there are also borrowings that have completely retained their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These borrowings include expressions such as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine qua non, and so on.
In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word came into English from French or Latin. The most important features of words of Latin-Romance origin are the following: the predominance of disyllabic and polysyllabic stems with prefixes, and the prefixes end in a consonant: ab-, ad- , corn-, dis-, ex-, in-, im-, il-, sub-; doubling consonants: bb, cc, ft, 11, mm, nn, pp, ss, tt.
French loanwords
In 1066 the Normans conquered England. By this year, the Vikings had long since adopted the French language and assimilated with the local population.
The borrowings especially clearly reflect the Norman influence in the field of government, in military affairs, in the organization of the church and in city life:
court, servant, guard, prince (court, servant, security, prince);
army, battle, banner, victory (army, battle, banner, victory);
religion, chapel, prayer, (religion, chapel, prayer);

city, merchant (city, merchant);
words related to monetary relations: money, property.
words denoting family relationships: parent, cousin, uncle, aunt.
culture and luxury goods art, bracelet, dance, diamond.
The largest number of borrowings from the French language in the New English period falls on the second half of the 17th and the first decades of the 18th century. At this time, a bourgeois revolution took place in England, overthrowing the Stuart dynasty. However, already in 1660 this dynasty was again restored with the support of the English aristocracy and big bourgeoisie.
Characteristic features of borrowings from this period are the preservation of French pronunciation and spelling. So, the ending -ice, -in(e) is pronounced like , , for example:
Machine - machine; Magazine – magazine; Police - police
The ending -et is pronounced like, i.e. close to French, for example:
Ballet - ballet; Bouquet - bouquet
The ending -que is pronounced like [k], for example:
Grotesque - grotesque; Picturesque - picturesque
The letter s at the end of words is not readable, for example:
Corps - body; Debris - debris
Somewhat later, and especially in the 19th century, mainly technical terms were borrowed from French: parachute, fuselage, etc.
Latinization of French words. The study of Latin had peculiar consequences for several English words of French origin. So, for example, dette "debt" began to be written dept, since the source of the French word was Lat. debitum Wed. doute "doubt". “to doubt” began to be written doubt, since the source was the Latin dubito. French borrowings are sometimes difficult to distinguish from Latin ones, that is, more precisely, it is difficult to distinguish direct Latin borrowings from indirect ones. For example, the word figure could come directly from Lat. figura and from French. figure
Due to the fact that a huge number of lexical units were borrowed from French into English, many of which had a complex word-formation structure, the influence of the French language greatly affected the system of English word formation.
For example: the suffix –able, extracted from such borrowings as acceptable – acceptable when accept – accept; suffix –ence – from difference, excellence, evidence, violence;
Italian loanwords
The influence of the Italian language on English is not limited to the field of musical terminology, as many believe. According to the data of this study, Italian borrowings that are part of the thematic association “Music” make up only one third of the total corpus of Italianisms. Among them are words related to trade and financial transactions, which at one time received significant development in Italy. One of these words is the word bank. It comes from the Italian word banca, which means bench, shelf. Also, words were borrowed from the field of trade and finance: ducat (ducat), million (million), lombard (pawnshop), carat (carat), traffic (traffic movement), etc. Some words also penetrated into the English language, like and other European languages. These include the nouns alarm (alarm), colonel (colonel), squadron (squadron, squadron), brigand (bandit), bark (bark) and some others. English culture of the Renaissance was significantly influenced by Italian culture. This especially applies to the field of fine arts, architecture and music. Thus, in the field of fine arts the words were borrowed: mezzotinto (mezzotinto is a special way of typographic reproduction of engravings), studio (studio).
In the field of architecture, nouns were borrowed: balcony (balcony), fresco (fresco), cornice (cornice) and others.
Especially many words were borrowed from the field of music and musical culture: (stanza, motto, model, miniature, madonna, fresco).
The familiarity with Italian culture and way of life that the British received from visiting this country led to the borrowing of a number of words denoting concepts not associated with any specific profession or occupation. Here they can be called: gondola (gondola), grotto (grotto), casino (casino), umbrella (umbrella).
Somewhat later, in the 17th-18th centuries, words such as macaroni (pasta), medico (doctor) were borrowed.
Spanish loanwords
In the 16th century, Spain saw the dawn of its colonial power. Examples of Spanish borrowings from this period include:
a group of words denoting actual trading concepts:
cargo cargo - Spanish cargo (load, heaviness)
a group of words denoting trade items exported from colonial countries, for example:
banana - Spanish banana (banana); cocao - Spanish cocao (cocoa);
chocolate - Spanish chocolate (chocolate)
Next, we should name a group of words denoting those natural phenomena, plants and animals that the colonialists encountered in their possessions, for example:
canyon - Spanish canon (gorge); pampas - Spanish pampas (pampas)
savannah - Spanish sabana (meadow; savanna); alligator - Spanish alligator (alligator)
In connection with the Spanish-English wars, several words denoting military concepts entered the English language:
armada - Spanish armada (navy); galleon - Spanish galeon (galleon)
Of the most famous words borrowed in the 17th century, we cite the following: cargo, guitar (guitar), castanet (castanets), toreador (toreador), matador (matador).
Among the borrowings made in the 18th century, one can note the names of Spanish dances, games and foods, items of clothing, and socio-political terms. For example, quadrille, junta - (deliberative meeting), bolero (bolero), caramel (caramel), flotilla (flotilla), canoe (canoe), tango (tango), rumba (rumba). Most borrowings from Spanish in the 19th century were made in the Americas. Some of these borrowings entered the English vocabulary through American literature. Among these borrowings we can mention: cigarette (cigarette), lasso (lasso), mustang (mustang).
The relevance of research.

One of the main sources in the study of certain languages, as well as an indicator of their place and role in the history of culture, are philological dictionaries. Based on a comprehensive study of dictionaries of past eras and modern dictionaries, one can judge important trends in the development of the corresponding languages. The lexical composition of each language reflects various aspects of the life of a certain people throughout its history. The modern Tatar language was also formed in the historical context of the formation of the Tatar people as a nation. In this regard, the analysis of Tatar vocabulary, recorded in dictionaries created over several centuries, is important not only for studying the history of Tatar vocabulary, changes in the vocabulary of the Tatar language, but also for a more accurate description of the changes occurring in the socio-political and cultural life of the Tatar people. A particularly valuable source for historical and linguistic research are bilingual dictionaries. Taken together, they make it possible to document the role and place of certain languages ​​in the history of culture in certain historical periods, the relationships of these languages, including their connections with third languages. Moreover, when studying such dictionaries, it is possible, without compromising the requirements of scientific objectivity, to focus on the linguistic material of one of the two languages.

Dictionaries record the state of a language at a certain period in the historical development of a particular people - a native speaker of the language. General dictionaries reflect the most important part of the vocabulary of the corresponding time, relevant to all spheres of life, while other types of sources on the history of language (newspapers, magazines, fiction, official documents) contain, as a rule, a range of concepts belonging to individual spheres of life Based on this, we chose Tatar-Russian and Russian-Tatar dictionaries of the 19th century as the main source of research, with the main attention being focused on their Tatar vocabulary.

Conclusion
Having studied the history of the English language and made an etymological analysis of some borrowed words in the English language, we can draw certain conclusions.
Firstly, foreign language borrowings are one of the important types of enriching the vocabulary of the English language. When studying and analyzing them, the researcher’s attention should be paid not only to when and from what language they were borrowed, but also to what evolution they underwent after borrowing and what changes caused changes in words that already existed in the English language.
Secondly, the lexical areas in which borrowings from certain languages ​​occurred at different periods turn out to be indicative of the economic, political, cultural, etc. connections that existed between the English people and the peoples who speak these languages.
Having familiarized ourselves with numerous works of scientists in the field of lexicology, we join the opinion of those who believed that, despite the high percentage of borrowings, the English language cannot be classified as a language of international origin or as one of the Romance languages.
As is known, lexical borrowings are one of the sources of the formation of new words. Their study allows us to trace the complexity of linguistic processes, the interweaving of internal and external phenomena in language, and the impact of the latter on various parts of the linguistic structure.

Bibliography

1. Khlebnikova I.B. “Introduction to German philology and history of the English language,” Kalinin State University. University, Kalinin, - 1972

2. Galperin I.R., Cherkasskaya E.B. "Lexicology of the English language", M. - 1956

3. Antrushina G.B., Afanasyeva O.V., Morozova N.N. “Lexicology of the English language”, Higher Education, Bustard, 1999

4. Zabotkina V.I. “New vocabulary of modern English”, M., Higher School, 1989

5. Makovsky M.M. "English etymology", M., Higher School, 1986

6. Ilyish B. A., “History of the English language”, Ed. 4th, Publishing House of Literatures on Foreign Languages. languages, M., 1958

7. www.wikipedia.org

8. www.uk.ru/history/language

The English language has traditionally been open to borrowings from a wide variety of languages.

Even in the early Middle Ages, the English language adopted a large number of borrowings from Scandinavian languages ​​(including such basic words as skin, ill, and even she). The most massive flow of borrowings is medieval, after the Norman Conquest, from Old French; as a result, almost half of the English vocabulary has Romance roots. In modern times, a large number of learned Latinisms and new borrowings from continental languages ​​entered the language.

Consider Celtic borrowings. Borrowings from Celtic languages ​​in English are few in number, and in most cases belong to dialect vocabulary or to the vocabulary of the lower strata of the population. Of interest is the counting system of British sheep farmers, which is derived from the numerals of the extinct Cumbrian language. The syntactic calque of the Celtic languages ​​is based on the Continuous tense system, which is absent in other Germanic languages.

The first layer of Latin borrowings are words that entered the English language during trade contacts on the continent, for example: wine, pear, pepper.

The second layer of Latin borrowings are words borrowed during Christianization: mass “mass”, school “school”, priest “priest”, devil “devil” and others.

A significant number of Latin words entered the English language between the 11th and 13th centuries, during the Norman period. However, these words, for the most part, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.

The largest number of words borrowed by the English language from the Latin language are so-called book borrowings. These are words that entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less susceptible to all kinds of changes, especially semantic ones. This is logical to explain by the fact that book borrowings, for a long period of time, are limited to the sphere of their use - the literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.

Most of the Latin book borrowings in English occur during the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, during the Renaissance in England. There are over a thousand Latin words in the works of Wycliffe, Langland and Chaucer that have not previously been attested in English. During the Renaissance, words from the fields of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms, etc. appeared. A list of these words cannot be given within a short chapter. To do this you need to compile a special dictionary.

Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological characteristics, for example, verbs with the suffix -ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of the first conjugation, such as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix -ute- in the infinitive, obtained from the stem of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of the third conjugation, such as prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with stems -ant- and -ent-, for example, evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.

The subsequent centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases, these are so-called “learned words”, often retaining the features of the morphological character of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.

Finally, in modern English there are also borrowings that have completely retained their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotations from the Latin language. The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in scientific prose styles, in business documents, and in elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include expressions such as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine qua non, and so on.

As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words by one language from another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages ​​come into contact. This is precisely the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appeared in English twice: once from French, another time from Latin itself. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time, which is necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as new. The result is etymological French-Latin doublets.

Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be included among the Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later interpreted as word-forming morphemes. However, in linguistic literature they are usually called borrowed affixes.

Thus, the Latin language had a significant influence on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, prepared the way for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological affinities. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word came into English from French or Latin.

Scandinavian borrowings also occur in the English vocabulary. They came from Danish as a result of the Scandinavian conquest (from about 870). This group of borrowings is not very numerous, but it includes very frequent words. Here are some examples:

They, them instead of hie, hem (hem is preserved in colloquial expressions like I met "em yesterday);

Take, cut, get, instead of which the English words would be given in modern language *nim, *snide, *werth;

Are, fellow, gear, ill, happen, happy, husband, kick, law, leg, low, odd, rove, rug, scale (meaning “scales”), scalp, skill, skin, skip, skull, tight, ugly , wrong, etc.

Nay, fro, skirt, dike, sky, screech, for which the English parallels nay, from, shirt, ditch, welkin, shriek have been preserved;

Suffixes in toponymy: -by, -beck, -thorp(e), -fell, -toft, -thwaite from the Scandinavian words byr “village”, bekkr “stream”, thorp “village”, fjall “mountain”, topt “estate” ", thveit "fenced area" and others; examples of names: Rugby, Welbeck, Scunthorpe, Micklefell, Lovestoft, Applethwaite;

Flock, mug and some others came through the Anglo-Norman language;

Nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam - words reflecting new realities for the English, came from modern Scandinavian languages ​​in the 19th-20th centuries.

Scandinavian loanwords are difficult to distinguish from English words proper, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. The characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into sibilants: /k/ and /g/ - in certain conditions, /sk/ - always.

French borrowings are the most numerous in the English language.

In 1066 the Normans conquered England. Normandy was a French duchy; it acquired its name after the French king Charles the Simple, being unable to cope with the Vikings, gave them this territory under the treaty of 912. By 1066, the Vikings had long since adopted the French language and assimilated into the local population. They came to England as speakers of the French language (Norman dialect), French culture and French feudal structure. After the Norman Conquest, power was completely in the hands of the Normans; Duke William the Conqueror also removed the English priests and installed Norman ones in their place. The indigenous population continued to speak English, but from the Norman dialect the Anglo-Norman language was formed, which became the state language and existed until the end of the 14th century. During this time, English acquired a huge number of French words. Of the 80,000 most common words in the English language, approximately 22,500 are French loanwords (from all periods of history).

The borrowings especially clearly reflect the Norman influence in the field of government, in military affairs, in the organization of the church and in city life:

Court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village (court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village);

Army, battle, banner, victory (army, battle, banner, victory);

Religion, chapel, prayer, to confess (religion, chapel, prayer, to confess);

City, merchant (city, merchant).

Craftsmen who lived in the village retained English names, while those in the city began to be called by French words: butcher “butcher”, mason “mason”, tailor “tailor”. Animals are named in English words, but their meat is called in French: beef “beef”, mutton “lamb”, pork “pork”, veal “veal”.

More than half the words in English are of French origin as a result of the Norman Conquest (1066). It is curious that all the names of animals are original English words, and the meat of these animals is French borrowings, for example: cow-beef (cow - beef), pig-pork (pig - pork), deer - venison (deer - venison), sheep - mutton (sheep-mutton).

French borrowings in English are used, as a rule, to achieve greater formality, for example: commence instead of begin, to be content instead of to be glad.

The above words (you can add commonly used ones, such as: composition, continue, frequency, etc.), being French borrowings, are pronounced in English. In this case, in order to uncover the question of the sources of borrowings in the English language, we are interested in those expressions that entered the English language without any changes, for example:

Bon appetit! (bon apetit") - Bon appetit!

Bon voyage! (bon voyage) - Bon voyage!

Carte blanche (carte blanche) - carte blanche, freedom of action.

Tete-a-tete (tete-a-tete) - tete-a-tete, alone.

Vis-a-Vis (vis-a-vis) - sitting opposite, interlocutor, face to face.

Resume - a short biography in the “resume” format.

RSVP - Respondez s"il vous plait (responde sil vu ple) - please respond, respond (in business correspondence).

A translator, encountering words and phrases of foreign origin in an English text, should refer to an English-English (explanatory) dictionary, where their explanation is given, or to the corresponding bilingual dictionary, for example:

Blitz krieg (German) - lightning war

Dolche vita (Italian) - sweet life

Buena vista (Spanish) - good view.

There are a large number of borrowings in the American English language due to the fact that the United States, as you know, is not for nothing called the melting pot of nations.

Many place names in the USA are written and pronounced in Spanish, for example, the cities of San Francisco, San Diego, La Jolla, San Antonio, Sacramento, Rio Grande River, Rio Vista Street, etc. As we already know, these names are transmitted in Russian by sound reproduction, i.e. transcription, for example: Rio Vista street (and not “view of the river”).

A large number of Spanish words and expressions are used in the southwestern United States thanks to the cowboys who mastered these lands in the mid-19th century. Americans learned them from the inhabitants of Mexico: rodeo, ranch (Spanish - rancho), etc.

As a result of French colonization, names appeared such as the river Cache la Poudre (“hide the gunpowder”) in Colorado, the city of Des Moines, the capital of Iowa (however, in this case the pronunciation of the city’s name has not been preserved entirely in French).

Words for Italian cuisine have also entered the English language (with Italian spelling and pronunciation), for example: lasagna (lasagna) ravioli (ravioli), pasta (pasta), spaghetti (spaghetti). The same can be said about the names of dishes of European cuisine, which in English appeared from the Yiddish language, for example, latkes (latkes) - potato pancakes, blintzes (blintzes) - pancakes, gefilte fish (gefilte fish) - stuffed fish.

The list of borrowings in English could be continued.

The English language (both written and spoken) uses a large number of words, phrases and abbreviations from the Latin language.

Some Latinisms have entered the common vocabulary, for example: 5AM - at 5 o'clock in the morning or vice-versa - vice versa. Basically, Latin expressions are characteristic of the written form of the academic, official style. Therefore, they should be known to those who read English non-fiction or use English for academic purposes in writing.

Examples of Latinisms:

ad hoc - for this case

bona fide - sincerely, sincerely

circa - approximately

cum laude - with honors

inter alia - among others

Thus, we can note that borrowed vocabulary occupies a significant place in the lexical system of any language, in particular English. In order to study the features of its functioning within a specific language system, it is advisable to pay considerable attention to the specifics of the arrival of this vocabulary in the language and the study of the conditions that determined the arrival of these borrowings.

It should be noted that borrowings in different languages ​​have different effects on the enrichment of vocabulary. In some languages ​​they did not have such an influence that could significantly affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowing in different historical eras had such a significant impact on the vocabulary of the language that even function words, such as pronouns and prepositions borrowed from other languages, replaced the original function words. Because a living language is a constantly evolving phenomenon. Something new comes, the unnecessary, superfluous disappears, and for scientists working in the field of lexicology, many questions remain that require resolution.

INTRODUCTION

The development of human society is the development of all its constituent cultures, and, accordingly, all languages. Cultures undergo a certain historical development both independently of other cultures and (to a very large extent) in interaction with them. Contacts occur in all spheres - politics, economics, art, everyday life - and lead to significant changes in the way of life, worldview, and, of course, in language. Cultures mutually borrow phenomena and concepts; languages ​​- their designations. In this way, the cultures and languages ​​of different peoples are enriched. The term “enrichment,” however, should not be understood as the unquestioning acceptance of any borrowings into the language system, which often happens and leads to its oversaturation with alien and unjustified elements in the presence of its own, familiar designations for various phenomena.

Borrowing must be considered; If possible, use your own language to avoid extraneous inclusions. However, one should not go to the other extreme - a complete denial of any borrowings and attempts not only to avoid new ones, but also to replace the borrowed elements already entrenched in the language with original ones. The need for such a replacement is not only highly controversial, but also hardly feasible on the scale proposed by some linguists: many of the newest borrowings come into the language as designations of new phenomena that have no analogues in a given culture; words borrowed from many languages ​​become internationalisms and in the current era of globalization greatly facilitate international communication.

As you know, vocabulary is the most dynamic aspect of a language in any period of time. It represents the least degree of abstraction in language, since the word is always subject-oriented; it can be borrowed, formed, formed anew, or from elements existing in the language.

In our work, we consider borrowing as one of the main ways of word formation in the English language. Words of foreign origin are called borrowings.

A significant contribution to the development of knowledge about borrowings was made by such linguists as N.V. Gabdreeva, V.A. Buryakovskaya, N.N. Volostnova, G.K. Gimaletdinova, N.M. Ermakova, M.N. Zakamulina, E.Kh. Khabibullina, T.E. Listrova-Pravda, N.M. Mekeko, L.G. Ratushnaya, D.R. Rakhmatullina, A.R. Timergaleeva and others.

In view of the above, the topic of our thesis was chosen: “Borrowings in the English language and methods of translation.”

The relevance of our work is determined by the fact that borrowed vocabulary takes an increasingly active position in the lexical system of languages, in particular in English and Russian, thereby having a significant impact on the functioning of truly national linguistic units of a particular language.

The object of the study is borrowed vocabulary in English.

The subject of the study is ways of translating borrowed vocabulary from English into Russian.

The purpose of the study is to consider the features of the functioning of borrowings in the English language and determine the specifics of their translation from English into Russian.

To achieve the goal of our research, we set the following tasks:

consider the essence of the concept and scope of functioning of borrowed vocabulary;

analyze various classifications of borrowings;

explore sources of borrowings in English;

consider ways to transfer borrowings;

in practice, analyze the use of one or another translation method.

Research structure. The work consists of an introduction, two sections - theoretical and practical, a conclusion and a list of references.

CHAPTER 1. DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT OF BORROWINGS AND STUDYING ASPECTS OF THEIR STUDY

.1 Borrowed vocabulary: the essence of the concept and scope of functioning

Borrowing is a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in a language; also such a foreign language element itself. This is an integral component of the functioning and historical change of language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment; It is also a full-fledged element of the language, which is part of its lexical wealth, serving as a source of new roots, word-forming elements and precise terms. Borrowing in languages ​​is one of the most important factors in their development. The process of borrowing lies at the very basis of linguistic activity. Sound and formal uniformity within a language is a consequence of borrowing by some individuals from others; In the same way, the borrowing of elements of the lexicon of one language by another language occurs - through the interaction of their speakers. The proportion of borrowed elements in languages ​​is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign language elements penetrating the language, and due to the action of the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word. In each language the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages ​​of one family; words common to a group, subgroup of related languages; native words of a particular language; borrowed words.

Borrowing lexical elements from one language to another is a very ancient phenomenon and is already known to the languages ​​of the ancient world.

In the process of its development, the English language encountered many languages, from which it borrowed various words. They are not the same in quantity and specific gravity in the vocabulary of the English language.

The enrichment of the vocabulary of a language at the expense of the vocabulary of other languages ​​is usually a consequence of different political, economic, and trade relations. Let us note that there is no generally accepted definition of the concept of culture, but if we consider culture as “the totality of industrial, social and spiritual achievements of people,” then everything that has to do with the reality surrounding a person, perceived and transformed by him, from everyday objects to abstract philosophical categories, to one degree or another connected with culture. In this case, with any interethnic interaction there is an exchange of cultural information, which, in turn, cannot but affect the language.

Often, when borrowing, a new word comes along with a new reality that did not exist in the culture of speakers of the borrowing language, and therefore is not recorded in the linguistic picture of the world. In some cases, a borrowed word comes as a synonym for a word that already existed in the vocabulary of the borrowing language (for example, the words import and export appeared as synonyms for the Russian import and export).

International vocabulary occupies a special place among borrowings.

Scientific and technological progress is spreading more and more widely, and with it international words - “internationalisms” - are coming into the languages ​​of different countries.

International vocabulary is (from Latin inter - between + nation, nationis - people) words common origin, existing in many languages ​​with the same meaning, but usually formatted in accordance with the phonetic and morphological norms of a given language. The main part of the international vocabulary consists of terms from the field of science and technology (geography, history, philosophy, logic, aspirin, flu, microscope, telegraph), socio-political life (party, constitution, socialism, communism, revolution, dictatorship, administration, republic) , economics (import, export, bank, credit, interest), literature and art (drama, comedy, tragedy, poet, opera, ballet, style). International words also include those that are usually borrowed unchanged by many languages ​​from the language of the people who created these words along with the corresponding objects or phenomena. English sport, Russian Leninism, collective farm, satellite.

In the languages ​​of Western countries, these words are most often borrowed, with inevitable changes, from the vocabulary of Greek and Latin, as well as from French and English, which later joined them.

For a word to be considered international, it must generally appear in the following modern languages:

firstly, in most of the so-called Romance languages ​​- French, Spanish, Italian and others;

in addition, at least in some Slavic languages ​​- for example, in Russian and Serbian.

In languages ​​where the tendency to abandon international vocabulary in favor of domestic words- we will call them “purist” for brevity (for example, in Icelandic or Finnish), there are almost no such words.

The wide prevalence of borrowings is explained primarily by the internationality of the literary process, the presence of wide literary exchange between individual countries, and their mutual diffusion. Literary situations cannot be invented ad infinitum. Once entering the reader's consciousness, leaving a deep trace there, a poetic image, theme, device can involuntarily influence the work of later writers who reproduce it quite closely.

Borrowing in languages ​​is one of the most important factors in their development. The process of borrowing lies at the very basis of linguistic activity.

Sound and formal uniformity within a language is a consequence of borrowing by some individuals from others; In the same way, the borrowing of elements of the lexicon of one language by another language occurs - through the interaction of their speakers.

The proportion of borrowed elements in languages ​​is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign language elements penetrating the language, and due to the action of the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word.

In each language the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages ​​of one family; words common to a group, subgroup of related languages; native words of a particular language; borrowed words.

The meaning of a borrowed word in the receiving language may expand or contract. The expansion of meaning is associated with the metaphorical transfer of a name to another denotation, based on the similarity of objects. Thus, the word volcano comes from the name of the Roman god of fire and metal, Vulcan; The word flak, borrowed from German, initially had only the meaning of “anti-aircraft gun”; in English it acquired the meaning of “anti-aircraft fire”, “opposition, resistance”, and in American English “verbal fire, altercation, squabble”. Also, when the meaning expands, a word can acquire new connotative meanings, for example, the word ersatz “replacement, surrogate” acquired a disparaging connotation of “poor quality, counterfeit”, which is absent in the German language. The opposite tendency - a narrowing of meaning - leads to a reduction in the range of denotations denoted by a given word, as a result of which the word becomes special and becomes stylistically marked. Thus, the word ansatz, which has many meanings in German (“prefix, nozzle; sediment; formation; beginning, basis; tendency”) in English is used only as a scientific term “approach to solving a problem.” The Latin velum “curtain, veil, coverlet” in English has lost its meaning over time and is now used as the scientific term “soft palate”.

Sometimes in the receiving language the derivative meaning of a word becomes more common than the main one, for example, claim is more often used in the meaning of “to approve” rather than “to claim”, issue - “question”, not “release”, source - “source of information”, not "source".

Below we consider the main reasons for borrowing.

The reasons for this phenomenon are varied, but the same for all languages; Among them, intralinguistic and external, extralinguistic ones stand out. The intralinguistic ones include the following:

) the need to name an object or phenomenon, due to the absence of the designated phenomenon in the cognitive base of the receptor language. This is the main and most ancient reason for borrowing; along with a new phenomenon for the people, its name also enters the language of the people (bistro, gondola, elephant);

) the need for a name for an object or phenomenon, due to the inaccuracy of the existing name. In the presence of native and foreign words with a similar meaning, the English word has a more general meaning, and the borrowed word has both a general meaning and additional shades (Latin effluvium has not only the meaning of the English words exhalation, emanation “exhalation, release,” but also a connotative meaning “ accompanied by an unpleasant odor"; borrowed from German angst conveys the meaning "fear without any apparent reason" that is not inherent in the English word fear.

Extralinguistic reasons are:

) socio-psychological: expression of connotations that the corresponding unit does not possess in the receiving language; for example, creating the effect of “prestige” (French boutique “a small store selling expensive, often unusual goods and located in an expensive area” and Latin emporium “large shopping center” are used not only to clarify the neutral English word shop when denoting stores of precisely these types, but also in order to emphasize the prestige of a particular place of trade).

) intensification of international relations, the process of globalization, causing the emergence of a large number of internationalisms - words of one language, borrowed by many languages ​​of the world.

As we can see, the appearance of borrowed lexemes in a language can be due to a number of specific reasons that can explain the presence of a particular borrowing in a particular language.

1.2 Classification of borrowings

There are many classifications of borrowed vocabulary, proposed at different stages of the development of linguistic teachings. Let's look at the main ones.

Classification by source of borrowing

First of all, it is necessary to remember that the source of borrowing is the language from which the word is taken into the English vocabulary. However, the origin of the word may be different. So, for example, the source of borrowing the word paper is the French language (papier), while in its origin it is the Greek word papuros, papyrus. The word cinnabar (cinnabar, bright red color) is borrowed from Latin (cinnabaris), where it came from Greek (kinnabari), which in turn borrowed this word from one of the eastern languages.

The sources of borrowing words into the English language are numerous due to historical reasons. Over the centuries, Britain entered into various contacts with many countries, was subject to invasions and conquests, and later became the “mistress of the seas” and the mother country for a large number of colonies. All this led to intensive language contacts, which resulted in the mixed nature of the English lexical composition. The most significant influences on English vocabulary came from Latin, French and Scandinavian languages.

Latin borrowings entered the English language in several waves. The earliest layer dates back to the time when the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, even before moving to Britain, entered into trade and military contacts with the Romans. At this time, the main designations for objects of material culture were borrowed - English, sire (Latin sarra), butter (Latin butyrum), copper (Latin cuprum), etc. Before the capture by the Germans, Britain was under the rule of the Roman Empire for about four hundred years . It was during this period that such borrowed words as street (Latin via strata), wall (Latin vallum), mint (Latin menta, moneta), etc. appeared in English. Some of the borrowings from this period have survived to this day only in place names. An example of a Latin word that we now find in place names is the element -Chester (Latin castra - "camp") in Chester, Colchester, Manchester, Lancaster Gloucester, Worcester; the -wich element in Greenwich, Harwich goes back to the Latin vicus - “village”. The next wave of Latin borrowings is associated with the Christianization of Britain. These include words of the corresponding thematic group - priest (Latin presbuteros), minster (Latin monastermm), candle (Latin candela, candela), creed (Latin credo), etc. In addition, in the same period in The English language includes quite a lot of Latin words denoting everyday objects, as well as those associated with gardening and gardening - chest (Latin cista, “box”), silk (Latin sericum, “silk”), coriander (Latin coriandrum) , parsley (Latin petroselinum), rose (Latin rosa), etc. Since the monasteries were also centers of scientific and literary life in Britain, the vocabulary of the English language was replenished during this period with the corresponding vocabulary: school (Latin schola), verse (Latin . versus), circle (lat. circulus), as well as many scientific terms. Latin borrowings of the Middle English and Early Modern English periods are mainly scientific words and abstract nouns (formula, fraction, magnanimity, fatal, jovial, beneficial, vernacular). The borrowing of Latin term elements stands somewhat apart, since the process of their penetration into the English language is often artificial. We find a large number of examples of this, in particular, in medical terminology (oculist, osteotomy, etc.).

French loanwords, contrary to popular belief, appeared in English long before the Norman Conquest. The number of borrowed words that have survived to this day is small, but they indicate the existence of linguistic contacts between the British and the Normans, a Scandinavian people who lived from the 9th century. on the northern coast of France, in the Duchy of Normandy and speaking a northern dialect of French. Among the surviving borrowings from this period are the words proud, tower, chancellor (we give the modern form of the words).

From the Norman Conquest of 1066 until the 16th century. French borrowings are pouring into the English language in a powerful stream. The English vocabulary is replenished with words from different thematic groups, reflecting the peculiarities of life in Britain in those days. Thus, to describe a country, the French words country, valley, river, border, etc. appear. A large group of words is associated with the naming of social relations. Native English words in this thematic group are few; these are king, queen, earl, lord, lady. The borrowed words are emperor, duke, duchess, baron, count, dame, damsel, etc., conveying new concepts that have entered the life of the British. The Normans became the new rulers of the country, and this was reflected in the language by the presence of French borrowings in the thematic group “Governing the Country”: sovereign, crown, administration, parliament, guardian, reign, etc. Adjacent to it is the LSG “Jurisprudence”, which has significantly expanded with words Norman dialect: justice, crime, plaintiff, evidence, dungeon, etc., as well as military vocabulary: war, navy, peace, captain, admiral, victory, conquer, etc.

In the XII-XVI centuries. French borrowings come mainly along with religious concepts, as well as in connection with the spread of French fashion, cuisine, crafts: chastity, innocence, devotion; barber, butcher, merchant, coin; garment, cotton, towel; fry, boil, mutton, cabbage.

In the 17th century the bulk of French borrowings are commercial and production terms: capital, commerce, insurance, bank, machine, investment, etc. In the 18th century. political terms of the French Revolution are added to them: aristocrat, democracy, despot, section, etc. Later, the flow of borrowings from French gradually dries up; The English language already includes single words of various thematic groups (garage, chauffer, development, fiancee, etc.).

Scandinavian borrowings also largely determined the mixed nature of English vocabulary. This was greatly facilitated by the direct coexistence of the British and the Danes on the territory of England during the period of Danish rule (X-XI centuries). Unlike Latin borrowings, which came through written sources, Scandinavian words appeared mainly as a result of oral communication. Only a few words of Scandinavian origin can be found in Old English written monuments. Only towards the end of the 12th century. with the advent of written sources reflecting dialect forms, evidence of earlier oral borrowings from the Scandinavian languages ​​appears. The fact that both English and the Scandinavian languages ​​belonged to the same Germanic group allowed their speakers to at least understand each other, and in this process there was a strong mutual influence of languages. Mostly nouns, verbs and adjectives were borrowed. Dividing them into thematic groups is difficult due to the very large variety; the semantics of most words is general character: husband, fellow, drag, bag, snare, leg, calf, skin, skirt; cast, take, guess; ill, wrong, low and many other words. In modern times, borrowings from Scandinavian languages ​​are rare; an example is the Swedish word ombudsman - a person appointed by an institution (such as a government or a university) to receive a report on complaints made by ordinary people against the services of that institution.

Borrowings from other languages ​​are very diverse. You can read about them in detail in the classic work of N. N. Amosova “Etymological foundations of the vocabulary of modern English,” as well as in numerous articles on this topic in linguistic journals. Let's give just a few examples here.

Trade and industrial ties between England and Holland led to the appearance in English of a large number of Dutch terms from the field of shipbuilding and navigation (bowsprit, buoy, cruise, dock, reef, yacht) and weaving (rock - spinning wheel, spool - bobbin, stripe - flap) . Popularity in Europe in the 16th-17th centuries. Dutch art was reflected in the borrowing of art criticism terms (easel, etch, landscape); Dutch colonization of South Africa brought vocabulary associated with ethnic and geographical features this country (bushman, kraal, veldt).

Borrowings from Romance languages ​​(Spanish, Italian, Portuguese) also reflect the history of relations between these countries and Britain.

A large number of Italian words from the field of culture and art have penetrated into the English language since the 16th century. These are musical terms (adagio, allegro, basso, opera, trio, sonata), vocabulary related to literature and fine arts (cameo, fresco, studio, intaglio; canto, stanza). A number of words are introduced into the English language through the description of Italy by British travelers (volcano, lava, casino, gondola, cicerone). Some words denoting political and commercial concepts (fascism, bank, traffic) were borrowed. Recently, Italian borrowings have been recorded mainly in American English, which is easily explained by the ethnic composition of the United States. Examples of such late borrowings are the words pasta, paparazzi, mafia.

Spanish borrowings were especially numerous in the 16th-17th centuries, when, on the one hand, England and Spain challenged each other’s primacy in the foreign policy arena, developed the territories of the newly discovered America, and on the other hand, Spanish literature was in its heyday, introducing the rest European Spanish realities. Among the Spanish borrowings are the words armada, banana, barbecue, canyon, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocoa, hurricane, potato, ranch.

The English language also borrows some Portuguese words, but their number is small, and most of them, in turn, were borrowed into the Portuguese language from other languages, in particular the languages ​​of India, Indochina, and Africa. Portuguese loanwords include the words cobra, Madeira, tank, veranda, mandarin, banana.

Speaking about Russian borrowings, it should be remembered that they can be divided into three groups - the so-called early Russicisms, Sovietisms and later borrowings that have entered the English language since the late 80s. XX century Early Russicisms for the most part reflect specific features of nature, material culture, and the state structure of Russia (altyn, boyar, borzoi, samovar, vodka, nihilist, tundra, taiga). Russian borrowings-Sovietism are mainly associated with the realities of the Soviet political system: Komsomol, artel, Soviets. Along with them, words related to space exploration also entered the English language: sputnik, cosmonaut. Russian borrowings that appeared in English at the end of the 20th century also reflect socio-political changes in the life of Russia (perestroika, glasnost).

Classifications according to the degree of assimilation of borrowings

Coming into the recipient language, the word is assimilated in different ways into the new system. First of all, let's look at what happens to the form of the borrowed word. In some cases, it can be very easy to recognize a “stranger” by graphics and/or phonetics that are not typical for the English language. The word retains its material shell, while its morphological composition is partially processed. If the semantics of the prototype are preserved in the word, then it is classified as a foreign word and refers to complete borrowings (domino, protege, tete-a-tete). Words that are partially processed phonetically and grammatically can also be classified as complete borrowings. They are clearly perceived as borrowed, but are subject to the pronunciation and grammatical norms of the English language (reason, culture, exhibition).

With the continued existence of a borrowing in a language, it enters into different compatibility with other words, which often leads to a change in its semantics compared to the prototype. Thus, the Latin word caseus (cheese), being borrowed into English in this meaning, later acquired the figurative, terminological meaning of “bobbin”. The Old French verb alouer, “to rent out,” was transformed into the modern English verb allow, “to allow.” Typical examples of such borrowings are English canister (from Latin canistrum - “wicker basket”), coffin (from Old French coffin - “box”), and travel (from French travailler - “to work”). Borrowings of this type are called relative and make up the majority in the English vocabulary, which is easily explained by the influence of the system of the receiving language on the elements newly included in it.

Particular attention is paid to morphemic borrowings, which are words created from foreign language morphemes within the English language. These include many terms such as anion, cation (from the Greek ana - “up”, cata - “down” and ion - “going”); telephone, phonograph, teletype. The above classification is based mainly on the formal characteristics of borrowed words. The distribution of types of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation of the semantics of words looks somewhat different.

Here, first of all, the so-called barbarisms, or words of local color, stand out. They are used in the recipient language only in connection with the specifics of the area from which they are borrowed. As a rule, these are complete borrowings in form, i.e., preserving the shape of the prototype. Examples of barbarisms are ciao (Italian “hello”), rajah (from Hindi, “ruler”, “prince”), wigwam (from the Indian language, “hut”), etc. The scope of use of such words is quite narrow and the degree of assimilation is very small.

The next group is words that have been partially assimilated, but limited in scope. First of all, these are terms and book words, in particular the so-called poetisms (etymon, homonym, lexical; pensive, oration, gregarious, matron). N. N. Amosova calls them specialized borrowings. Partially assimilated words may retain formal features of the prototype, for example, some grammatical forms (genius - genii, geniuses), pronunciation options (garage-), graphic originality (ballet, queue). The boundaries of this group are blurred, the types overlap.

The least recognizable, and therefore the most consistent with the standards of the English language, group of borrowings are completely assimilated words. Having entered the English language from various sources, over time and under the influence of the recipient language system they have changed phonetically, grammatically and semantically so much that native speakers recognize them as original. Fully assimilated words form the core of the vocabulary along with the original ones. Examples of this type are the Scandinavian verb take, the Latin wall, the French table and many others. N. N. Amosova proposes to call words that are completely assimilated into the English language native-like.

Speaking about the borrowing of foreign language elements, you should pay attention to at what structural levels of the language borrowings occur, i.e. It is precisely transferred from one language to another - phonemes, morphemes, words and other elements.

According to V.M. Aristova, borrowing phonemes and morphemes should not be equated, for example, with borrowing words, since units or elements of different language levels behave differently when borrowed. Therefore, the linguist proposes to distinguish between primary elements that are capable of independently transitioning from one language to another, carrying basic speech information and which are endowed with relative independence, and secondary elements that are not capable of independently transitioning into another language.

Primary elements include lexical, semantic, syntactic and stylistic elements, secondary elements include phonetic, phonological and morphological.

Famous linguist L.P. Krysin believes that elements that pass from one language to another can be units of different levels of the structure of the language - phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary, semantics. At the same time, borrowing words is a typical case of borrowing; borrowing phonemes is a rare case that depends on the degree of contact between the two languages; Borrowing of morphemes occurs mainly as part of a word; the selection of morphemes is carried out on the basis of a verbal series, which includes words with a general lexical meaning, which are characterized by the repetition of a structural element (for example, businessman, bartender, athlete), syntactic or structural-syntactic borrowing occurs when the construction of phrases in speech is influenced by foreign language syntactic structures; semantic borrowing is the appearance in a word of the meaning “under pressure” of a foreign language sample.

As for the classification of borrowings according to the scope of their application in human activity, here we can distinguish two main groups of vocabulary that are enriched in exactly this way - general colloquial and professional vocabulary (terminology).

The greatest importance in the modern theory of borrowing is the classification of borrowings based on the nature of the borrowed material. It is traditional to distinguish two main types of borrowing - direct borrowing and tracing. With direct borrowing, both the material form (sound and graphic) and the meanings of the prototype word are taken from a foreign language, and with tracing - only the meanings or semantic structure of a foreign language lexical unit.

Among direct or material borrowings (from D.S. Lotte - original borrowings), the following subtypes can be distinguished:

) lexical borrowings, in which the material form of a word and its content are borrowed, for example: receiver - “a reservoir for accumulating gases or vapors” (English receiver);

) borrowing the material form of a word, i.e. borrowing only the foreign language form of a word in oral (phonetic borrowing) or written (graphic borrowing) form and filling this form with new content, for example: jam - thick jam (English jam);

) morphemic borrowing, which is the borrowing of root and derivational morphemes to form new words, for example: tele-(Gr.) + -type (English).

When tracing (from D.S. Lotte - translated borrowings) it is not borrowed

the material form of a lexical unit, but only its meaning or structure. The following subspecies can be distinguished here:

) word-formation tracing, in which only the structure of a foreign language lexical unit is borrowed, on the basis of which a word is formed from the corresponding elements of the recipient language, for example: skyscraper,

) semantic (notional) tracing, in which a national word acquires a meaning that was absent in the corresponding foreign word,

) phraseological tracing, in which translation is carried out “according to the words” of foreign stable phrases, for example, to make progress - to make progress (to have success).

In addition to the above two main types of borrowing and their subtypes, a third type can be distinguished, which is called mixed borrowing. This includes cases where one part of the word may be a borrowing, and the other - translated or one that already exists in the receptor language.

Among mixed borrowings there are:

semi-calculation, when one part of the word is borrowed materially, and the other is calque, for example, tele + video,

semi-borrowing, when one part of the word is borrowed, and the second exists in the language, for example, installation + nick, counter + nut.

Since our thesis will examine ways of translating borrowings from English into Russian, we consider it appropriate to consider the classification of borrowings that are presented directly in the Russian language. In the future, this can help in a qualitative analysis of methods for translating borrowed lexemes from English into Russian.

Let's look at borrowings in the Russian language from a stylistic point of view.

A stylistic assessment of the use of borrowed words in various texts should take into account all the features of the vocabulary of foreign language sources: the degree of its mastery in the Russian language, stylistic consolidation, the absence of corresponding Russian names or, on the contrary, the possibility of synonymous replacement of a foreign word, the time of its appearance in the language, the frequency of use in speech and etc. According to these criteria, a classification of borrowed words according to the degree of their mastery in the Russian language is proposed for consideration. In this case, the selected lexical layers will have significant differences in the stylistic sense. This grouping of borrowed words in a stylistic sense is set for a practical purpose - to determine recommendations for the use of such borrowings in speech.

The modern Russian language has in its arsenal an unlimited number of borrowings that go back to foreign sources. These borrowings can be divided into several groups according to the degree of their mastery in the Russian language.

Words that have lost any signs of non-Russian origin (bread, mug, umbrella, shop, cat, horse, dog, sail, icon, cutlet, potato, pan, plate).

Such words do not stand out against the background of Russian vocabulary either phonetically, morphologically, or stylistically - “foreign language” does not have any effect on their use in speech.

Words that retain some external signs of foreign language origin: consonances not characteristic of the Russian language (neckline, phoneme, timbre, tempo); non-Russian suffixes (boyfriend, activist, correspondent, lecturer); non-Russian prefixes (transliteration, antioxidant); Some of these words are not inflected (avenue, Hindi, coffee, metro). This group includes words that, denoting phenomena that have become firmly established in our lives, are widely used in speech as the only names for common objects and concepts. Such borrowed words stylistically merged with the original Russian vocabulary.

Borrowed vocabulary contains a significant part of commonly used words from the field of science, politics, culture, art, known not only in Russian, but also in other European languages, the so-called Europeanisms or internationalisms, for example: file, interface, printer, consultation, supermarket, presentation.

Borrowed words that penetrated into the Russian language under the influence of salon-noble jargon (amourous - “love”, rendezvous - “date”, pleisir - “pleasure”, sentiments - “sensitivity”). The words of this group have become largely archaic, as they have found more common synonyms in Russian speech.

Exoticisms are borrowed words that characterize specific national characteristics of the life of different peoples and are used when describing non-Russian reality, for example: Italian borrowings - gondola, tarantella, Spanish - mantilla, castanets, hidalgo, etc. Along with other foreign language lexical elements, exoticisms stand out as words that are not fully lexically mastered in the Russian language.

Foreign language inclusions in Russian vocabulary (sorry, okay, prodigy), which often retain non-Russian spelling (game over (English) - the game is over, “Kamo are coming", “quo vadis” (Latin) - Where are you going?, per aspera ad astra (lat.) - through thorns to the stars. Foreign language inclusions usually have lexical equivalents in the Russian vocabulary, but stylistically differ from them and are fixed in one or another sphere of communication as special names or as means of expression, giving speech a special expression. A characteristic feature of foreign language inclusions is their distribution not only in Russian, but also in other European languages.

Barbarisms are foreign words or expressions that have not been fully assimilated into the Russian language and are perceived as foreign words in violation of generally accepted language norms. For example: comme il faut, pager, hacker. Barbarisms can only conditionally be attributed to borrowed vocabulary, which has a limited scope of use; in fact, they remain outside the Russian vocabulary.

So, having divided the borrowed vocabulary into several groups, we can trace the gradual strengthening of the “foreign” coloring in them, which must certainly be taken into account when making a stylistic assessment of its use in speech. Borrowed words, which have already spread widely and become entrenched in the structure of interstyle vocabulary, are not of particular interest from a stylistic point of view. Borrowed words and expressions that have a limited scope of use are subject to stylistic evaluation. However, the features of this type of vocabulary and its functioning must certainly be taken into account by specialists who work in the field of linguistics.

1.3 Sources of borrowings in English

The English language has traditionally been open to borrowings from a wide variety of languages.

Even in the early Middle Ages, the English language adopted a large number of borrowings from Scandinavian languages ​​(including such basic words as skin, ill, and even she). The most massive flow of borrowings is medieval, after the Norman Conquest, from Old French; as a result, almost half of the English vocabulary has Romance roots. In modern times, a large number of learned Latinisms and new borrowings from continental languages ​​entered the language.

Consider Celtic borrowings. Borrowings from Celtic languages ​​in English are few in number, and in most cases belong to dialect vocabulary or to the vocabulary of the lower strata of the population. Of interest is the counting system of British sheep farmers, which is derived from the numerals of the extinct Cumbrian language. The syntactic calque of the Celtic languages ​​is based on the Continuous tense system, which is absent in other Germanic languages.

The first layer of Latin borrowings are words that entered the English language during trade contacts on the continent, for example: wine, pear, pepper.

The second layer of Latin borrowings are words borrowed during Christianization: mass “mass”, school “school”, priest “priest”, devil “devil” and others.

A significant number of Latin words entered the English language between the 11th and 13th centuries, during the Norman period. However, these words, for the most part, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.

The largest number of words borrowed by the English language from the Latin language are so-called book borrowings. These are words that entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less susceptible to all kinds of changes, especially semantic ones. This is logical to explain by the fact that book borrowings, for a long period of time, are limited to the sphere of their use - the literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.

Most of the Latin book borrowings in English occur during the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, during the Renaissance in England. There are over a thousand Latin words in the works of Wycliffe, Langland and Chaucer that have not previously been attested in English. During the Renaissance, words from the fields of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms, etc. appeared. A list of these words cannot be given within a short chapter. To do this you need to compile a special dictionary.

Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological characteristics, for example, verbs with the suffix -ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of the first conjugation, such as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix -ute- in the infinitive, obtained from the stem of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of the third conjugation, such as prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with stems -ant- and -ent-, for example, evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.

The subsequent centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases, these are so-called “learned words”, often retaining the features of the morphological character of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.

Finally, in modern English there are also borrowings that have completely retained their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotations from the Latin language. The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in scientific prose styles, in business documents, and in elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include expressions such as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine qua non, and so on.

As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words by one language from another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages ​​come into contact. This is precisely the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appeared in English twice: once from French, another time from Latin itself. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time, which is necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as new. The result is etymological French-Latin doublets.

Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be included among the Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later interpreted as word-forming morphemes. However, in linguistic literature they are usually called borrowed affixes.

Thus, the Latin language had a significant influence on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, prepared the way for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological affinities. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word came into English from French or Latin.

Scandinavian borrowings also occur in the English vocabulary. They came from Danish as a result of the Scandinavian conquest (from about 870). This group of borrowings is not very numerous, but it includes very frequent words. Here are some examples:

they, them instead of hie, hem (hem is preserved in colloquial expressions like I met "em yesterday);

take, cut, get, instead of which the English words would be given in modern language *nim, *snide, *werth;

Are, fellow, gear, ill, happen, happy, husband, kick, law, leg, low, odd, rove, rug, scale (meaning “scales”), scalp, skill, skin, skip, skull, tight, ugly , wrong, etc.

nay, fro, skirt, dike, sky, screech, for which English parallels nay, from, shirt, ditch, welkin, shriek have been preserved;

suffixes in toponymy: -by, -beck, -thorp(e), -fell, -toft, -thwaite from the Scandinavian words byr “village”, bekkr “stream”, thorp “village”, fjall “mountain”, topt “estate” ", thveit "fenced area" and others; examples of names: Rugby, Welbeck, Scunthorpe, Micklefell, Lovestoft, Applethwaite;

Flock, mug and some others came through the Anglo-Norman language;

nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam - words reflecting new realities for the English, came from modern Scandinavian languages ​​in the 19th-20th centuries.

Scandinavian loanwords are difficult to distinguish from English words proper, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. The characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into sibilants: /k/ and /g/ - in certain conditions, /sk/ - always.

French borrowings are the most numerous in the English language.

In 1066 the Normans conquered England. Normandy was a French duchy; it acquired its name after the French king Charles the Simple, being unable to cope with the Vikings, gave them this territory under the treaty of 912. By 1066, the Vikings had long since adopted the French language and assimilated into the local population. They came to England as speakers of the French language (Norman dialect), French culture and French feudal system. After the Norman Conquest, power was completely in the hands of the Normans; Duke William the Conqueror also removed the English priests and installed Norman ones in their place. The indigenous population continued to speak English, but from the Norman dialect the Anglo-Norman language was formed, which became the state language and existed until the end of the 14th century. During this time, English acquired a huge number of French words. Of the 80,000 most common words in the English language, approximately 22,500 are French loanwords (from all periods of history).

The borrowings especially clearly reflect the Norman influence in the field of government, in military affairs, in the organization of the church and in city life:

court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village (court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village);

army, battle, banner, victory (army, battle, banner, victory);

religion, chapel, prayer, to confess (religion, chapel, prayer, confess);

City, merchant (city, merchant).

Craftsmen who lived in the village retained English names, while those in the city began to be called by French words: butcher “butcher”, mason “mason”, tailor “tailor”. Animals are named in English words, but their meat is called in French: beef “beef”, mutton “lamb”, pork “pork”, veal “veal”.

More than half the words in English are of French origin as a result of the Norman Conquest (1066). It is curious that all the names of animals are original English words, and the meat of these animals is French borrowings, for example: cow-beef (cow - beef), pig-pork (pig - pork), deer - venison (deer - venison), sheep - mutton (sheep-mutton).

French borrowings in English are used, as a rule, to achieve greater formality, for example: commence instead of begin, to be content instead of to be glad.

The above words (you can add commonly used ones, such as: composition, continue, frequency, etc.), being French borrowings, are pronounced in English. In this case, in order to uncover the question of the sources of borrowings in the English language, we are interested in those expressions that entered the English language without any changes, for example: appetit! (bon apetit ) - Bon appetit! voyage! (bon voyage) - Bon voyage! blanche (carte blanche) - carte blanche, freedom of action. a-tete (tet-a-tet) - tete-a-tete, alone. a-Vis (vis-a-vis) - sitting opposite, interlocutor, face to face. (resume) - a short biography in the “resume” format. - Respondez il vous plait (responde sil vu ple) - please answer, answer (in business correspondence).

The translator, encountering words and phrases of foreign origin in the English text, should turn to the English-English (explanatory) dictionary, where their explanation is given, or to the corresponding bilingual dictionary, for example: krieg (German) - lightning war vita (Italian) - sweet life vista (Spanish) - good view.

There are a large number of borrowings in the American English language due to the fact that the United States, as you know, is not for nothing called the melting pot of nations.

Many place names in the USA are written and pronounced in Spanish, for example, the cities of San Francisco, San Diego, La Jolla, San Antonio, Sacramento, Rio Grande River, Rio Vista Street, etc. As we already know, these names are transmitted in Russian by sound reproduction, i.e. transcription, for example: Rio Vista street (and not “view of the river”).

A large number of Spanish words and expressions are used in the southwestern United States thanks to the cowboys who mastered these lands in the mid-19th century. Americans learned them from the inhabitants of Mexico: rodeo, ranch (Spanish - rancho), etc.

As a result of French colonization, names appeared such as the river Cache la Poudre (“hide the gunpowder”) in Colorado, the city of Des Moines, the capital of Iowa (however, in this case the pronunciation of the city’s name has not been preserved entirely in French).

Words for Italian cuisine have also entered the English language (with Italian spelling and pronunciation), for example: lasagna (lasagna) ravioli (ravioli), pasta (pasta), spaghetti (spaghetti). The same can be said about the names of dishes of European cuisine, which in English appeared from the Yiddish language, for example, latkes (latkes) - potato pancakes, blintzes (blintzes) - pancakes, gefilte fish (gefilte fish) - stuffed fish.

The list of borrowings in English could be continued.

The English language (both written and spoken) uses a large number of words, phrases and abbreviations from the Latin language.

Some Latinisms have entered the common vocabulary, for example: 5AM - at 5 o'clock in the morning or vice-versa - vice versa. Basically, Latin expressions are characteristic of the written form of the academic, official style. Therefore, they should be known to those who read English non-fiction or use English for academic purposes in writing.

Examples of Latinisms: hoc - for this case fide - sincerely, sincerely - approximately laude - with distinction. (et cetera) - and so on alia - among others

Thus, we can note that borrowed vocabulary occupies a significant place in the lexical system of any language, in particular English. In order to study the features of its functioning within a specific language system, it is advisable to pay considerable attention to the specifics of the arrival of this vocabulary in the language and the study of the conditions that determined the arrival of these borrowings.

It should be noted that borrowings in different languages ​​have different effects on the enrichment of vocabulary. In some languages ​​they did not have such an influence that could significantly affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowing in different historical eras had such a significant impact on the vocabulary of the language that even function words, such as pronouns and prepositions borrowed from other languages, replaced the original function words. Because a living language is a constantly evolving phenomenon. Something new comes, the unnecessary, superfluous disappears, and for scientists working in the field of lexicology, many questions remain that require resolution.

CHAPTER 2. ANALYSIS OF METHODS FOR TRANSFERING BORROWINGS

.1 Methods for transferring borrowings

Let us note first of all that in general terms we can outline two translation paths that the translator follows: Direct or literal translation and indirect (indirect) translation.

Indeed, it may be the case that a message in the source language translates perfectly into a message in the target language because it is based either on parallel categories (structural parallelism) or on parallel concepts (metalinguistic parallelism). But it may also happen that the translator recognizes the presence of a “gap” in the target language that needs to be filled with equivalent means, ensuring that the overall impression of the two messages is the same. It may also happen that, due to structural or metalinguistic differences, some stylistic effects cannot be conveyed in the target language without changing to some extent the order of elements or even lexical units. It is clear that in the second case it is necessary to resort to more sophisticated methods, which at first glance may cause surprise, but the progress of which can be monitored in order to strictly control the achievement of equivalence.

The first method of translation: borrowing.

The simplest method of translation is borrowing, which allows you to fill a gap, usually of a metalinguistic nature (new technology, unknown concepts). Borrowing would not even be a method of translation that might interest us if the translator did not sometimes need it in order to create a stylistic effect. For example, in order to introduce the so-called local flavor, you can use foreign terms and talk about “versts” and “poods” in Russia, and “dollars” and “parti” in America, about “tequila” and “tortilla” in Mexico, etc. e. It is better to translate a phrase such as The coroner spoke by borrowing Le coroner prit la parole (Took the word coroner) than to look for a more or less equivalent one among the titles of French judicial officials.

There are also old borrowings, which essentially are no longer such for us, because they appear in the lexical composition of our language and have already become familiar: alcool, redingote, paquetbot, acajou, etc. The translator is primarily interested in new borrowings and even borrowings of individual character. It should be noted that borrowings often enter the language through translation; among them are semantic borrowings, or “false friends of the translator,” which should be especially feared.

The problem of local color, solved with the help of borrowings, affects primarily the sphere of style and, consequently, the message itself.

The main ways of borrowing vocabulary are transcription, transliteration and tracing.

Transcription (phonetic method) is a borrowing of a vocabulary unit in which its sound form is preserved (sometimes slightly modified in accordance with the phonetic features of the language into which the word is borrowed). In this way, the words football (football), trailer (trailer), jeans (jeans), etc. are borrowed from the English language. In English, the words regime, ballet, bouquet, etc. are borrowed from the French language.

Transliteration is a method of borrowing in which the spelling of a foreign word is borrowed: the letters of the borrowed word are replaced with letters of the native language. When transliterating, the word is read according to the rules of reading the native language. Using the method of transliteration from English into Russian, the words cruise (English cruise), motel (English motel), club (English club) were borrowed.

Many proper names are also transliterated when borrowed from English: Washington, Texas, London. In the English language there are many words of Greek, Latin and French origin, which have retained their graphic features, although they are read according to the rules of the English language.

Tracing, transcription and transliteration as methods of borrowing should be distinguished from translation methods of the same name. Without differing in their mechanism, they differ in their final results: when translating, the vocabulary does not increase, whereas when borrowing, new vocabulary units appear in the box.

Since the process of assimilation of foreign language elements begins from the moment they are introduced into the language by translators, it is appropriate to say a few words about the technique of translating specifically foreign names. When translating words and expressions with an unclear associative meaning, as well as when translating names of realities, transcription, less often transliteration, tracing and explanatory translation (transferring the meaning of a foreign word or phrase using the means of the native language without preserving the motivation and form) can be used. For example, the translation of the word the Speaker by the phrase chairman of the House of Commons”, the word backbenchers by the phrase “ordinary members of the English parliament”, etc. During an explanatory translation, a footnote may include the transcription of the word being translated, in this case “speaker” and “backbengers.” When tracing, transcribing and transliterating, it is sometimes necessary to resort to comments.

The second method of translation: tracing.

Tracing is a special kind of borrowing: we borrow this or that syntagm from a foreign language and literally translate the elements that make it up. In this way, we obtain either a tracing of the expression, and we use the syntactic structures of the target language, introducing new expressive elements into it, for example, Compliments de la Saison (literally: “seasonal greetings”), or a tracing of the structure, and introducing new constructions into the language, for example, Science-fiction (literally "science fiction").

Just as with borrowings, there are old stable calques that can only be mentioned in passing, since they, like borrowings, can undergo semantic evolution, becoming “false friends”. New tracing papers remain more interesting for the translator, with the help of which he avoids borrowing by filling in the gaps (cf.: French еconomiquement faible - economically weak, tracing from the German language). In such cases, it is apparently better to resort to word formation based on the Greco-Latin foundation or use hypostasis (the transition of one part of speech to another by conversion). In this way it would be possible to avoid such tortured cripples as: Thеrapie occupationelle (Occupational Therapy); "Banque puor le Commerce et le Développement", le quatre Grands, le Premier français and others like them, which can serve, in the opinion of some translators, as the most obvious example of extreme poverty of thought.

Third translation method: literal translation

Literal translation, or translation "word for word", means a transition from the source language to the target language, which leads to the creation of a correct and idiomatic text, and the translator only ensures compliance with the mandatory norms of the language, for example: I left my spectacles on the table downstairs - I left my glasses on the table below; Where are you? - Where are you?; This train arrives at Union Station at ten - This train arrives at Central Station at 10 o'clock.

In principle, a literal translation is the only reversible and complete solution to the issue. There are many examples of this in translations made from languages ​​belonging to the same family (French - Italian), and especially between languages ​​belonging to the same cultural orbit. If it can be stated that there are some cases of literal translation from German into English, it is because there are metalinguistic concepts that may also reflect facts of coexistence, periods of bilingualism and conscious or unconscious imitation that is associated with political or intellectual prestige. This can also be explained by the peculiar convergence of thoughts, and sometimes structures, that can be observed among the languages ​​of Europe (cf., for example, the formation of the definite article, the similarity of the concepts of culture and civilization, etc.).

The translator must apply a special approach to the translation of international vocabulary, which, as noted earlier, occupies a special place among borrowings.

The difficulties of translating international vocabulary lie in the fact that a translator, especially a beginner, often forgets about such a concept as “usage of a word” (usage), and, under the impression of the familiar graphic form of a word, allows literalism in translation and violates the norms of the native language ( target language), especially in the area of ​​word compatibility. Meanwhile, “words associated and identified (due to similarity in terms of expression) in two languages, in terms of content or use, do not fully correspond or even completely do not correspond to each other. That is why words of this type received the name faux amis du traducteur in French linguistics - "false friends of the translator."

In a number of cases, the translator has every right to convey the root meaning of a word literally, but only when his sense of language and experience tell him that the translation he proposes for a given specific situation is precisely an adequate rendering of the original’s thoughts. Let's give a number of examples: code point - code point, color correction - color correction, сorrelator - correlator.

At the same time, this provision (the admissibility of literal translation of terms and terminological combinations in a number of individual rare cases) can also serve as a source of errors in translation. As scientific and technical translation researcher A.L. Pumpyansky notes, the main reasons leading to errors include:

) confidence in the unambiguity of words and grammatical forms;

) mixing the graphic appearance of the word;

) erroneous use of analogy;

) translation of words with more specific meanings than they actually have;

) inability to find the Russian meaning for the translation of English words and lexical and grammatical combinations;

) ignorance of the laws of presentation of English scientific and technical material and the method of its transmission into Russian."

Thus, we see that the first two causes of errors noted by A.L. Pumpyansky, are errors resulting from ignorance of the peculiarities of international vocabulary.

The following possible discrepancies in the meanings of international and corresponding Russian words are noted in the literature.

The Russian word coincides with the English one, but not in all meanings, but only in one or two. This group of international vocabulary includes a relatively large number of words, the translation of which presents significant difficulties.

The polysemantic word satellite, which passed into the Russian language from the English language, is used mainly in only one meaning: satellite state, puppet state. In English, the word satellite has several meanings:

) satellite, satellite;

) artificial satellite;

) a member of the retinue, a participant in the ceremonial cortege, an accompanying person;

) henchman, follower;

) satellite state;

) satellite city;

) satellite (chromosomes).

In other cases, the situation is different: a Russian word has a number of meanings and only one of them corresponds to English. This is usually observed when the word is borrowed from a third language: for example, the Russian word audience has a broader meaning than the English auditorium. In Russian you can say audience of readers; in English the word auditorium is not used in this meaning, and equivalents in English to convey this meaning would be units such as the readingship, the reading audience, the readers or even market (cf. the book has a good market).

Some words that are similar in form often have different basic meanings. Words in this category require special attention from the translator, since they can easily be misleading and cause serious errors. So, activities is translated as activity, not as activity; communal is mainly used in the sense of “public” and very rarely - “communal”; aspirant - an applicant for something, but never a graduate student; direction - direction, not management (cf. board of directors; management); magazine - a magazine, but, of course, not a store; obligation - an obligation, not a bond; sympathetic - sympathetic, while the first obvious, but incorrect option is sympathetic (cf. sympathetic strike - solidarity strike, not sympathy strike); typography - book printing, not printing; fabric is a textile product, not a factory.

The transfer of words that sound similar (or have a similar graphic form) from one language to another during translation is especially often observed in related languages, for example, in Russian and Ukrainian. “It seems to many,” writes O. Kundzich, “that when such a word is transferred from one language to another, it retains all its qualities, that these qualities are contained in the word itself, and do not arise in relation to this word with the entire system of a given language. I I mean such qualities as folk or bookishness of a word, emotionality or terminology, positive or negative meaning, poetry, solemnity, and so on - to the finest shades in endless variations and their relationships."

2.2 Practical analysis of the translation of borrowings

borrowing vocabulary tracing translation

Having analyzed the features of the translation of borrowed lexemes, we will consider the advisability of using one or another translation method using the example of specific lexical units.

Consider the following borrowed lexemes: Microsoft, Windows, Apple, AOL, CD-ROM, MS-DOS, Yahoo, Rambler, Google, Yandex, Corel Draw, 3D Max, Total Commander, Internet Explorer.

In this case, there is a graphic reproduction of the borrowing without any changes to the original spelling. As we can see, this primarily concerns names - names of corporations, search servers, operating systems and software products (often in the form of abbreviations and acronyms). Thus, the above borrowed lexical units in the Russian translation text will completely retain their graphic form.

The following series of borrowed lexemes are translated by transcription: computer - computer, printer - printer, display - display, file - file, overlay - overlay, plotter - plotter, pixel - pixel, setup - setup. It should be noted that certain lexical units, such as, for example, display, file, setup, in a specific contextual environment can be translated using national Russian correspondence as follows: display - screen, file - document, setup - setting. At the same time, the translation of the word file as “document” can also be considered as a translation of another borrowed equivalent or the international word “document”.

Transliteration is often applied to the translation of terminological lexemes, which in turn are international lexemes. Examples include the following words: processor - processor, modem - modem, monitor - monitor.

As noted earlier, tracing also occupies a fairly important place among the main methods of translating borrowed lexical units.

In this case, we are dealing with a word or expression, which is a translation in parts of a foreign word from the material of the native language. Practical examples of translation using the tracing method can serve as the following lexical units: external command - external command; digital signature - digital signature; peripheral controller - peripheral controller.

Interesting are the cases of translation of cripples, in which one of the elements is transliterated, and another element of the target language, which itself at one time or even until recently was a borrowing-neologism. For example: proxy server - proxy server; swapping manager - swapping manager, content provider - content provider.

Let us also consider in practice the translation of borrowings in a descriptive way.

Descriptive (explanatory, descriptive) translation is a method of transmitting non-equivalent vocabulary, which involves revealing the meaning of a borrowed unit using a detailed description (in phrases, phrases, etc.). For example: Digitizer - an encoder, subsystem or device that generates digital data for an input analog signal; Transponder is a telecommunications device that receives a signal in one form and transmits it in another form.

Speaking about the practical translation of borrowings, one cannot fail to mention the fact of the assimilation process that some borrowed lexical units undergo.

After entering a language, a borrowing undergoes a process of assimilation - adaptation of a word to another language system, expressed in a change in pronunciation, spelling of a word, a change in its grammatical properties in accordance with the rules of the receiving language, and often in a change in semantics. Semantic changes in borrowed elements are the most interesting, since they can be quite significant, but not noticeable without deep etymological research.

We proceed from the fact that the assimilation of terminology is its adaptation in phonetic, grammatical, semantic and graphic terms to the system of the recipient language. The degree of assimilation may vary, but, as a rule, a distinction is made between fully and partially assimilated terms. The degree of assimilation is determined by many factors, among which one of the important ones is morphological, semantic or syntactic derivation, i.e. the formation of derivative words in the target language from corresponding borrowings that are simple in morphological structure: to xerox - to photocopy.

Speaking about the assimilation of computer terms, for example, we should mention those terms that have become or are becoming part of computer slang - colloquial vocabulary that is considered below the generally accepted standard: words that are not used in standard language or have a special lexical-semantic content.

Let us consider below the translation of borrowed lexemes that function in the economic sphere using the example of individual sentences. key method, which our company uses to deliver some information about know-how to our customers, is colorful circulars. - The main way that our company uses to inform the population about the latest news is color advertising brochures that are sent home.

The main attention in this proposal, in our opinion, should be paid to the borrowing-pseudo-internationalism of the circular, which relates to the legal sphere of functioning. This borrowing is translated into Russian descriptively as “advertising brochures that are sent home.” Transliteration as a method of translation is excluded in this case, since in Russian the word “circular” is most associated with regulatory documents. Therefore, in this case, the only possible translation method is descriptive (dicriptive). fact, what we are talking about is a sphere of illegal financial services meant to reimburse VAT at the expense of state budget, to convert capital into cash, to carry out schemes with securities and insurance (more accurately, export money, using reinsurance), etc. - In fact, we are talking about the sphere of illegal financial services aimed at refunding VAT from the state budget, transferring capital into cash, introducing schemes for working with securities and insurance (more precisely, transferring funds abroad through reinsurance), etc.

First of all, in this example, you should pay attention to borrowing reinsurance. It relates to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. We translated this borrowing into the Russian equivalent “reinsurance”. It is worth noting that in the Russian language the structure of the borrowed lexeme is completely preserved: the prefix re-, which in English indicates the repeated performance of some action, was transformed into the Russian prefix re-. Also, the form of the noun was preserved when translating this borrowing.

This sentence also contains the borrowed lexeme illegal, which relates to the legal sphere of operation. This borrowed lexeme was translated by us by transcription as “illegal”. The same borrowing can also be translated by the Russian analogue “illegal”, but in order to preserve the pragmatic load of the English borrowing illegal in the Russian language, we decided to leave the borrowed morpheme in the translation.

You should also pay attention to borrowing accurately, which relates to the social sphere of functioning. This borrowing was translated by the Russian equivalent “more precisely”. As for the borrowing-internationalisms budget and capital, they relate to the financial and economic sphere of functioning and are translated into Russian by transliteration as “budget” and “capital”. Particular attention should be paid to the borrowed lexeme capital, which could also be translated by the borrowed international synonym “assets” (from the English Assets), but in order to be as close as possible to the original text when translating, we decided to leave the original lexeme “capital” .

In our opinion, we should also consider the borrowed vocabulary that is present in the following sentence.

In the event of cancellation of the charter by the Charterer, for any reason, except as mentioned in Clause 3, after signing this Agreement, all advance payments made up to the date of cancellation will be retained by the owner, and the owner reserves the right to refund the said deposits only if he succeeds in letting the yacht to another Charterer for the same period and under the same conditions. - In the event of cancellation of the charter by the charterer after the signing of this contract for any reason other than those specified in clause 3, all advance payments made up to the date of cancellation are retained by the owner and the owner reserves the right to return such payments only if if he can provide the yacht to another charterer for the same period and on the same conditions.

The borrowed lexeme charter refers to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. This borrowing is translated into Russian by transliteration as “charter”. The same root borrowing in relation to the above word is the lexeme Charterer, which functions in the same field, but is translated into Russian by the following correspondence - “charterer”. The borrowed lexeme reason refers to the social sphere of functioning and its correspondence in Russian is not the word “reason”, but “reason”.

This sentence also contains the borrowed lexeme advance payments, which is of a purely business nature and is translated by such correspondence as “advance payments”. To translate this borrowed lexeme, transcription was also used, namely to translate the borrowing advance. Let's move on to the next borrowing date, which relates to the social sphere of functioning. In order to translate it into Russian, we used the transcription method and got the word “date”.

Consider also borrowing reserve. It relates to the social sphere of application. In this case, to translate this borrowing, we selected the corresponding Russian analogue “saves”. This same lexeme could also be translated using the transcription method as “reserves”, but in this context and in the context of combining this borrowing with the word “right”, the latter option is unacceptable for us.

Borrowing period refers to the social sphere of functioning. It is translated into Russian by transliteration as “period”. As for the borrowed lexeme deposits, it is mainly used in business discourse and in this case is translated as “payments”. The same word can also be transliterated as “deposits,” but this equivalent is acceptable in the context of “bank deposits.” In our case, we have completely different situational conditions, so transliteration as a method of translation does not suit us here. But the Russian analogue of “payment” fully reproduces the contextual meaning of borrowing deposits in this sentence.

In this example there is another borrowing - conditions. It relates to the social sphere of functioning. It should be noted that this word was translated by the Russian equivalent "conditions". This lexeme cannot under any circumstances be translated as “condition”.

Let's consider the translation of another sentence in which borrowed lexemes function. corporate supervision forms an appropriate background for the Management Board to pursue objectives that are to the best interest of the company and its shareholders; it also ensures effective performance monitoring which further encourages the managers to use the company's resources and capabilities in a more efficient manner. - Appropriate corporate management provides the necessary training for the Board to realize the goals in which the company itself and its shareholders are most interested ; such management also provides effective control over the company's work, which further encourages managers to use the company's resources and capabilities more efficiently.

Borrowing corporate supervision relates to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. It can be considered as a borrowing, which in Russian completely retains its structure: adjective + noun - “corporate management”.

Terminological borrowing Management Board functions in the financial and economic sphere. Before translating this borrowing, we also used the translation technique of omission and in the Russian translation we simply received “Board”. We translated the borrowed lexeme monitoring, which is mainly used in the scientific and technical sphere of functioning, by synonymous replacement, choosing another borrowing - “control”. The same borrowing can be translated using transliteration, and, in our opinion, a synonymous translation is more suitable for this context.

Borrowing resources, which relates to the social sphere of functioning, we translated as “resources” using the transcription method.

Let's analyze one more sentence. investors also participate in the operation of the company: two Leipzig energy companies are shareholders of the company, the value of their shares increased by 5 per cent in 2003. - Foreign investors also take part in the company’s activities: company shares , whose value increased by 5% in 2003, are in the hands of two Leipzig energy companies.

This sentence contains the borrowing foreign investors, which exists in the form of a phrase and relates to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. When translating this borrowing using the method of transcription (tracing), the grammatical structure of this borrowing was preserved: adjective + plural noun - “foreign investors”.

The next borrowed lexeme in this sentence is operation. If we talk about the sphere of its functioning, this is the social sphere. It is in this example that the borrowing operation is translated by the Russian analogue “activity”. If this borrowing were in a different context, then it could be translated from English into Russian by transcribing as “operation”, but in this case such a translation is impossible.

As we can see from the examples discussed above, the use of one or another translation method is primarily determined by the contextual environment of the borrowed lexeme and varies depending on the text in which it is used. Therefore, a translator who deals with borrowed vocabulary should fully comprehensively analyze the context of a certain sentence or text in order to choose the most accurate and correct translation option and at the same time preserve the pragmatic load laid down by the author of the source text.

CONCLUSION

In the process of writing this thesis, we carefully analyzed the borrowed vocabulary from the point of view of its concept and scope of functioning. We also examined various classifications of borrowed vocabulary proposed by specialists at various stages of linguistic studies. A significant place in our work is occupied by the consideration of sources of borrowings in the English language from a chronological point of view.

In the practical part, we analyzed ways of translating borrowings from English into Russian. At the same time, in practice, using the example of specific sentences, we have proven the feasibility of using one or another translation method.

Thus, completing our research, we came to the following conclusions.

Borrowing as a process is multifaceted; it has certain causes, types and results. The reasons for borrowing lie both within a particular language system and outside it. The need to borrow a foreign language element that arises within a language is explained by the inaccuracy of the existing name or its absence due to the novelty of the designated object for the culture that uses this language. External reasons for the appearance of borrowings arise as a result of contacts between people speaking different languages. Borrowed words facilitate communication, and also often carry a socio-psychological load in the form of connotations that are absent in the correspondences of the receiving language.

The modern vocabulary of the English language has changed and been supplemented over many centuries and now has a large number of words in its stock, which also had an ambiguous impact on the formation of its vocabulary.

The Latin language, from which many borrowings came, primarily played an intermediary role.

We can confidently conclude that the English language, by accepting words from other foreign languages, has not violated its specificity. On the contrary, he enriched himself with the best linguistic elements that he could absorb throughout history.

We also came to the conclusion that the main means of translating borrowings are transcription, transliteration, transcribing, tracing, and synonymous replacement.

Borrowing as an element of language also has its own specifics: such elements exist at different levels of the language, but not in equal quantities. The greatest number of them is at the level of words, the smallest - at the level of stable phrases. Despite the long and deep process of assimilation that a borrowing undergoes in the receiving language, it is not too difficult to establish the foreignness of an element if one knows the criteria for its determination for a particular language.

All translation methods are applicable to transfer borrowed elements in one language to another language. Their use is determined by the translator’s opinion regarding the appropriateness of a particular method and translation option in a particular situation, since several options are often possible. The criteria for appropriateness are: the purpose of the text, and depending on it - the accuracy of the information conveyed or its expressiveness; the level of expected training of the reader in this area; text style.

Upon completion of writing our thesis, we concluded that borrowed lexemes require a lot of attention during translation in order to avoid unpredictable errors. Therefore, a thorough analysis of the grammatical and contextual factors of each individual sentence should be the primary task of the translator who deals with the translation of borrowed vocabulary.

We see the prospect of further research on this topic in the possibility of using its results in the analysis of borrowed vocabulary and methods of its translation in a certain sphere of functioning - economic, social, political.

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