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Grammatical categories, grammatical meanings and grammatical forms. The grammatical meaning of the word and methods of its formation

Grammatical meaning

The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values are:

1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, so it characterizes only a specific word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of words such as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.

2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).

So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun wolf in the sentence I would have gnawed out bureaucracy (M.) as a wolf expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine, singular, instrumental case(meaning of comparison: `like a wolf, like a wolf`). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc.

The categorical meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (particularly categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animation ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.

The grammatical meaning always accompanies the lexical meaning, but the lexical meaning does not always accompany the grammatical meaning.

For example: ocean - person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical meaning - noun, singular, ip) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings

In Russian morphology there are different ways expressions of grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.

In the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, stola; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - alternating sounds and stress (die - die; oils - special oils), as well as suppletive, i.e. formations from different roots (person - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with an alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).

With the analytical method, grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).

With a mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person is expressed by a pronoun and ending (I will come).

Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: a verb has an ending - ut expresses person, number, and mood [Internet resource 6].

A grammatical category is a set of opposed to each other morphological forms with general grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - you write - writes indicate a person and are therefore combined into the verbal grammatical category of person; the forms wrote - I am writing - I will write express time and form the category of time, the word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of the number of objects, they are combined into the category of number, etc. We can also say that grammatical categories are formed private morphological paradigms. Grammatical categories in general have three features.

1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems. The number of members opposed to each other in a grammatical category is predetermined by the structure of the language and in general (in a synchronous section) does not vary. Moreover, each member of the category can be represented by one or several single-functional forms. Thus, the grammatical category of number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by plural forms (tables, books, feathers). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, a verb has three persons, two types, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined differently, which in fact is not related to the volume of the category, but to the assessment of its components. So, in nouns there are 6, 9, 10 and large quantity cases. However, this only reflects different methods of highlighting cases. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system in it is regulated existing types declination.

2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: writing means the first person, writing means the second, writing means the third; table, book, feather indicate the singular, and tables, books, feathers indicate plural, big is masculine, big is feminine, and big is neuter, the shape big does not indicate gender.

3) The forms that form morphological categories must be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of a grammatical category). This required condition to highlight a grammatical category. Without this commonality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the opposition of transitive and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on general content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories identified in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].

Significant and functional parts of speech

Parts of speech are the main grammatical classes of words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.

Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features:

1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called subverbal (for example, for all nouns the meaning of objectivity);

2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation similarity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.

In modern Russian, independent and auxiliary parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.

Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent parts of a sentence and carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.

Within independent parts of speech, fully significant and incompletely significant words are contrasted. Full-nominal words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and incompletely significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only point to objects, phenomena, signs without naming them.

Another distinction within the framework of independent parts of speech is important: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as inflected parts of speech (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .

Functional parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent parts of a sentence and usually do not have verbal stress.

Interjections (ah!, hurray!, etc.) are neither independent nor auxiliary parts of speech; they constitute a special grammatical category of words. Interjections express (but do not name) the speaker’s feelings [Lekant 2007: 243-245].

Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles and grounds for identifying parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. Firstly, such grounds are the syntactic properties of the word. Some words are included in the grammatical structure of a sentence, others are not. Some of those included in the grammatical composition of a sentence are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, it is essential morphological characteristics words: their changeability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.

Based on what has been said, all words of the Russian language are divided into those included in the grammatical composition of the sentence and those not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them, significant and auxiliary words stand out.

Significant words are independent parts of a sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, state category.

Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among the significant words, on the morphological basis of changeability-immutability, names and verbs stand out, on the one hand, and adverbs and the category of state, on the other.

The last two categories - adverbs and the category of state - differ in their syntactic function (adverbs serve mainly as adverbs, the category of state - as a predicate impersonal offer: “I’m sad because you’re having fun” (L.), as well as the fact that, unlike adverbs, words of the category of state are able to control (“I’m sad”, “you’re having fun”; “How fun, having shod with sharp iron on your feet, Sliding along the mirror of standing, smooth rivers!" - P.).

Function words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (being part of the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not members of the proposal. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.

These include prepositions, conjunctions and particles. In this case, prepositions serve to express the relationship of the noun to other words, conjunctions establish a connection between the members of the sentence and the parts complex sentence. Particles participate in the formation of some verb forms, in the construction of a certain type of sentence (for example, interrogative). Words that are not part of the grammatical structure of a sentence include modals, interjections and onomatopoeia.

Modal words (perhaps, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the speaker’s attitude to the content of the utterance. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (ah, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeias are words that convey sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like function words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].

The term grammar is used in two meanings.
1) Grammar as a set of means, methods and rules for constructing phrases and sentences;
2) Grammar is the study of these means, methods, rules with the help of which you can create phrases and sentences in a particular language.

Grammar in the first meaning is synonymous with the concept of the grammatical structure of a language.
Grammar consists of several aspects:
1. Word formation (derivatology) - deals with the study of the formation of new words according to existing models in the language, the structure of derivative words that strictly obey certain rules. Word formation occupies an intermediate position between vocabulary and grammar.
2. Morphology - studies the laws of changing words as parts of speech, as well as the categories inherent in a particular part of speech.
3. Syntax (translated from Greek as “military formation”) explores Various types combinations of words, relationships between words in a phrase and a sentence, finally, a sentence as a whole, different kinds and types of offers.

2. Word form and its grammatical meaning

The subject of studying grammar, like vocabulary, is the word.
But lexicology studies the lexical word - lexeme, and grammar studies grammatical word- word form, word form.
A word form is a grammatical modification of the same word - a lexeme. This means that word forms have different grammatical, but the same lexical meaning (I sing, I sing, I sing; cat, cat, cat). Different lexemes can have the same grammatical meaning, but their own lexical meaning. Thus, the words window, tree, lake have the same grammatical meaning (they express the objectivity and meaning of the neuter gender of the noun).
Lexical and grammatical meanings are thus the two main types of meanings inherent in language.

3. On the position of grammar in the language system

The interaction of grammar with vocabulary can be illustrated by the following example. What can an idea express, expressed in such a series of words: we, feel, soldier, hurt, for, alive, Tanya, and, what, threaten, danger. In this example, it is difficult to even guess what the words together mean. Meanwhile, in M. Gorky’s story “26 and One” we read: “We felt that the soldier had been touched to the quick and that Tanya was in danger.” Consequently, in order to express a thought, one must not only understand the semantics of individual words, but also understand what connections they enter into with each other in the very process of expressing thoughts. Our thought, as it were, takes on a certain form, which turns out to be closely connected with it. Grammar, by establishing grammatical relationships between words, does not mechanically unite them. It is not indifferent to those real semantic connections that exist between words in a given language. Not every word can be connected by grammar with any other word of a given language.
A strong word is a true, indestructible word, while a strong word is a bad swear word.
Grammar is also related to phonetics. Any way of expressing grammatical meaning (which we will discuss below) is exposed to a material shell in the form of a sound or letter.
Or more specific example: at home - at home. Stress acts as the main distinguishing feature of the grammatical meaning of words. Doma has the following grammatical characteristics that form the grammatical meaning of the word: masculine noun, in the genitive case, in the singular). And at home with stress on the second syllable - a plural noun in the nominative or accusative case.

4. On the differences between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning

From a lexical point of view, the word table is understood primarily as a word that has a certain lexical meaning. From a grammatical point of view, the word table is a masculine noun in the nominative case in the singular, that is, as having certain grammatical characteristics, the totality of which forms the grammatical meaning of this word form.
One of the most important differences between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning is that grammatical meaning correlates with logical concepts, but does not correlate with objects of reality. Thus, the word “tree” in its lexical meaning is not only associated with a logical idea of an object related to flora, but also with a specific tree that the speaker has in mind. Otherwise in grammatical meaning. The same word tree as a noun is interpreted by us primarily in its categorical meaning of objectivity in the broadest sense, in contrast, for example, to the meaning of quality (which is characteristic of an adjective), or the meaning of action and state (which is characteristic of verbs).

5. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning

1. Flexion. Thus, in the phrase book of Peter, the connection between words is achieved using the ending a.
2. Function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles, auxiliary verbs) went to my brother
the leg of the table
Le livre de Pierre (French)
3. Word order acts as a typical way of expressing grammatical meaning in those languages in which there is no inflection (or few of them) and the word in the direct and indirect cases retains the same form. For example:
The man killed a tiger.
The tiger killed the man.
Word order plays a similar role in French.
4. Emphasis. For example: Arms-arms, legs-legs, cities - cities, houses - houses. In these examples, the grammatical category of number and case is conveyed by stress.
5. Intonation. Depending on whether we say students are attentive with the intonation of the statement or students are attentive with the intonation of the question, the sentence, its meaning, its grammatical design changes. Consequently, an important category of the question is conveyed here using intonation.
6. Suppletivism is the combination of words of different roots or different bases into one grammatical pair:
a) when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives: good - better, bad - worse, gut - besser, bon - meilleur.
b) when forming personal pronouns: I - me, ich - mich, I - me.
7. Reduplication (repetitions, doublings) - when a complete or partial doubling of the base occurs, for example:
a) to denote the plural in Indonesian orang (people) - orang - orang (people);
b) for education superlatives adjective in Chinese: hao (good) - hao-hao (very good, excellent).

6. Synthetic and analytical forms

The different ways of expressing grammatical meaning can be divided into two groups:
1. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning, when the lexical meaning and grammatical meaning are expressed as if together, in the same word, within a word. Form synthetic forms, for example, read, Lies!
2. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning, when the grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme form forms analytical. These forms are a combination of a significant word with a service word (preposition, particle, auxiliary verbs). For example, Let's read!
In the Russian language, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from verbs not perfect form: I will write. However, the lexical meaning of the word will be preserved in such an expression as “I will be a teacher.”
Analytical constructions are those constructions of the German language where auxiliary or modal verbs: Perfect, Futurum, Passiv. The form of expressing belonging using the preposition von is analytical: Die Bucher von meinen Freunden.

7. Inflections and word formations

The formation of forms of the same word is inflection. Inflection must be distinguished from word formation. When inflection occurs, the form of the same word changes, but a new word is not formed. When forming words with the help of affixes (suffixes and prefixes), new words are formed: teach - teacher. The totality of all forms of words (word forms) when changed forms a paradigm. If a word has a complete system of word forms, then they say that the word has a complete paradigm. If a word is not represented in all forms, then it is a partial paradigm. Most words in the Russian language have a complete paradigm, but there are also words with a partial paradigm: dreams, win, vacuum cleaner.

8. The concept of grammatical category

A grammatical category is a grammatical meaning of a generalized nature, inherent in words or combinations of words in a sentence and at the same time abstracted from specific values the words themselves.
The generalized nature of the grammatical category is manifested in the fact that a wide variety of words are “subsumed” under the singular category: the nouns bread, wheel, book, man, adjectives big, strong, intelligent, verbs do, build, write.
A wide variety of words also fall under the category of the masculine gender: the nouns bread, pencil, house, mind, adjectives big, strong, joyful, beautiful, verbs did, built, wrote.
In the Russian language, a noun is characterized by the grammatical categories of number, gender and case, and a verb - number, tense, aspect, mood, voice, person, gender.
Grammatical categories cannot exist on their own, outside of certain groupings of words. These groupings usually act as parts of speech.

9. Gender category

The category of grammatical gender is common in many languages of the world, although there are languages in which the category of grammatical gender is absent (Finnish, Armenian).
The problem of the category of gender is complicated by the fact that the grammatical category of gender, even in the languages in which it is expressed, very often does not coincide across languages.
So in Russian noun. spoon is feminine, in German - der Loffel. In Russian the hour is masculine, in German and French it is feminine - die Wache, la sentinelle.
There are languages that have a common gender, examples from the Russian language are orphan, quiet, boring, crybaby, gourmand.
For living beings, ways of differentiation within the grammatical category of gender itself in different languages very diverse:
1) using special endings: guest - guest, husband-wife, or special suffixes: actor - actress, bear - she-bear;
2) using different words(heteronymy): father-mother, brother-sister, German. Vater-Mutter, French. pere - mere.
3) Using special auxiliary words, for example. ein mannlicher Adler - eagle, ein weiblicher Adler - eagle, English. he goat - goat, she goat - goat.
4) Using only contextual clarification: whale, squirrel, monkey, magpie, shark, hippopotamus (both males and females).
The gender category is usually transparent in cases where the gender of a noun such as man - woman, bull - cow, rooster - hen is analyzed. In these cases, the category of grammatical gender is based on the biological gender of animate nouns. But the problem of grammatical gender becomes more complicated in cases where in modern languages we analyze inanimate names or try to comprehend the nature of the neuter gender. The content of inanimate nouns now does not require any gender characteristic, but grammatically this characteristic is necessary for a name in many languages. In language, due to the very great stability of the grammatical form and its abstractness, such a conflict can persist for a very long time, because the speaker usually does not notice it.

10. Number category

The category of number turns out to be transparent. Man has long distinguished between one object and many objects, and this distinction could not but find its expression in language. At the same time, the category of number can be called universal. Its universality lies in the fact that it covers not only nouns and adjectives, but also pronouns and verbs.
The category of number interacts with a certain lexical meaning of those words through which it is expressed. Let's take, for example, nouns that have a collective meaning, that is, when many objects are thought of as a single whole (game, greens, foliage, linen). These nouns usually do not form plurals. Consequently, the grammatical category of number, as if rising above individual names and uniting them, is at the same time not indifferent to the semantics of these words.

11. Case category

Case is a form of a name that expresses the relationship of the given name to other words in a phrase or sentence. Case represents the unity of form and meaning.
Compared to all other cases, the nominative seems freer, more independent. It is also called independent (Peshkovsky), zero (Kartsevsky), case devoid of special features (Yakobson). The function of the nominative case is primarily nominative, while the function of the oblique cases is to express relationships between words.
Case is a morphological category. Therefore, only in those languages in which there are forms of inflection (such as Russian table, table, table) can cases exist.
If the case system in a particular language is not developed, then the language can do without it, using other methods to express grammatical relations (prepositions, word order, and so on, see the previous lecture).

12. Parts of speech and members of a sentence

Parts of speech are lexical and grammatical groups of words that differ from each other: a) in a certain meaning, b) in certain morphological and syntactic features, c) certain grammatical categories, d) syntactic functions as part of phrases and sentences. In inflectional languages, parts of speech also differ in the types of morphology and word formation.
Specific gravity The features listed above that distinguish one part of speech from another are not the same in different languages.
In the Russian language, morphological features of parts of speech are of decisive importance and are usually identified very simply and clearly. Silk and silken are clearly distinguished as a noun and an adjective. It turns out differently in a language like English, in which the morphological distinction between nouns and adjectives is not as clearly represented as in Russian. Silk - “silk” is a noun, but in the phrase silk dress - “silk dress” it already acts as an adjective.
Parts of speech in one language are distinguished by internal heterogeneity. This is how independent (nominal) parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, numerals) and auxiliary parts (prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns) are distinguished.
Being lexical and grammatical groups or categories of words, parts of speech must be interpreted on the basis of a number of criteria in their interaction and interrelation. These are the lexical, morphological and syntactic criteria.
Syntax connects parts of speech with parts of a sentence. Sentence members are syntactic categories that arise in a sentence based on the interaction of words and phrases and reflect the relationships between the elements of the sentence. The parts of speech in the sentence system do not simply repeat themselves, but undergo a certain transformation. No matter how deep the connection between the noun and the subject, these concepts are correlated, but not identical, the same should be said about the interaction between verbs and predicate, adjective and definition.

13. Nouns and adjectives

A noun is a part of speech that expresses objectivity in the broad sense of the word. In Russian, the subjectivity of a noun is conveyed in the forms of gender, number and case.
A noun names and expresses not only objects, but also actions (running, flying), states (joy, knowledge), concepts. That is why nouns should be associated with objectivity, and not just with objects.
An adjective as a part of speech is formed from a noun. They used to say grass-green or green-grass in the sense of “green grass” or stone-wall meant “stone wall”. This juxtaposition of two nouns was used to express the idea of quality in ancient languages. Gradually, as a person became more and more aware that one of the nouns in such combinations depends on the other (in our example, greens from grass), in this dependent noun (greens), the idea of objectivity weakened more and more and the idea of quality increased. These gradual changes - the weakening of the objectivity of the first name (green) and the growth of a quality sign in it - ultimately lead to the creation of a new part of speech - the adjective. Instead of the old type of green-grass, a new one arises green grass.
Adjectives are usually of two types: qualitative and relative. From qualitative adjectives degrees of comparison are formed, since quality in an object may be present to a greater or lesser extent. Degrees of comparison are not formed from relative adjectives, because the relation is not thought of qualitatively, it is either given or it is not. Consequently, for the classification of adjectives into qualitative and relative, their semantics is very important.
In the process of long-term development of language and thinking, a modern system of comparison was gradually developed.
Methods of forming degrees of comparison.
In the majority modern languages degrees of comparison are conveyed either inflectively, using endings, or lexically (analytically) using special “intensifying” words.
Beautiful - more beautiful - most beautiful (very beautiful).
A special type of formation of degrees of comparison is the so-called suppletive method (from the Latin suppleo, ere - I fill).
Good - best - best.
Good - better - best
Gut-besser- am besten.
Using reduplication: big - big, small - small.

14. Pronouns as a special part of speech

A pronoun is a part of speech that indicates persons, objects and their characteristics, but does not name them.
This is a completely special part of speech, since the pronoun combines into one class grammatical features that are individually characteristic of the most diverse parts of speech. Personal pronouns are used in parallel with nouns (for example, I am a person), possessive pronouns with adjectives (my is good), and indefinite pronouns with adverbs (someone is far away). In the category of pronouns properties appear and intersect different parts speech.
The originality of pronouns is also revealed in the fact that many traditional grammatical categories acquire special meaning in the system of pronouns. The pronouns we and you, for example, cannot be considered as the plural of “I” and “you”, since they do not indicate many I and you, but the person speaking together with another person or persons (we), or the person of the interlocutor jointly with another person or persons (you). So the relationship between I - we, you - you turns out to be different from the relationship between table and tables.

15. Verb and verbal categories of tense, aspect and mood

A verb is a part of speech that names actions (work, build, draw) or represents various processes in the form of an action - a state, a manifestation of a characteristic, an attitude towards someone or something (hope, worry, grumble, love, blush, doze, stand, grow, respect).
The concept of a predicate (predicate) is much broader than the concept of a verb. Predicativity (predicability) can be expressed by various parts of speech, for example, by a noun. For example, he is an officer. Despite the fact that predicativity is conveyed in different ways, the verb is still the main means of its expression, especially in Indo-European languages. In other words, predicativity is the primary function of the verb in a sentence, while in other parts of speech it acts as an auxiliary means, as their secondary function.
No matter how deep the difference between nouns and verbs seems now, historically it did not take shape immediately. The presence in the language of a special category of participle, which can perform in a sentence the function of a name - a definition and the function of a predicate, indirectly testifies to the remnants of that era in the development of language, when the verb was not yet sufficiently separated from the name.

Time category

Time category. This category appears to be the most typical verb category (in German the verb is called Zeitwort). The grammatical category of time shows how the speaker determines the temporal relationship of the utterance to the moment of speech. Everything that happened before the moment of speech belongs to the past tenses in grammar, and what will happen after the moment of speech belongs to the future, and finally, everything that happens at the moment of speech belongs to the present tense in grammar.
The aspect category is one of the most ancient categories of the verb, but at the same time it is not known in all languages. In Russian, as in other Slavic languages, the category of aspect is older than the category of time. Temporal distinctions subsequently began to overlap with specific oppositions.
The difference between the present and future tenses originally consisted only in the aspectual meaning of the verb. If the verb was of a perfect form, then the forms of its present tense acquired the meaning of the future tense (for example, I will say or will say), but if the verb turns out to be of an imperfect form, then the forms of its present tense did not differ in meaning from the tense itself (for example, I say or speaks). Thus, perfective verbs were not used in the present tense, and imperfective verbs could only have a descriptive future (I will say), but not a simple future.
The division of the species into perfect and imperfect is very general and does not cover the entire wealth of types and groupings. We can talk about different degrees of perfection of an action and different degrees of its imperfection.
Within the perfective form they distinguish: final (read, say, remove), initial (sing, speak), instantaneous (blink, sigh) and a number of other sub-meanings. Within the imperfective form - the duration of the first degree (carry, lead), the duration of the second degree (carry, drive), the duration of the third degree (read, walk).
Aspectual pairs of verbs in the Russian language usually arise by forming imperfective verbs from perfective verbs: throw (sov. view) - throw (non-sov. view), deprive (sov. view) - deprive (nesov. view).
Being important grammatical categories of the verb, aspect and tense, like other categories, rise, although each in its own way, to a certain level of abstraction. To express the present tense, for example, not only the present itself is used, but sometimes also the future (“I’m going south tomorrow” in the sense of “I’ll go”) and even the past (“Your little head is missing” in the sense of “Will be lost”). Consequently, although the present, past and future are quite grammatically demarcated, the possibility of “invasion” of one time into the area of another is determined by the peculiar conditions of the context. Grammatical concept about time turns out to be broader than the logical idea of it. Therefore, the present tense can, in certain cases, convey the idea of time in general, without reference to the moment of the action (“They work perfectly,” they generally work, they always work perfectly).

Grammatical category of mood.

The grammatical category of mood conveys the attitude of the action to reality established by the speaker and shows whether the speaker considers the action to be real or unreal.
Indeed, one can say: I am writing; I am undoubtedly writing; I will write; I would write; I might write; I really want to write.
In all these cases, we express our attitude to action differently. I write simply asserts, I undoubtedly write categorically asserts, I would write puts forward certain conditions, the observance of which turns out to be necessary in order for me to write, I, perhaps, will write - to an even greater extent makes the action dependent on some then conditions, etc.
It is necessary from the very beginning to distinguish between grammatical and lexical ways of expressing modality.
I would write - here the modality is expressed grammatically, whereas in I, perhaps, I will write or I, really, will write - the modality is expressed lexically (with the help of independent words, perhaps, indeed). Consequently, grammatical modality is conveyed not only morphologically, by special endings, but also syntactically (analytically) by special grammatical descriptive constructions (in Russian, by verb forms starting with -l + by). As for lexical modality, it is expressed by a wide variety of so-called modal words and phrases (certainly, really, perhaps, apparently, in all likelihood).

16. Syntax: sentence and phrase, their relationship

A sentence is an integral unit of speech, grammatically formed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts.
Main characteristic features offers:
1) not only a thought is expressed, but also the attitude of the speaker himself to this thought is conveyed; 2) there is a special intonation of the message; 3) predicativeness consists, that is, the relationship of the message to reality, regardless of whether this message contains a verb or not.
Even without going beyond the boundaries of one language, you can trace how the structure of sentences has historically changed over the centuries. In the Old Russian language, syntactic composition (parataxis) prevailed over subordination (hypotaxis). The movement from syntactic composition to subordination is due to the general development of thinking, the desire of a person to more fully and comprehensively express the diversity of his thoughts. In turn, the increasing strength and diversity of thinking were ultimately predetermined by the increasing diversity of human practice and deepening knowledge of the surrounding world.
As a result of long-term historical development In the Russian language, a harmonious system of coordinating and subordinating connections has been developed.

Collocation

A phrase is a grammatically formed unity of two or more independent (significant) words that do not form a sentence.
In the room or in the air also represent a combination of two words, however, such connections are not phrases, since one of the words in each pair is not independent, but auxiliary. The phrase is based on the unity of not only structural (formal) but also semantic aspects.
Phrases can be nominal (peace supporters, White snow, clear sky), verbal (to achieve success), adverbial (to sing loudly, to stand motionless). Such a classification of phrases is complicated by the semantic similarity between phrases located in different structural groups. For example, the verb phrase admire whom or what is clearly close to the noun phrase admiration for whom or what.

On the relationship between sentences and phrases.

Some linguists (Fortunatov) believed that there is no difference between a sentence and a phrase, that a sentence is nothing more than an expanded phrase.
In fact, a sentence is qualitatively different from a phrase, just as a phrase is from a sentence. A phrase is also not an “intermediate group” between a word and a sentence. A sentence can also consist of one word. (It’s getting light. I’m working). To form a phrase, you always need at least two full-valued words. Consequently, the difference between a phrase and a sentence is not quantitative (more or fewer words), but qualitative (the uniqueness of the structures and what is expressed with the help of these structures). A phrase is usually devoid of those features that turn a statement into a sentence and the features of which were discussed above.

Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of a word

MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF GRAMMAR

Subject of morphology

Morphology and syntax are two sections of grammar, the subject of study of which is grammatical meaning and forms of expression of this meaning. If at the level of syntax the forms of expression of grammatical meaning are phrases and sentences, then at the level of morphology - word forms, i.e. individual forms of a specific word (table, table, table etc.).

Morphology studies words in their grammatical forms and functions, the rules for changing words, and determines the range of correlative grammatical meanings that make up one or another grammatical category.

Morphology also includes the study of parts of speech - the largest grammatical classes of words.

Thus, the subject of morphology is the grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), their grammatical categories, systems of word forms and the rules of their inflection.

Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of a word

The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word. If the lexical meaning correlates the sound shell of a word with reality (object, phenomenon, sign, action, etc.), then the grammatical meaning forms a specific form of the word (word form), necessary mainly to connect the given word with other words in the text.

The lexical meaning of a word is specific and individual, while the grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized. Yes, words mountain, wall, hole denote different objects and have different lexical meanings; but from the point of view of grammar, they are included in the same category of words that have the same set of grammatical meanings: objectivity, nominative case, singular, feminine, inanimate.

The indicator of the lexical meaning in a word is the stem of the word, and the grammatical meaning has special indicators: ending (window- O, beautiful- th, growth ut), formative suffix, prefix (a game- l, white- her, With-do), emphasis (neg e shut up- cut A t), phoneme alternation (sl. ah at- sl cool it), function word (will play, O coat) and etc.

Usually a particular word form has several grammatical meanings. Yes, word form strong has the meaning of the nominative case, singular, feminine, and I'm reading- the meaning of the first person, singular, imperfective, indicative, present tense, etc.

Grammatical meanings are divided into general and specific. General grammatical (categorical) meaning characterizes the largest grammatical classes of words - parts of speech (objectivity - in a noun, a feature of an object - in an adjective, action as a process - in a verb, etc.). Particular grammatical meaning is characteristic of individual forms of words (meanings of number, case, person, mood, tense, etc.).

The general grammatical meaning of a word consists of a set of particular grammatical meanings. For example, the meaning of the objectivity of a noun is made up of the particular grammatical meanings of gender, number and case. In other words, if a word has meanings of gender, number and case independent of the words combined with it, then it has the meaning of objectivity and, therefore, it belongs to the class of nouns.

The bearer of grammatical meaning at the word level is a single form of the word - word form. The set of all word forms of the same word is called paradigm. The paradigm of a word, depending on its grammatical characteristics, can consist of either one word form (adverb rashly), and from several word forms (noun paradigm house consists of 12 word forms).

Grammatical meaning– this is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms. In the field of morphology it is general values words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns, procedurality in verbs), as well as the particular meanings of word forms and words in general. The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning.

Unlike the lexical meaning characteristic of a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have multiple grammatical meanings, which are found when a word changes its grammatical form while maintaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word stol has a number of forms (stola, stola, tables, etc.) that express the grammatical meanings of number and case.

If lexical meaning is associated with a generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words.

For example, the words cow and bull exist to distinguish between animals based on their biological sex. Gender forms group nouns according to their grammatical properties. The shapes table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them).

1) grammatical meanings are not universal, are less numerous, and form a closed, more clearly structured class.

2) grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “forced” order. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of number of a verb, an English speaker cannot “evade” the category of definiteness of a noun, etc.

3) lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of the methods and means of their formal expression.

4) grammatical meanings may not have full correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (for example, the categories of number and tense usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while the feminine gender of a noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed using various grammatical means. The grammatical meaning expressed using the grammatical means of the language is called a grammatical category.

All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech– the main lexical and grammatical categories into which words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n t a c h e c o g o (syntactic functions of a word)

. The classification of Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most substantiated and convincing. It divides all words into four grammatical-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:

1. Name words, or parts of speech;

2. Connectives, function words, or particles of speech;

3. Modal words;

4. Interjections.

1. Name words (parts of speech) denote objects, processes, qualities, characteristics, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech of V.V. Vinogradov classifies nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words into the category of state; they are also accompanied by pronouns.

2. Function words are deprived of a nominative (nominative) function. These include connective and function words (prepositions, conjunctions, actual particles, connectives).

3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a denomination function, but are more “lexical” than function words. They express the speaker's attitude towards the content of the utterance.

4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words by their lack of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive tests.

In modern Russian there are 10 parts of speech: 1) noun,

2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) state category, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) conjunction, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech )[i]. The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of a sentence. A special place among them is occupied by pronouns, including words that lack a denominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a denomination function and do not act as independent members of a sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, in modern Russian there are special groups words: 1) modal words expressing the attitude of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections, which serve to express feelings and expression of will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow

Independent (nominative) parts of speech include words naming objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions about independent words, and in a sentence significant words are members of the sentence.

The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:

Part of speech	Questions	Examples
Noun	Who? What?	Boy, uncle, table, wall, window.
Verb	what to do? what to do?	To saw, to saw, to know, to find out.
Adjective	Which? whose?	Nice, blue, mom's, door.
Numeral	How many? which?	Five, five, five.
Adverb	How? When? Where? and etc.	Fun, yesterday, close.
Pronoun	Who? Which? How many? How? and etc.	I, he, so, my, so much, so, there.
Participle	Which? (what is he doing? what has he done? etc.)	Dreaming, dreaming.
Participle	How? (doing what? doing what?)	Dreaming, deciding.

Notes

1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech. Some researchers classify them as independent parts of speech, others consider them special forms of the verb. Participle and gerund really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and forms of the verb.

Functional parts of speech- these are words that do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them.

Functional words cannot be questioned.
Function words are not parts of the sentence.
Function words serve independent words, helping them connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
TO service units speeches in Russian include the following

pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
union (and, but, however, because, so that, if);
particle (would, whether, not, even, exactly, only).

6. Interjections occupy a special position among parts of speech.

Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use interjections such as ah, oh, uh; to express the feeling of cold - br-r, to express fear or pain – Ouch etc.

Independent parts of speech have a nominative function (they name objects, their characteristics, actions, states, quantity, signs of other characteristics or indicate them), have a system of forms and are members of the sentence in a sentence.

Functional parts of speech do not have a nominative function, are unchangeable and cannot be members of a sentence. They serve to connect words and sentences and to express the speaker's attitude towards the message.

Ticket number 8

Noun

The significant part of speech, which includes words with an objective meaning that have a gender category, change according to cases and numbers and act as any member in a sentence.

The basic unit of grammar is the grammatical category. The word category denotes a generic (general) concept in relation to specific (particular) concepts. For example, the name dog will be a category in relation to the names of specific breeds - shepherd, terrier, dachshund.

The grammatical category unites grammatical forms with uniform grammatical meaning. A set of homogeneous and opposed grammatical forms of a particular language is called a paradigm. For example, the grammatical category (paradigm) of case in modern Russian consists of six forms with grammatical meanings: nominative, genitive, etc. cases; The grammatical category of case in English includes two forms - nominative and possessive (genitive with the meaning of belonging) cases.

Grammatical meaning is a generalized meaning inherent in a whole series of words or syntactic constructions and expressed by regular (standard) means. Grammatical meanings, according to grammatical categories, are morphological and syntactic.

In a word, grammatical meanings are a mandatory addition to the lexical ones. The differences between them are as follows:

a) lexical meaning is inherent in a specific word, grammatical meaning is inherent in a number of words.

b) lexical meaning is associated with realities - objects, signs, processes, states, etc. The grammatical meaning indicates 1) the relationship between objects and phenomena (gender, number, case); 2) on the relationship of the content of the statement to reality (mood, tense, person); 3) on the speaker’s attitude to the statement (narration, question, motivation, as well as subjective assessments - confidence / uncertainty, categoricalness / conjecture).

c) lexical meaning is always meaningful. In a sense, the exception is words with a emptied lexical meaning. They are called desemantized. The word girl defines female representatives of the age of approximately 15-25 years, and as an address it is used in relation to much more mature saleswomen, conductors, cashiers, etc. IN in this case the word girl does not indicate age, but indicates the professional status of the addressee.

The grammatical meaning is purely formal, i.e. having no prototype in reality itself. For example, the gender of inanimate nouns is stream – river – lake; Spanish el mundo ‘peace’, fr. le choux ‘cabbage’ (m.r.); neuter gender of animate nouns – Russian. child, child; Bulgarian momche ‘boy’, momiche ‘girl’, kuche ‘dog’; German das Mädchen ‘girl’. An analogue of formal grammatical meanings are words with empty denotations (goblin, Atlantis, etc.).

Grammatical form is the external (formal) side of a linguistic sign, in which a certain grammatical meaning is expressed. Grammatical form is a representative of a grammatical paradigm. If a language has a certain grammatical category, then the name will always have one or another grammatical form. When describing linguistic facts, they usually say this: a noun in the genitive case, a verb in the indicative mood, etc. Grammatical form is the unity of grammatical meaning and the material means of its expression.

Grammatical meaning can be expressed in two ways: synthetically (within the word) and analytically (outside the word). Within each method there are various means expressions of grammatical meanings.

Synthetic means of expressing grammatical meanings.

1. Affixation (inflection, suffix, prefix of a species pair): mother (ip.) – mothers (r.p.); run (infinitive) – ran (past tense); did (non-sov. kind) – did (owl. look).

2. Emphasis – hands (ip.p., plural) – handsu (p.p., singular).

3. Alternation at the root (internal inflection): collect (non-sov. view) - collect (owl. view); German lesen ‘read’ – las ‘read’.

4. Reduplication – doubling of the root. In Russian, it is not used as a grammatical device (in words like blue-blue, reduplication is a semantic device). In Malay, orang ‘person’ – oran-orang ‘people’ (complete reduplication); partial reduplication – Tagalog. mabuting ‘good’ mabuting-buting ‘very good’.

5. suppletivism - the formation of word forms from another base: I - to me; good - better; German gut ‘good’ – besser ‘better’ – beste ‘best’.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed in several ways. In the formation of the perfect form in ancient Greek. τέτροφα ‘fed’ from τρέφο ‘I feed’ four means are involved at once: incomplete repetition of the stem τέ-, inflection -α, stress and alternation in the root - τρέφ / τροφ.

Analytical means of expressing grammatical meanings.

1. Actually analytical means - special grammatical means for the formation of analytical forms: teach - I will read (weekend tense); fast (positive degree) – faster ( comparative) – the fastest (superlative).

2. Means of syntactic connections - the grammatical meanings of a word are determined by the grammatical meanings of another word. For indeclinable words of the Russian language, this is the only means of expressing their grammatical gender. Indeclinable animate nouns usually belong to masculine: funny kangaroo, green cockatoo, cheerful chimpanzee. The gender of inanimate indeclinable nouns is usually determined by the generic word: harmful tsetse (fly), deep-sea Ontario (lake), sunny Sochi (city), unripe kiwi (fruit).

3. Function words - grammatical meanings are expressed through prepositions, particles or their significant absence: the highway shines (ip.) - stand by the highway (r.p.) - approach the highway (d.p.) - go onto the highway ( v.p.) – turn around on the highway (p.p.); found out (indicative mood) - would know (subjunctive mood).

4. Word order – grammatical meanings are determined by the position of a word in a sentence. In a construction with homonymous nominative and accusative cases, the first place of the word is recognized as its active role (subject), and the second - as its passive role (object): A horse sees a mouse (horse - sp., subject; mouse - v.p., object ) – The mouse sees a horse (mouse – i.p., subject horse – v.p., addition).

5. Intonation – expression of grammatical meanings with a certain intonation pattern. ↓The money went to the phone: 1) from logical stress on the word money and a pause after it; the verb went is used in the indicative mood; the meaning of the phrase “The money was spent on purchasing a telephone”; 2) with an unaccented intonation pattern, the verb went is used in the imperative mood; the meaning of the phrase “You need to put money on the phone.”

Questions and tasks for self-control:

1. What is grammar?

2. What is the difference between lexical and grammatical meaning?

3. What features does the reflection of reality in grammar have?

4. What means of expressing grammatical meanings do you know?