Allied wars in ancient Rome. The meaning of the allied war in the encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

The removal of an influential tribune of the people and the threat of reprisals against his supporters caused an armed uprising of the Roman allies, known in ancient times as the Allied War (90-88).
A terrible danger loomed over Rome. The allies outnumbered the Romans and were not inferior to them in military organization. The port cities of Italy joined the rebels, and it was through them that Rome maintained contact with the provinces, on whose income and trade with which it was already dependent at that time.
The rebels acted separately large detachments, then united into two armies led by two military leaders (modeled on the consuls). They created a Senate, convened in the town of Corfinia, the capital of the newly formed Italian state, minted gold coin, which depicted the symbol of Italy, a bull (it was believed that the word “Italy” itself comes from “vitellus” - bull), pinning a writhing Roman she-wolf to the ground with its horns. The position of Rome became more and more threatening. According to a Roman historian, “the toga of peace gave way to the cloak of war.”
The best commanders, Marius and Sulla, were sent against the Italians, but they also failed to achieve an advantage on the battlefields. More than once the Italics won victories over the Roman legions. In addition, the deterioration of the food situation due to the cessation of trade threatened food riots.
The extension of Roman citizenship rights to Italics had far-reaching consequences. From a city-state, Rome began to transform into a pan-Italian state. Its entire free population became Roman citizens and could influence the resolution of political issues.
The immediate result of the extension of Roman citizenship to the Italics was a change in the very composition of the Roman legions, which from now on, for the most part, began to be recruited from Italics. On the one hand, this increased the combat effectiveness of the army, on the other, it determined the nature of those future social changes that ultimately made the fall of the Roman Republic inevitable.
Eastern threat. The cession of Rome to the Italians was accelerated by a new threat from the East, emanating from Mithridates Eupator. The Romans had reason to suspect that the Allies were minting coins from his gold. But even more dangerous was the fierce hatred of Rome by the population of the eastern provinces, who were ready to support the king of Pontus with people and resources.
Having adopted the pose of a liberator, as Rome had done a century before him, the Ionian king began to act in the Roman provinces. He sent letters to all cities with an order to kill all the Romans and a promise of freedom. These letters had to be opened on the same day. And the inhabitants of the provinces exterminated in one day up to eighty or, according to some authors, even up to one hundred and fifty thousand citizens who settled here as landowners, tax farmers, moneylenders, and merchants. The number of civilian deaths may be exaggerated. It is possible that it also included the inhabitants of Italy who found themselves in Asia Minor and wore Roman clothing. But in any case, thousands of tax farmers and their agents died, all their property was seized, their slaves fled, and the collection of taxes from the richest Roman province stopped. And this was the most dangerous thing for a state devastated by the Allied War.
Marius or Sulla? Rome could no longer remain idle. The enemy political groups, which had their representatives in the Senate, were unanimous in the need to fight Mithridates and return the province of Asia that had fallen into his hands. The ONP differed only on who should lead the army - the favorite of the nobles, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, or the elderly Gaius Marius, the head of the popularists and the idol of the horsemen. After long discussions, Sulla was appointed commander, who hastened to move to the crossing. Meanwhile, Marius put the people's tribunate into action. The eloquent and energetic people's tribune Sulpicius of Russia led through national assembly a number of measures beneficial to the plebs, Italians and, above all, Marius: equalization of the rights of old and new citizens, an amnesty and the transfer of command of the eastern army to Marius.
Military tribunes arrived in Nola (Campania), where Sulla's legions were ready to board ships, to receive the army and hand it over to Marius. However, Sulla did not have to go to great lengths to explain to the legionnaires that fulfilling the decision of the national assembly meant sending other legions to the East, which would receive the spoils. The envoys of the people were stoned, and the army demanded that Sulla lead him to Rome. Thus, for the first time, a mechanism came into operation, in the creation of which Marius played a decisive role: a professional army, loyal to the commander, nullifies the results of any vote. And now this mechanism turned out to be directed against Marius and the popularists who supported him. Many of Marius' supporters died. The severed head of Sulpicius Rufus was displayed on the rostra as a trophy of the victors and a harbinger of future reprisals. Gaius Marius managed to escape to Africa and take refuge in the ruins of Carthage. The Roman historian Florus wrote: “Marius looking at Carthage and Carthage seeing Mary could serve as a consolation to each other.”
First war against Mithridates. Meanwhile, Mithridates, having expelled the kings of Bithynia and Cappadocia loyal to Rome from Asia Minor and defeated the Roman troops standing in his way, crossed with an army of three hundred thousand, one hundred and thirty war chariots and three hundred ships to the Balkan Peninsula. With his support, the philosopher Aristion seized power in Athens and carried out radical democratic changes.

But Mithridates' successes turned out to be fragile. In 87, Sulla and Vosko landed in Epirus and, moving to Boeotia, defeated the commander of Mithridates Ar-elai in the fierce battle of Orkhomenes. Then the siege of Athens began, which lasted several months.
The famous groves of the Lyceum and Academy were used to make catapults and ballistas. On the night of March 1, 87, when the narrow light of the moon gave almost no light, Athens was plunged into complete darkness. Not a single lamp was burning in the city - the oil was eaten by the starving. So it was not even possible to perform rituals in the temple to propitiate the gods, who one and a half thousand years ago, in the mythical times of Deucalion, on the same new moon, brought down streams of water on the city that flooded the whole of Attica.
And it was then that Sulla burst into the city to the roar of trumpets and the hooting of soldiers. They were allowed everything, and they rushed through the streets, killing everyone they met, and broke into houses. The entire agora was filled with blood, and its streams flowed downhill towards Ceramics and even penetrated the Sacred Gate. It was a new, this time a bloody flood.
Blood leaves traces only in human memory; traces of destruction remain for centuries. During the excavations of the agora, it was possible to find out exactly what damage was caused to the public economy of Athens. The Acropolis, fortunately, was not damaged. Aristion sent it, unable to bear the pangs of thirst. And in those moments when the prisoner was being led down, rain poured from the clear sky - as if a sign of the end of the tragedy of the great city.
Meanwhile, the fresh army of Mithridates entered Macedonia and united with the remnants of the army of Archelaus. IN decisive battle at Chaeronea (86), Sulla won, and Mithridates had to leave Greece.
Dominance of the Marians. In Italy, meanwhile, supporters of Marius came to power. Immediately after Sulla's departure, the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna, through the popular assembly, repealed his legislative acts. A law was passed to distribute new citizens among all tribes and the return of exiles was announced. But the Sullans soon gained the upper hand in the popular assembly. Under pain of death, Cinna and his supporters left Rome and began to gather an army.
Soon Rome found itself under siege by the troops of Cinna and the fugitive Gaius Marius, who had returned from Africa. Many Italians joined Cinna and Marius. The city suffered from famine and an outbreak of epidemics. En masses of slaves, to whom Cinna had promised freedom and land allotments, began to run over to the besiegers, as well as ordinary soldiers. The Senate was forced to open the city gates to the consul. Following Cinna, Marius entered Rome. The massacre lasted five days political opponents. “At the sight of headless corpses scattered through the streets and trampled underfoot, no one felt pity, but only fear and trembling,” Plutarch later wrote.
Consuls on New Year Cinna and Marius were elected (for the seventh time). A few days after the election, Marius died, and Valerius Flaccus was elected in his place, who, having passed a law depriving Sulla of his commanding powers, set out to the East at the head of a new army. Cinna remained in Rome virtually to honor the dictator, but apart from seizing the property of the Sullans, he did nothing.
End of the war with Mithridates. Sulla continued the war against Mithridates, receiving no support from Rome and reporting to no one. Both Sulla and Mithridates made up for the lack of finances by mercilessly robbing the population. On the island of Chios, the commander Mithridates imposed an indemnity of 2000 talents, and when this amount was not paid in full, the population was enslaved and deported to Colchis. Valery Flaccus, who landed in Greece with his army, acted in a similar way. Since many soldiers of the Marian army ran over to Sulla, the commander did not dare to enter into battle with him, and he did not dare to seek a meeting with Mithridates in the Balkans, but hurried to move through Macedonia to the territory of Asia Minor. There, a mutiny broke out in his army. Flaccus was killed. The new commander, Gaius Flavius ​​Fimbria, defeated Mithridates at the Propontis and moved to the territory of the Roman province of Asia.
Defeated in two battles and frightened by the dissatisfaction with his power brewing in the Greek cities, Mithridates turns to Sulla with an offer of peace. The desire to quickly regain Italy, captured by the Marians, prompted Sulla to accept this offer. In the fall of 85, Sulla and Mithridates met in the city of Dardan and agreed to end hostilities. Mithridates undertook to clear all the territories he had captured, pay an indemnity of three thousand talents, transfer part of the fleet to the Romans and return to their homeland the Chios, whom he had driven away to Colchis after the suppression of the uprising on Chios.
Following this, two Roman armies lined up against each other near Pergamum. Fimbria's warriors went over to Sulla's side without a fight. Fimbria rushed to his sword.
Civil War in Italy. Having collected an indemnity from the guilty province of Asia, seven times greater than that paid by Mithridates, Sulla stationed his soldiers in the cities of this rich province in order to allow the army to enrich itself and rest before the decisive battle for power in Rome.
In the spring of 83, he landed with a 40,000-strong army in Brundisium. Here he was joined by the young Gnaeus Pompeii with two legions recruited from his father’s possessions. The Marians had an army, much larger in number, but they lacked an authoritative leader - Cinna had by that time been killed by the mutinous legionnaires. On the way to Rome, the Sullan army was constantly replenished. The owners of the estates, devastated by the flight of slaves, greeted Sulla as a liberator. In his hands was a combat-ready army driven by hatred of the Italians, a thirst for revenge for confiscated property, and a desire to quickly end the war and receive land plots.
Maria's supporters tried to organize resistance. It began in Rome itself brutal reprisals over the Sullans. But luck did not favor the Marians on the battlefields. In Northern Italy they were defeated.
Meanwhile, hordes of Samnites approached Rome, who did not side with either Sulla or Marius. Their leader Pontius Telezin, driving around his troops on a cop, shouted that the time had come to destroy the hated city - “this forest in which the wolves, the plunderers of the freedom of Italy, are hiding.” Sulla defeated the Samnites and entered Rome. At the same time, Sulla’s generals subjugated the western Roman provinces to his rule: Pompey cleared Sicily and Africa of the Marians, for which he received a triumph from Sulla and the honorary title “Great”. Both Spanish provinces were also recaptured, from where the Marian commander Quintus Sertorius was driven to Mauritania.

Chapter 1. Causes and beginning of the Allied War

So, the Italian allies fell from a more or less tolerable dependent position into the most severe bondage. At the same time, they were deprived of any hope of expanding their rights. Already from the time of the conquest of Italy, access to the ranks of Roman citizens was extremely difficult: the granting of civil rights to entire communities was completely stopped, and their granting to individuals was very limited. Now we have gone even further in this direction. When in 126 and 122 there was a struggle to extend the rights of Roman citizenship to all of Italy, Rome even limited the right of resettlement of Italians: by a decree of the Senate and the people, all non-citizens living in the capital were expelled from Rome. This harsh measure was not only hateful, but also dangerous, as it violated many private interests. Mommsen T. History of Rome. T.2. / Per. from English - St. Petersburg, 2014. P.165.

In short, before the Italian allies were in relation to the Romans in the position of warded brothers, it was more protection than guardianship, they were not doomed to eternal minority and were in the position of forced servants, whom the masters treated mercifully, without depriving them of hope for liberation. But now all the Italian allies found themselves in approximately the same subservient and hopeless position, under the rods and axes of their overlords. At most, they could, as privileged servants, pass on to the unfortunate provincials the kicks that they themselves received from their masters. It is in the nature of such discord that at first, restrained by a sense of national unity and memories of shared dangers, they appear softly and timidly. But gradually the gap intensifies, and the relationship between the rulers and the obeyed becomes one of naked violence: the former rely only on their own strength, the latter obey only under the influence of fear.

It soon became clear that the allies could not expect to achieve their goal with good. They had to have a desire to take by force what was denied them. But the situation in Rome at that time did not allow even thinking about realizing this desire. Although the numerical ratio of Roman citizens and non-citizens in Italy cannot be accurately determined, it can be considered certain that the number of Roman citizens was not very inferior to the number of allies and for approximately 400,000 Roman citizens capable of bearing arms there were at least 500,000, and more likely 600,000 allies . As long as, with such a balance of forces, the Roman people were strong in their unity and were not threatened by a dangerous enemy from without, the Italian allies could not undertake a joint action; they were fragmented into many separate urban and rural communities and connected with Rome by many threads, public and private relations. It required no special wisdom for the government to keep dissatisfied subjects in line by relying on the solid mass of the Roman citizens, using the very considerable resources of the provinces, and pitting one community against another. Mommsen T. History of Rome. T.2. / Per. from English - St. Petersburg, 2014. P.166.

Therefore, the Italians remained calm until the revolution began to shake Rome. But when the revolution broke out, the Italians took part in the struggle and intrigues of the parties in order to achieve equality with the help of one party or another. They acted first in alliance with the people's party, then with the Senate, but achieved little from both. They had to make sure that the best people Both parties, the aristocrats and the popular, recognized the validity and justice of their demands, but were equally powerless to convince the majority among their parties of the need to satisfy these demands. The Italics saw that as soon as the most gifted, most energetic and respected statesmen of Rome acted as intercessors for the Italics, they were immediately abandoned by their own adherents, and their role ended. Over the 30 years of revolution and restoration, the government was changed several times, but no matter how the programs changed, myopic selfishness invariably reigned.

Recent events have especially clearly shown the futility of the Italians' hopes that Rome would agree to take their claims into account. While the aspirations of the Italians were mixed with the demands of the revolutionary party and were dashed by the unreasonable resistance of the popular masses, one could still cherish the hope that the oligarchy was not so much against equality in essence itself, but against the people who proposed it; one might think that a more reasonable government would agree to take this measure, which would not violate the interests of the oligarchy and would save the Senate. Egorov A.B. Rome on the brink of eras. Problems of the birth and formation of the principate. L., 1985. P.23.

Instead of the expected mitigations, a consular law was issued in 95, strictly prohibiting non-citizens from usurping the rights of citizens and threatening those who disobeyed with prosecution and punishment. Many of the most prominent and respected individuals, most interested in the equalization of rights, were thrown from the ranks of the Romans back into the ranks of the Italics by this law of Mucius. Like this act, the law of Licinius - Mutius was the immediate cause civil war. Meanwhile, the authors of this law were not inveterate and incorrigible optimates, but people like Quintus Scaevola and Lucius Crassus. This was all the sadder because Scaevola, an intelligent and respected man, was, incidentally, a lawyer by vocation, but by the will of fate statesman; As a result of his equally respectable and harmful attachment to the letter of the law, he was the main culprit of the war that broke out first between the Senate and the horsemen, and then between the Romans and the Italians. The orator Lucius Crassus was a friend and ally of Drusus and, in general, one of the most moderate and insightful optimates. Sergeenko M.E. Life of Ancient Rome. St. Petersburg, 2013. P.93.

In the midst of strong fermentation caused throughout Italy by this Italic law and the numerous processes that arose on its soil, the Italics again had hope in the person of Marcus Drusus. What seemed almost impossible happened: the conservative adopted the reformist ideas of the Gracchi and became a fighter for the equality of the Italians. A prominent aristocrat decided to simultaneously emancipate both the Italians from the Strait of Sicily to the Alps and the government. He was ready to devote all his tested energy to the implementation of these lofty plans. It cannot be established whether Drusus, as was claimed, really became the head of a secret society, the threads of which spread throughout Italy and whose members swore an oath to stand for Drusus and for the common cause. But if he did not take part in such dangerous enterprises, which were truly unacceptable for a Roman official, the matter was undoubtedly not limited to general promises. Undoubtedly, risky connections were made on behalf of Drusus, even without his consent and against his will. The Italians rejoiced when Drusus passed his first laws with the consent of the majority of the Senate. With even greater delight, all the communities of Italy later greeted the news of the recovery of the tribune, who had suddenly fallen seriously ill. But when Drusus's further intentions were revealed, everything changed. Drusus could not dare to introduce his main law; he was forced to delay it, hesitate and soon retreat. The Italians learned that the majority of the Senate was becoming unreliable and was threatening to abandon its leader. News of the latest events quickly spread through the Italian communities: the law that had already been passed was repealed, the capitalists reigned more insolently than ever, an assassination attempt was made on the tribune, he died at the hands of an assassin (autumn 91). Sergeenko M.E. Life of Ancient Rome. St. Petersburg, 2013. P.95.

With the death of Marcus Drusus, the Italians lost last hope achieve by agreement their acceptance as Roman citizens. If this conservative and active man at the most favorable conditions could not persuade his own pro-party to this, then it is generally impossible to achieve this with good from Rome. The Italians had to choose one of two things: submit and endure, or once again resume, as far as possible with united forces, the attempt, which 35 years earlier had been suppressed in the bud by the destruction of the Fregells, to take up arms, destroy Rome and take possession of its inheritance, or force Rome recognizes the equality of Italians. Of course, one could only decide on the second path out of desperation.

The Roman praetor Gaius Servilius, invested with proconsular power, having learned from his spies that the city of Ascul (Ascoli) in the Abruzzi was sending hostages to neighboring cities, went there with his legate Fonteus and a small retinue and addressed the residents gathered in the theater for a great performance with a thunderous speech and threats. The crowd immediately tore the Roman magistrates to pieces in the theater, and then, as if in order to cut off any path to reconciliation with an unheard of crime, the local authorities ordered the city gates to be locked, and all the Romans who were in Asculum were killed and their property was plundered. Panevin K.V. History of Ancient Rome. St. Petersburg, 2013. P.456.

The uprising spread across the peninsula with the speed of a steppe fire. Ahead walked the brave and numerous people of the Marsi, and the Sabellas, acting in concert with the small but energetic Abruzzian alliances: the Peligni, Marrucini, Frentani and Vestini. The soul of the movement was the brave and intelligent Quintus Silo. The Mars were the first to formally break with Rome; therefore, this war later began to be called the Martian war. Their example was followed by the Samnite communities, and then by all other Italian communities - from Liris and Abruzzo to Apulia and Calabria. Thus, soon all of central and southern Italy rose up against Rome.

The uprising was thus mainly a matter of the peasantry and middle class, while the municipal aristocracy still continued to side with Rome. Hence it is clear why individual communities in the rebel districts, and in the rebel communities a minority, stood for an alliance with Rome.

In general, as during the war with Hannibal, the Latin and Greek cities remained on the side of Rome, and the Sabella cities joined the rebels. The ancestors of the Romans based their dominion in Italy on the allocation of a privileged aristocracy; skillfully dividing the Italian population according to degrees of dependence, the Romans kept some communities in obedience with the help of others, more privileged, and ruled in each community with the help of the municipal aristocracy. Only now, under the useless administration of the oligarchy, has it been fully revealed how firmly the statesmen of the 4th and 5th centuries. built their building. This building has withstood more than one shock; it has also withstood the storm. Panevin K.V. History of Ancient Rome. St. Petersburg, 2013. P.458.

The immediate consequence of the Italian uprising, as well as after the defeats of government policy in Africa and Gaul, was a wave of processes. The equestrian aristocracy dealt in this way with those persons from the government party who, whether rightly or not, were considered to be the closest culprits of the catastrophe. At the suggestion of the tribune Quintus Varius, a special commission was established to deal with cases of high treason, despite the resistance of the optimates and intercession from other tribunes. The commission was to investigate a conspiracy hatched by Drusus and widespread in Italy as well as in Rome; the uprising supposedly grew out of this conspiracy, and therefore participation in the latter now, when half of Italy had taken up arms, was in the eyes of the embittered and frightened Romans an undoubted treason. The verdicts of the commission greatly drained the poisons of those senators who were inclined to agree. History of Ancient Rome. / Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchina. - M., 2014. P.134.

At first, however, the rebellion and the terror of the Treason Commission restored at least the appearance of Roman unanimity and strength. Party feuds fell silent. Outstanding officers of all parties - democrats like Gaius Marius, aristocrats like Lucius Sulla, friends of Drusus like Publius Sulpicius Rufus - placed themselves at the disposal of the government. By order of the Senate, all courts, with the exception of the commission on cases of high treason, temporarily suspended their activities. Business life froze, all concerns were aimed exclusively at recruiting soldiers and producing weapons.

While Rome was thus gathering forces for the difficult struggle ahead, the rebels had to solve a more difficult problem:

build your own during the war political organization. The 500-member Senate was tasked with developing a constitution and organizing military leadership. Latin language, which was already in general use at that time both Mars and Piceni, remained official language, but along with it and on equal rights the Samnite language, which predominated in southern Italy, was placed. From these events it is clear that - as is, indeed, self-evident - the Italians set themselves the goal no longer of achieving equal rights with Rome, but of destroying or conquering Rome and founding a new state. History of Ancient Rome. / Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchina. - M., 2014. P.135.

In the winter of 91/90, the fight between the Sabella bull and the Roman she-wolf began; This is how this struggle is depicted on one of the rebel coins. Both sides were actively preparing for war. Rome brought supplies from all provinces, especially from Sicily, and, just in case, put the city walls, which had long been neglected, in a state of defense. The fighting forces of both sides were more or less equal. The Romans filled the gaps in the Italian contingents with an increased recruitment of Roman citizens and from the almost completely Romanized inhabitants of the Celtic regions on this side of the Alps (10,000 people served in one Campanian army), partly with auxiliary troops from the Numidians and other peoples outside Italy. With the help of Greek and Asia Minor free cities, the Romans assembled a navy. On both sides, not counting the garrisons, up to 100,000 soldiers were mobilized, and the Italians were in no way inferior to the Romans in valor, military art and weapons. History of Ancient Rome. / Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchina. - M., 2014. P.135.

Military operations were made very difficult both for the rebels and for the Romans by the fact that the uprising extended over a very large territory, and many fortresses were scattered throughout the latter, both standing on the side of Rome. The rebels had to lay siege to armies of fortresses, which fragmented their forces and took up a lot of their time, and at the same time defend long line borders.

In this completely decentralized war, the offensive initiative generally belonged to the Romans. But even here no energetic initiative was shown. What is remarkable is this: the Romans did not concentrate their troops to attack the rebels with superior forces, and the rebels did not attempt to invade Latium and attack the enemy capital. However, we know too little about the conditions in which both sides found themselves to judge whether and how it was possible to act differently, and to what extent this lack of unity in military leadership was due to the laxity of the Roman government and the weak communication between the rebel communities.

The uprising grew. Mutilus, at the head of the Samnite army, entered Campania, and the citizens of Nola surrendered the city to him and handed over the Roman garrison. The head of the garrison was executed by order of Mutilus, and the soldiers were enlisted in the victorious army. Salerno, Stabiae, Pompeii, Herculaneum joined part of the uprising. Mutilus was able to penetrate the territory north of Vesuvius's campaign and, at the head of his Samnite-Lucanian army, besieged Acerra. The Numidians, of whom there were very many in Caesar's army, began to move in droves to Mutilus, or rather to Oxinthe, son of Jugurtha, who fell into the hands of the Samnites during the surrender of Venusia and now appeared among them in royal purple attire. Knabe G.S. Ancient Rome: history and everyday life. M., 2012. P.344.

Caesar had to immediately send the entire African detachment back to their homeland. Mutilus even dared to attack the Roman camp, but was repulsed; and the Roman cavalry attacked the retreating Samnites, and they lost about 6,000 people killed. This was the first significant success of the Romans in this war. The army proclaimed its commander emperor, and the people of Rome, who had lost heart, now perked up. However, soon after this, while crossing a river, the victorious army was attacked by Marius Egnatius, who inflicted a decisive defeat on it. The defeated army had to retreat to Tean to regroup. However, the energetic consul managed to restore the combat effectiveness of his army even before the onset of winter and again take its previous position under the walls of Atzerra, besieged by the main Samnite army under the command of Mutilus.

At the same time, hostilities also began in central Italy. The uprising in the Abruzzi and in the vicinity of Lake Fucin threatened the capital, since these areas were located not far from Rome. By decree of the Senate, Marius replaced Lupus as commander-in-chief and he managed to at least stop further advances of the enemy. But soon Quintus Tsepvon was appointed to the army on equal terms with him. Right there. P.346.

Finally, during the same year, in addition to heavy fighting in many places in central and southern Italy, the Romans also had to fight in the north. Dangerous situation, in which Rome found itself in the first months of the war, prompted many Umbrian and some Etruscan communities to join the uprising. It was necessary to send Aulus Plotinus against the Umbrians, and Lucius Portius Cato against the Etruscans. However, the Romans met much less stubborn resistance here than in the Marsian and Samnite regions, and had a decisive advantage in all battles. Knabe G.S. Ancient Rome: history and everyday life. M., 200=12. P.347.

Thus ended the difficult first year of the war, leaving both militarily and politically sad memories and gloomy prospects. Militarily, both Roman armies operating against the Mars and in Campania were weakened by heavy defeats and lost heart, the northern army was forced, first of all, to cover the capital, the southern army, stationed near Naples, was in serious danger of being cut off, since the rebels could without great difficulty, penetrate there from the region of the Samnites or Mars and fortify somewhere between Rome and Naples; therefore, the Roman command considered it necessary to extend at least a chain of posts from Qom to Rome. Politically, the uprising grew during this first year of the war, its territory expanded in all directions. Right there. P.348.

The mood of the Romans was extremely depressed. Many citizens then gave in to despair and believed that everything was lost. After the victories of Caesar at Acerra and Strabo at Picenum, the mood rose somewhat. After the first of these victories, the Romans again replaced military clothing with civilian ones, and after the second, they removed the signs of public mourning. Nevertheless, it was clear to everyone that, in general, victory in this war was not on the side of the Romans. And most importantly, the Senate and citizens have lost that state of mind that helped them endure everything severe trials during the war with Hannibal and, in the end, ensured victory then.

The Romans began the current war with the same proud confidence, but they were unable to maintain it, as then, to the end. Firm persistence and unyielding consistency gave way to flabbiness and cowardice. After the first year of the war, Rome suddenly changed its external and domestic policy and turned to the path of agreements. Without a doubt, this was the smartest thing to do. But not because the power of the enemy forced the Romans to agree to unfavorable peace terms, but because the very subject of the dispute, the perpetuation of the political primacy of Rome to the detriment of the rest of the population of Italy, brought more harm to the republic than good. IN public life It happens that one mistake corrects another. So this time, cowardice to some extent corrected the damage caused by reckless stubbornness.

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At the turn of the 2nd-1st centuries, the popular movement intensified. One of the outstanding popularists in 103-100. became Appuleius Saturninus. He, having become a tribune of the plebeians, proposed to give Maria's veterans plots of 100 jugeras of land. Saturninus proposed that a commission headed by Marius himself should allocate land to veterans, and he himself would receive unlimited powers to indefinite time. He also proposed other laws: bread for the plebs began to be sold at very meager prices. Saturninus met resistance in the people's assembly, and there was even a skirmish there, and Saturninus and his supporters won. He was elected plebeian tribune, and then Marius decided that it was not worth supporting Saturninus. With the hands of his warriors, he dispersed the people who had come to support Saturninus. After the Death of Saturninus, the popularists did not cease their activities. Moreover, they decided it was time to expand support for their movement. And to increase supporters in the comitia, they began to demand the distribution of civil rights to the Italians. The Italians, of course, had made such a demand before. Now the plebeian tribunes began to support such demands of the Italians. Among them was a man named Livius Drusus. He suggested:

1) Carry out a new allocation of land to land-poor citizens;

2) Bring new colonies to Tarentum, Compgna, Sicily;

3) Strengthen the sale of bread;

4) Extend Roman citizenship to Rome's allies.

Livius Drusus passed the law in the popular assembly, but a few days later he was stabbed to death outside his house. The killer was not found, but the death of Drusus became a signal for the war between the Romans and Italics of 90-88. All of central and southern Italy rebelled.

The territories that remained loyal to Rome were Etruria, Cisalpine Gaul, and Umbria.

The rebels elected authorities, they copied the Roman system of government, and popular assemblies functioned. They gathered in the city of Corfinia. People's assemblies met in it, a senate functioned (500 people), there were 2 consuls and 12 praetors. The Allies began to mint their own coin: on it, an Italian bull trampled a Roman she-wolf. The hostilities lasted no more than 3 years, but the war was extremely fierce, and the Romans found themselves in a difficult situation. For the first time, Rome actually had to fight against its own army. The allies served in Roman units and were well aware of the peculiarities of Roman military tactics. And, although Rome fought in earnest, with the best units and the best commanders, it turned out to be impossible to gain an advantage using purely military methods. I had to make concessions.

At the end of 90, a law was passed according to which those allies who did not take part in the uprising received the rights of Roman citizenship. It was proposed by Marcus Livius Drusus the Younger. This step was not enough, and in 89 Rome passed a new law, according to which civil rights were promised to those who lay down their arms within 2 months. This step was successful, and with such political methods the Romans managed to break the resistance of the allies. Rome won, but the victory turned out to be purely formal, because the allies achieved their goals, achieved them themselves. AND

The Italian population in large numbers acquired the rights of Roman citizenship with all the ensuing consequences:

2) The right of access to the public field.

Rome immediately tried to curtail the rights given to the allies. They began to be attributed only to one of the 35 tribes - districts of Rome. If they are assigned to each tribe, they will receive a majority in each, and on the basis of “1 tribe – 1 vote” they will determine the fate of the people. But for the Roman polis, for the Roman civitas, the victory had serious consequences. After all, Roman citizens now lived throughout the entire empire, and the polis could function only in a small area. But in territories such as the whole of Italy, the policy cannot function normally! And then the crisis of Roman republican institutions began to grow.

The concept of “crisis of the republic” is narrower than the crisis of the polis. The crisis of the polis began earlier than the crisis of the republic. We cannot date the crisis of the risky community with an accuracy of one year, but we can say for sure that it began after the final victory of Rome over Carthage. After this, a contradiction arises between polis and suprapolis structures. The apogee of the crisis of the polis organization was the allied war. And the crisis of the republic is a consequence of the crisis of the civil community.

There is an economic aspect to the crisis, and it is associated with the growth of commodity-money relations. But another thing is that economic relations how purely police begin to deform. Political aspect crisis of the polis – crisis of republican forms of government.

The crisis of the republican foundations of life affected all government bodies, the entire state apparatus and all its links. In contrast to the nobility, horsemen, the top of the urban plebs, and the regional nobility begin to lay claim to power.

1) First, there is a fall leadership role Senate This fall was caused by the activities of the Gracchi. During the period of the Gracchanian movement, people begin to turn directly to the comitia, bypassing the Senate. The authority of the Senate was undermined by the Jugurthine War.

2) Master's programs also turned out to be subject to crisis phenomena. Overcoming the collegiality of the Roman magistrates.

a. The concentration of a number of magistrates in the hands of one politician, when he immediately finds himself an official in several magistrates;

b. Magistrates are elected individually, without a panel.

3) Voter bribery is common in magistrate elections.

4) An indefinite dictatorship arises.

The comitia also turned out to be deformed. It was they who had a particularly noticeable democratic beginning. It was the extension of civil rights to the Italics that led to the fact that Roman citizens did not gather at the comitia. Many people simply live too far from Rome. And therefore the Roman comitia do not represent the entire populus romanus. The comitia are turning into a legal fiction. Only the people of Rome actually vote. Therefore, it is not surprising that phenomena such as absenteeism (reluctance to take part in public assemblies) and bribery of voters in comitia and pressure on them with the help of military force. Of course, all this certainly says that the Roman political system after the Allied War should be understood as having given great ruptures in terms of polis organization.

In the turbulent events of the 1st century. BC, which will follow a little later, the outlines of a new political system And new form power and the ways in which it is achieved. The method will be to rely on the army, and power will become sole. The polis system in Rome will persist for a long time. The entire system of the principate is a system in which the polis elements of the device are preserved. But the contradiction between the polis basis of the structure and the structures above the polis will deepen even more and, ultimately, as scientists believe, will become the reason for the collapse of the Roman Empire.

ALLIED WAR

(otherwise Martian, after the Martian tribe? one of its main participants)? between the Romans and their Italian allies, who sought the right of Roman citizenship (91–87–80 BC). Since the formation of the vast Roman power, the position of the allies worsened compared to full-fledged Roman citizens. The latter benefited from the new position of the state much more than the allies, who made the same, if not more, heavy military sacrifices as the Romans when conquering provinces, but did not have access to profitable positions, did not have the right to receive land plots, bread at a reduced price, rights of eviction in colonies, etc. Further, displeasure among the allies was caused by the severity of Roman military law and its arbitrary application by Roman military leaders (the allies did not have the same personal guarantees as citizens); Finally, the Italics were outraged by the arrogant treatment of the Roman magistrates and even ordinary citizens towards them, even their highest magistrates. The legal equalization of the Allies was required both by simple justice and by correctly understood higher state interests the dominant community itself, especially since over time, thanks to many connections with Rome, the internal fusion of the allies with the Romans made rapid progress. And since in many allied regions, the small wealthy peasantry that had disappeared in Rome also remained, the leaders of the democratic party in Rome, Fulvius Flaccus and G. Gracchus, based on the desire to refresh and strengthen Roman citizenship with a surge of fresh forces, proposed to give full citizenship rights to citizens Latin and Italian allied communities. Although their plan failed, these demands were so urgent that about 30 years later they were again put forward in Rome, but this time not by the democrats, but by a representative of the nobility, Livius Drusus. The allies, like many more far-sighted representatives of Roman society, actively supported Livius Drusus, and to achieve his goal, an extensive secret society, whose members were bound to the leader by an oath. But in 91, Livius Drusus was killed by his political opponents, and then the allies, having lost hope of achieving equality through legal means, decided to take up arms. The first outbreak occurred in Picenum, in the city of Asculum, where the praetor Q. Servilius, having learned about the suspicious relations of the Asculumians with neighboring communities, addressed the citizens of Asculum with threats, which caused an explosion of indignation, the victims of which were the praetor himself and the Romans who were in the city. The Italians turned to the Senate demanding the granting of citizenship rights, but the Senate rejected it. Under the influence of the uprising in Rome, the irreconcilable party decisively gained the upper hand, one of whose representatives, Tribune Qu. Varius, passed a resolution on the formation of a special judicial commission to prosecute those involved in the Drusus case. The allies saw that they could rely solely on the force of arms, and the Northern War began. Most of the rebels belonged to the Sabella tribe (Marsi, Peligni, Samnites, Hirpini, Marrucini, Vespigni, Frentani, Picenti, Lucanians, etc.). First of all, the allies had to create general device and the government. In the main city of the union, “Italica” (that was the name of Corfinium, located in the country of the Peligni), a Senate of 500 people and a people’s assembly were created according to the Roman model, 2 consuls and other magistrates were elected. The consuls of the union were Mars Kv. Pompedius Silo and the Samnite D. Papius Mutilus. Allied military operations were greatly hampered by the existence of Roman and Latin colonies in the rebel regions that remained loyal to Rome; they were ready-made strongholds for the Roman armies and slowed down the relations between the Northern troops. The allied forces were approximately equal in number to the Roman forces and reached up to one hundred thousand. But on the side of Rome there were the forces of the provinces (for example, in the Roman armies there were Numidians and many Romanized Cisalpine Gauls), a proven organization, a central position. The war began unhappily for the Romans in the winter of 91 BC, and for almost the entire first year things went badly for them. The theater of military operations stretched over a vast space, from Picenum in the north through the lands of the Vestini, Polygni, Marsi, through Samnium and Campania to Apulia and Lucania in the south inclusive, i.e., it covered almost all of Italy in the Roman sense, except for Umbria and Etruria, where the movement penetrated late and where it was very weak. The allies began by laying siege to the Latin colonies scattered among them. Were Alba, lying near Lake Fucin, besieged (by Pompedius Silo), in Samnium? Ezernia (Paniem Mutilom), then Venusia, etc. Therefore, the Romans had to split their forces into several detachments. The attempt of the Roman consul Lucius Julius Caesar from Campania to come to the aid of Ezernia failed, and in carrying it out, Caesar was twice defeated by the praetors of the union, Vettius Cato and Marius Egnatius, and suffered heavy losses. The attempt of Caesar's legate Licinius Crassus from the same Campaign to go to Lucania was also unsuccessful (he was defeated by Lamponius). Then the Samnites, under the leadership of Papias Mutilus, entered Campania and captured a number of cities here, of which one of the most important was Nola, where the garrison went over to the side of the allies, and the Roman commanders were executed. Herculaneum, Pompeii, Stabiae, Salerno also fell into their hands, in addition to Liternum and Minturni. When Papias Mutilus besieged Atcerra, Caesar moved from Teanum to help them. Although he was unable to fulfill his task (thanks to the betrayal of the Numidians), he repulsed their attack on his camp with great damage to the enemies. This was the first real success of the Romans, and the news of it was greeted with enthusiasm in Rome. But this success did not compensate for the failures suffered by the Romans: Ezernia surrendered at the end of the first year of the war, Campania and Apulia were in the hands of enemies. At the same time, military operations were going just as badly for the Romans in the country of the Mars, where another Roman consul, Publius Rutilius Lupus, set himself the task of liberating the besieged Alba. On the banks of the Tolenusa River, Vettius Cato defeated his army, and up to 8 thousand Romans fell, including the mortally wounded consul (in June 90). After this, the post of commander-in-chief of the Roman forces was taken by the famous winner of Jugurtha, the Cimbri and the Teutones, Marius, and he somewhat improved the position of the Romans, but his comrade Qu. Caepio fell into an ambush prepared by Pompedius Silo, was defeated and died along with most of his squad. With the assistance of Sulla (who belonged to the southern army), Mari managed to inflict a strong defeat on the Mars, but soon Mari left for Rome. In Picenum, the Romans were led by Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (father of Pompey “the Great”). He besieged Asculum, but was defeated and forced to retire to Firmum, where he was in turn besieged. But when Sulpicius came to his aid, the Romans from both sides moved towards the enemies and defeated them, and the leader of the Italics, Laphrenius, fell. The failures of the Romans began to shake the loyalty of the Etruscans and Umbrians, who at first kept aloof from the uprising, and the Romans had to send troops there too (under the command of Cato and Plautius). The position of Rome became even more difficult because confusion began outside Italy, in Spain, in Gaul, in Asia. The plans of Mithridates of Pontus, who threatened Roman dominance in Asia Minor, were especially dangerous. Then, in order to ensure continued loyalty to Rome on the part of communities that were still aloof from the uprising and wavering, the consul of 90 L. Julius Caesar passed a law granting citizenship rights to all Latin and other allied communities that remained loyal to Rome. Thanks to this concession, the movement in Etruria, Umbria and among some Latin communities was immediately paralyzed. Passed at the very end of the same 90 or at the beginning of the next 89, the Plautian-Papirian law extended the granting of citizenship rights to those who had already rebelled and who laid down their arms within 60 days. This concession also brought disintegration among those who had already taken up arms against Rome, satisfying the demand made by the Allied embassy to the Senate before the start of the war. But these new citizens had to vote in only 8 tribes out of 35 than theirs. political role in the Roman comitia was reduced to almost zero. Probably, mainly due to the influence of the Yuliev and Papirian-Plavtian laws sudden change military happiness, which turned sharply in 89 to the side of the Romans. Back in the winter from 90 to 89, the Mars made an attempt to kindle the unrest that was beginning in Etruria and sent a 15,000-strong detachment there. But thanks to the concessions of Rome, the Etruscans and Umbrians did not support the Marsi, whose army was defeated and almost all destroyed by the consul Gnaeus Pompey Strabo. Then Pompey invaded from the north into the country of the Marsi, Peligni and Vestini, while another consul of 89, M. Porcius Cato, who took the place of Marius, entered the same regions from the west. Cato inflicted several defeats on the enemies, but was soon killed. His place was taken by the legate Sulpicius, who also acted quite successfully. After these successes in the middle theater of war, Gnaeus Pompey himself could stand at the head of the Roman forces besieging Asculum. Yudatsiliy's plan, free his hometown a simultaneous attack on the Romans from outside and from the city? failed, the Romans gained the upper hand due to their numerical superiority, and Judacilius, who had penetrated the city, soon saw that further resistance was impossible and committed suicide. Having taken Asculum, the Romans brutally punished its inhabitants. At the same time, the struggle in the south took a favorable turn for the Romans, where Sulla appeared as the main hero. With the help of the fleet, the Romans re-established themselves in Campania, where they took Stabia, Herculaneum (with the help of Minucius Magius, who defected to the Romans) and some other coastal cities, but strong Nola held out. After these successes, Sulla invaded the interior mountainous regions, took Compsa and Eclanum (in the country of the Hirpines), and last city subjected to destruction. Having moved to Samnium, he defeated Papias Mutilus and took Bovianum, a point especially important because the capital of the Italics was moved here after the capture of Corfinium by the Romans. Now the allies had to move it to Ezernia. The Romans also achieved a number of successes in Apulia and Lucania, where they were led by Cosconius and then Qu. Metellus Pius. They took Larinum, Ausculum, then Venusia (88), in which Metellus captured over 3 thousand prisoners. In Samnium, the successes of Pompedius Silo (he returned Bovianum) were paralyzed by the subsequent defeat, which cost the Italians six thousand killed. Soon Pompedius Silo himself fell. In general, the S. war was over and the forces of the Italians were broken, although resistance still held out in Samnium, in the Lucanian-Brettian districts, in Nola, Ezernia and some other fortresses. The internal unrest that broke out in Rome, the struggle of parties, the rivalry between Sulla and Marius gave the Italians the opportunity to hold out for several more years. When Sulla went to Asia against Mithridates, the Senate, wanting to acquire military assistance against the Marians from the allies who were still fighting, continued the operation of the Plautian-Papirian law, that is, it granted full citizenship rights to all who laid down arms. But the Samnites made other demands, which the Senate did not consider possible to satisfy. Then Marius and Cinna promised the Samnites to fulfill their demands, as a result of which the Samnite troops joined them. So S. the war became intertwined with internal struggle Roman political parties. In 84, Cinna gave new citizens rights equal to old citizens, destroying the regulations regarding their assignment to only 8 tribes. When Sulla returned from the East, the Samnites, who sided with the Marians, turned out to be his most dangerous opponents, and the victory over them before the Collin Gate of Rome (November 1, 82) cost him terrible efforts. Now Sulla decided to finally break the resistance of the Samnites and entered Samnium. The Samnites had to clear Nola, their leader Pashi Mutil committed suicide. Sulla destroyed Ezernia and turned the country into a desert. Despite the military triumph of Rome, the result of the struggle was the legal unification of all native free inhabitants of Italy, all of whom became citizens of Rome. But this result was achieved at the cost of terrible devastation throughout Italy. Wed. Kiene: "Bundesgenossenkrieg".

Brockhaus and Efron. Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron. 2012

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what ALLIED WAR is in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

• ALLIED WAR
  war 90-88 (or 91-88) BC e. (it was also called Marsian due to the active role of the Mars tribes in it), the uprising of the Italic tribes...
• ALLIED WAR
  (otherwise Martian, after the tribe of the Mars - one of its main participants) - between the Romans and their Italian allies, who sought the right ...
• ALLIED WAR in Collier's Dictionary:
  (91-87 BC, the main military actions took place in 90-89 BC), the uprising of the Italian allies of Rome - the Samnites, Marsi and most ...
• WAR in Wiki Quotebook:
  Data: 2009-02-19 Time: 11:23:11 * An invasion of a neighboring country is usually carried out for the benefit of its citizens. (Boris Krieger) * ...
• WAR in Miller's Dream Book, dream book and interpretation of dreams:
  Seeing a war in a dream is a sign of a difficult state of affairs, as well as disorder and strife in the house. If a young woman sees…
• WAR in the One-Volume Large Legal Dictionary:
  
• WAR in the Big Legal Dictionary:
  - in international law, military actions between states, as well as between states and national liberation movements, accompanied by a complete break in peaceful relations. ...
• WAR
  ECOLOGICAL - see ECOLOGICAL...
• WAR in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  PRICE is a repeated long-term reduction by firms in the prices of their products, through which they expect to increase sales volumes and their own income. ...
• WAR in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  AIR - see AIR WAR. CREDIT WAR - see CREDIT WAR. CUSTOMS WAR - see CUSTOMS...
• WAR in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  - in international law. organized armed struggle, in which states, peoples waging a national liberation struggle, etc. can take part. ...
• WAR in the Directory of Characters and Cult Objects of Greek Mythology:
  
• WAR in the Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology:
  The Celts were warlike tribe. This is clearly shown by the materials of archaeological excavations. Shields, swords, spears are often found in...
• WAR in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  
• WAR in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  “When applied to wars,” V.I. Lenin pointed out, “the main position of dialectics... is that “war is simply...
• WAR V Encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Euphron:
  armed struggle between states, peoples or hostile parties in the same state, taking place in the form of restoration, preservation...
• WAR in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  , -s, pl. wars, wars, wars, w. 1. Armed struggle between states or peoples, between classes within a state. To be in …
• WAR
  THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE OF THE SPANISH COLONIES IN AMERICA 1810-26. Began with uprisings mainly. adm. centers - Caracas, Buenos Aires, Bogota, etc. ...
• WAR in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  NORTH AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1775-83, will liberate. war 13 eng. colonies, during which an independent state was created - the USA. ...
• WAR in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  WAR, organized by armed forces. the struggle between states, nations (peoples), social groups. V. within the country for the state. power called civil war. ...
• WAR in the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia:
  ? armed struggle between states, peoples or hostile parties in the same state, taking place in the form of reconstruction, ...
• WAR in the Complete Accented Paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
  war", wars, wars, wars, wars, wars, wars, wars, wars, wars, wars, wars, ...
• WAR in the Dictionary of epithets:
  About just wars. Great, national, protective (obsolete), popular, liberating, reciprocal, patriotic, righteous, sacred, fair. About unjust wars. Adventurous, aggressive, gangster, ...
• WAR in the Anagram Dictionary.
• WAR in the Dictionary for solving and composing scanwords:
  Card…
• WAR in the Thesaurus of Russian Business Vocabulary:
  
• WAR in the Russian Language Thesaurus:
  ‘an activity aimed at overcoming, destroying something’ Syn: struggle, battle (strengthened), military action, collision Ant: ...
• WAR in Abramov's Dictionary of Synonyms:
  struggle, struggle; collision; campaign, campaign, invasion, blockade, bombing. War: internal, external, newspaper, bloody, internecine, sea, land, offensive, defensive, partisan, customs. ...
• WAR in the Russian Synonyms dictionary:
  ares, athena, bellona, ​​blitzkrieg, struggle, abuse, gazavat, guerrilla, jihad, mars, radio war, army, holy, hazavat, ...
• WAR in the New Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
  and. 1) a) Armed struggle, fighting between tribes, peoples, states, etc. b) transfer A fight that uses means...
• WAR in Lopatin’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  war, -`s, plural. war,...
• WAR in Ozhegov’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  fight, hostile relationship with someone or something Declare war on the swindlers. war is an armed struggle between states or peoples, between classes within a state Located ...
• WAR in Dahl's Dictionary:
  wives (war, to fight, to beat, massacre, to fight, as probably a boyar, and a governor or war leader), discord and military combat between ...
• WAR in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
  organized armed struggle between states, nations (peoples), and social groups. In war, the armed forces are used as the main and decisive means, and ...
• WAR V Explanatory dictionary Russian language Ushakov:
  wars, many wars, w. Armed struggle between states or social classes; opposite world. Wage war. War broke out. To declare a war. Franco-Prussian...
• ALLIED WAR 357-355 BC in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  war 357-355 BC e., the war of the members of the Second Athenian Maritime League (Chios, Rhodes, Byzantium, etc.) against Athenian hegemony. Having collected...

Allied War(otherwise Martian , according to the Marsi tribe - one of its most important participants) - between the Romans and their Italian allies, who sought the right to Roman citizenship (91-87-80 BC). Since the formation of the vast Roman power, the position of the allies worsened compared to full-fledged Roman citizens. The latter benefited from the new position of the state much more than the allies, who made the same, if not more, heavy military sacrifices as the Romans when conquering provinces, but did not have access to profitable positions, did not have the right to receive land plots, bread at a reduced price, rights of eviction in colonies, etc. Further, displeasure among the allies was caused by the severity of Roman military law and its arbitrary application by Roman military leaders (the allies did not have the same personal guarantees as citizens); Finally, the Italics were outraged by the arrogant treatment of the Roman magistrates and even ordinary citizens towards them, even their highest magistrates. The legal equalization of the allies was required both by simple justice and by the correctly understood highest state interests of the dominant community itself, especially since over time, thanks to many connections with Rome, the internal fusion of the allies with the Romans made rapid progress. And since in many allied regions, the small wealthy peasantry that had disappeared in Rome also remained, the leaders of the democratic party in Rome, Fulvius Flaccus and G. Gracchus, based on the desire to refresh and strengthen Roman citizenship with a surge of fresh forces, proposed to give full citizenship rights to citizens Latin and Italian allied communities. Although their plan failed, these demands were so urgent that about 30 years later they were again put forward in Rome, but this time not by the democrats, but by a representative of the nobility, Livius Drusus. The allies, like many more far-sighted representatives of Roman society, actively supported Livi Drusus, and to achieve his goal, an extensive secret society was formed, the members of which were bound by an oath to the leader. But in 91, Livius Drusus was killed by his political opponents, and then the allies, having lost hope of achieving equality through legal means, decided to take up arms. The first outbreak occurred in Picenum, in the city of Asculum, where the praetor Q. Servilius, having learned about the suspicious relations of the Asculumians with neighboring communities, addressed the citizens of Asculum with threats, which caused an explosion of indignation, the victims of which were the praetor himself and the Romans who were in the city. The Italians turned to the Senate demanding the granting of citizenship rights, but the Senate rejected it. Under the influence of the uprising in Rome, the irreconcilable party decisively gained the upper hand, one of whose representatives, Tribune Qu. Varius, passed a resolution on the formation of a special judicial commission to prosecute those involved in the Drusus case. The allies saw that they could rely solely on the force of arms, and the Northern War began. Most of the rebels belonged to the Sabella tribe (Marsi, Peligni, Samnites, Hirpini, Marrucini, Vespigni, Frentani, Picenti, Lucanians, etc.). First of all, the allies had to create a common structure and government during the struggle. In the main city of the union, “Italica” (that was the name of Corfinium, located in the country of the Peligni), a Senate of 500 people and a people’s assembly were created according to the Roman model, 2 consuls and other magistrates were elected. The consuls of the union were Mars Kv. Pompedius Silo and the Samnite D. Papius Mutilus. Allied military operations were greatly hampered by the existence of Roman and Latin colonies in the rebel regions that remained loyal to Rome; they were ready-made strongholds for the Roman armies and slowed down the relations between the Northern troops. The allied forces were approximately equal in number to the Roman forces and reached up to one hundred thousand. But on the side of Rome there were the forces of the provinces (for example, in the Roman armies there were Numidians and many Romanized Cisalpine Gauls), a proven organization, a central position. The war began in the winter of 91 BC unhappily for the Romans, and for almost the entire first year things went badly for them. The theater of military operations stretched over a vast space, from Picenum in the north through the lands of the Vestini, Polygni, Marsi, through Samnium and Campania to Apulia and Lucania in the south inclusive, i.e., it covered almost all of Italy in the Roman sense, except for Umbria and Etruria, where the movement penetrated late and where it was very weak. The allies began by laying siege to the Latin colonies scattered among them. Alba, which lies near Lake Fucinus, was besieged (by Pompedius Silo), Ezernia in Samnium (by Panius Mutilus), then Venusia, and others. Therefore, the Romans had to split their forces into several detachments. The attempt of the Roman consul Lucius Julius Caesar from Campania to come to the aid of Ezernia failed, and in carrying it out, Caesar was twice defeated by the praetors of the union, Vettius Cato and Marius Egnatius, and suffered heavy losses. The attempt of Caesar's legate Licinius Crassus from the same Campaign to go to Lucania was also unsuccessful (he was defeated by Lamponius). Then the Samnites, under the leadership of Papias Mutilus, entered Campania and captured a number of cities here, of which one of the most important was Nola, where the garrison went over to the side of the allies, and the Roman commanders were executed. Herculaneum, Pompeii, Stabiae, Salerno also fell into their hands, in addition to Liternum and Minturni. When Papias Mutilus besieged Atcerra, Caesar moved from Teanum to help them. Although he was unable to fulfill his task (thanks to the betrayal of the Numidians), he repulsed their attack on his camp with great damage to the enemies. This was the first real success of the Romans, and the news of it was greeted with enthusiasm in Rome. But this success did not compensate for the failures suffered by the Romans: Ezernia surrendered at the end of the first year of the war, Campania and Apulia were in the hands of enemies. At the same time, military operations were going just as badly for the Romans in the country of the Mars, where another Roman consul, Publius Rutilius Lupus, set himself the task of liberating the besieged Alba. On the banks of the Tolenusa River, Vettius Cato defeated his army, and up to 8 thousand Romans fell, including the mortally wounded consul (in June 90). After this, the post of commander-in-chief of the Roman forces was taken by the famous winner of Jugurtha, the Cimbri and the Teutones, Marius, and he somewhat improved the position of the Romans, but his comrade Qu. Caepio fell into an ambush prepared by Pompedius Silo, was defeated and died along with most of his squad. With the assistance of Sulla (who belonged to the southern army), Mari managed to inflict a strong defeat on the Mars, but soon Mari left for Rome. In Picenum, the Romans were led by Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (father of Pompey “the Great”). He besieged Asculum, but was defeated and forced to retire to Firmum, where he was in turn besieged. But when Sulpicius came to his aid, the Romans from both sides moved towards the enemies and defeated them, and the leader of the Italics, Laphrenius, fell. The failures of the Romans began to shake the loyalty of the Etruscans and Umbrians, who at first kept aloof from the uprising, and the Romans had to send troops there too (under the command of Cato and Plautius). The position of Rome became even more difficult because confusion began outside Italy, in Spain, in Gaul, in Asia. The plans of Mithridates of Pontus, who threatened Roman dominance in Asia Minor, were especially dangerous. Then, in order to ensure continued loyalty to Rome on the part of communities that were still aloof from the uprising and wavering, the consul of 90 L. Julius Caesar passed a law granting citizenship rights to all Latin and other allied communities that remained loyal to Rome. Thanks to this concession, the movement in Etruria, Umbria and among some Latin communities was immediately paralyzed. Passed at the very end of the same 90 or at the beginning of the next 89, the Plautian-Papirian law extended the granting of citizenship rights to those who had already rebelled and who laid down their arms within 60 days. This concession also brought disintegration among those who had already taken up arms against Rome, satisfying the demand made by the Allied embassy to the Senate before the start of the war. But these new citizens had to cast votes in only 8 tribes out of 35, which reduced their political role in the Roman comitia to almost zero. Probably, mainly the influence of the Yuliev and Papirian-Plavtian laws explains the sharp change in military happiness, which turned sharply in 89 to the side of the Romans. Back in the winter from 90 to 89, the Mars made an attempt to kindle the unrest that was beginning in Etruria and sent a 15,000-strong detachment there. But thanks to the concessions of Rome, the Etruscans and Umbrians did not support the Marsi, whose army was defeated and almost all destroyed by the consul Gnaeus Pompey Strabo. Then Pompey invaded from the north into the country of the Marsi, Peligni and Vestini, while another consul of 89, M. Porcius Cato, who took the place of Marius, entered the same regions from the west. Cato inflicted several defeats on the enemies, but was soon killed. His place was taken by the legate Sulpicius, who also acted quite successfully. After these successes in the middle theater of war, Gnaeus Pompey himself could stand at the head of the Roman forces besieging Asculum. Judacilius's plan to liberate his hometown by simultaneous attack on the Romans from outside and from the city failed, the Romans gained the upper hand due to their numerical superiority, and Yudacilius, who penetrated into the city, soon saw that further resistance was impossible and committed suicide. Having taken Asculum, the Romans brutally punished its inhabitants. At the same time, the struggle in the south took a favorable turn for the Romans, where Sulla appeared as the main hero. With the help of the fleet, the Romans re-established themselves in Campania, where they took Stabia, Herculaneum (with the help of Minucius Magius, who defected to the Romans) and some other coastal cities, but strong Nola held out. After these successes, Sulla invaded the interior mountainous regions, took Compsa and Eclanum (in the country of the Hirpines), and destroyed the latter city. Having moved to Samnium, he defeated Papias Mutilus and took Bovianum, a point especially important because the capital of the Italics was moved here after the capture of Corfinium by the Romans. Now the allies had to move it to Ezernia. The Romans also achieved a number of successes in Apulia and Lucania, where they were led by Cosconius and then Qu. Metellus Pius. They took Larinum, Ausculum, then Venusia (88), in which Metellus captured over 3 thousand prisoners. In Samnium, the successes of Pompedius Silo (he returned Bovianum) were paralyzed by the subsequent defeat, which cost the Italians six thousand killed. Soon Pompedius Silo himself fell. In general, the S. war was over and the forces of the Italians were broken, although resistance still held out in Samnium, in the Lucanian-Brettian districts, in Nola, Ezernia and some other fortresses. The internal unrest that broke out in Rome, the struggle of parties, the rivalry between Sulla and Marius gave the Italians the opportunity to hold out for several more years. When Sulla went to Asia against Mithridates, the Senate, wanting to acquire military assistance against the Marians from the allies who were still fighting, continued the operation of the Plautian-Papirian law, that is, it granted full citizenship rights to all who laid down arms. But the Samnites made other demands, which the Senate did not consider possible to satisfy. Then Marius and Cinna promised the Samnites to fulfill their demands, as a result of which the Samnite troops joined them. So the S. war became intertwined with the internal struggle of Roman political parties. In 84, Cinna gave new citizens rights equal to old citizens, destroying the regulations regarding their assignment to only 8 tribes. When Sulla returned from the East, the Samnites, who sided with the Marians, turned out to be his most dangerous opponents, and the victory over them before the Collin Gate of Rome (November 1, 82) cost him terrible efforts. Now Sulla decided to finally break the resistance of the Samnites and entered Samnium. The Samnites had to clear Nola, their leader Papias Mutilus committed suicide. Sulla destroyed Ezernia and turned the country into a desert. Despite the military triumph of Rome, the result of the struggle was the legal unification of all native free inhabitants of Italy, all of whom became citizens of Rome. But this result was achieved at the cost of terrible devastation throughout Italy. Wed. Kiene: "Bundesgenossenkrieg".