Kievan Rus in the 9th - 12th centuries chronology. Kievan Rus in the 9th - 12th centuries

One of the most powerful in its time was Kievan Rus. A huge medieval power arose in the 19th century as a result of the unification of East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes. During its heyday, Kievan Rus (in the 9th-12th centuries) occupied an impressive territory and had a strong army. By the middle of the 12th century, the once powerful state due to feudal fragmentation split into separate ones. Thus, Kievan Rus became easy prey for the Golden Horde, which put an end to the medieval power. The main events that took place in Kievan Rus in the 9th-12th centuries will be described in the article.

Russian Kaganate

According to many historians, in the first half of the 9th century, on the territory of the future Old Russian state, there was a state formation of the Rus. Little information has been preserved about the exact location of the Russian Kaganate. According to historian Smirnov, the state formation was located in the region between the upper Volga and Oka.

The ruler of the Russian Kaganate bore the title of Kagan. In the Middle Ages this title was very important. The Kagan ruled not only over nomadic peoples, but also commanded over other rulers different nations. Thus, the head of the Russian Kaganate acted as the emperor of the steppes.

By the middle of the 9th century, as a result of specific foreign policy circumstances, the transformation of the Russian Kaganate into the Russian Great Reign took place, which was weakly dependent on Khazaria. During the reign of Askold and Dir, it was possible to completely get rid of oppression.

Rurik's reign

In the second half of the 9th century, the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes, due to cruel enmity, called the Varangians overseas to reign in their lands. The first Russian prince was Rurik, who began to rule in Novgorod in 862. The new state of Rurik lasted until 882, when Kievan Rus was formed.

The history of Rurik's reign is full of contradictions and inaccuracies. Some historians are of the opinion that he and his squad are of Scandinavian origin. Their opponents are supporters of the West Slavic version of the development of Rus'. In any case, the name of the term “Rus” in the 10th and 11th centuries was used in relation to the Scandinavians. After the Scandinavian Varangian came to power, the title “Kagan” gave way to “Grand Duke”.

The chronicles preserve scant information about the reign of Rurik. Therefore, praising his desire to expand and strengthen state borders, as well as strengthen cities, is quite problematic. Rurik is also remembered for the fact that he was able to successfully suppress the rebellion in Novgorod, thereby strengthening his authority. In any case, the reign of the founder of the dynasty of future princes of Kievan Rus made it possible to centralize power in the Old Russian state.

Reign of Oleg

After Rurik, power in Kievan Rus was to pass into the hands of his son Igor. However, due to the early age of the legal heir, Oleg became the ruler of the Old Russian state in 879. The new one turned out to be very militant and enterprising. Already from the first years of his stay in power, he sought to take control waterway to Greece. To realize this grandiose goal, Oleg in 882, thanks to his cunning plan, dealt with the princes Askold and Dir, capturing Kyiv. Thus, the strategic task of conquering the Slavic tribes who lived along the Dnieper was solved. Immediately after entering the captured city, Oleg declared that Kyiv was destined to become the mother of Russian cities.

The first ruler of Kievan Rus really liked the advantageous location settlement. The gentle banks of the Dnieper River were impregnable to invaders. In addition, Oleg carried out large-scale work to strengthen the defense structures of Kyiv. In 883-885, a number of military campaigns took place with positive results, as a result of which the territory of Kievan Rus was significantly expanded.

Domestic and foreign policy of Kievan Rus during the reign of Oleg the Prophet

A distinctive feature of the internal policy of the reign of Oleg the Prophet was the strengthening of the state treasury through the collection of tribute. In many ways, the budget of Kievan Rus was filled thanks to extortions from conquered tribes.

The period of Oleg's reign was marked by successful foreign policy. In 907, a successful campaign against Byzantium took place. The trick of the Kyiv prince played a key role in the victory over the Greeks. The threat of destruction loomed over impregnable Constantinople after the ships of Kievan Rus were put on wheels and continued to move by land. Thus, the frightened rulers of Byzantium were forced to offer Oleg a huge tribute and provide generous benefits to the Russian merchants. After 5 years, a peace treaty was signed between Kievan Rus and the Greeks. After a successful campaign against Byzantium, legends began to form about Oleg. The Kyiv prince was credited with supernatural powers and a penchant for magic. Also, a grandiose victory in the domestic arena allowed Oleg to receive the nickname Prophetic. The Kyiv prince died in 912.

Prince Igor

After Oleg's death in 912, its legal heir, Igor, the son of Rurik, became the full-fledged ruler of Kievan Rus. The new prince was naturally distinguished by modesty and respect for his elders. That is why Igor was in no hurry to throw Oleg off the throne.

The reign of Prince Igor was remembered for numerous military campaigns. After ascending the throne, he had to suppress the rebellion of the Drevlyans, who wanted to stop obeying Kyiv. The successful victory over the enemy made it possible to take additional tribute from the rebels for the needs of the state.

The confrontation with the Pechenegs was carried out with varying success. In 941, Igor continued the foreign policy of his predecessors, declaring war on Byzantium. The cause of the war was the desire of the Greeks to free themselves from their obligations after the death of Oleg. The first military campaign ended in defeat, since Byzantium had carefully prepared. In 943, a new peace treaty was signed between the two states because the Greeks decided to avoid battle.

Igor died in November 945 while collecting tribute from the Drevlyans. The prince’s mistake was that he sent his squad to Kyiv, and he himself, with a small army, decided to profit additionally from his subjects. The indignant Drevlyans brutally dealt with Igor.

The reign of Vladimir the Great

In 980, Vladimir, the son of Svyatoslav, became the new ruler. Before taking the throne, he had to emerge victorious from a fraternal feud. However, after escaping “overseas”, Vladimir managed to gather a Varangian squad and avenge the death of his brother Yaropolk. The reign of the new prince of Kievan Rus turned out to be outstanding. Vladimir was also revered by his people.

The most important merit of the son of Svyatoslav is the famous Baptism of Rus', which took place in 988. In addition to numerous successes in the domestic arena, the prince became famous for his military campaigns. In 996, several fortress cities were built to protect the lands from enemies, one of which was Belgorod.

Baptism of Rus' (988)

Until 988, paganism flourished on the territory of the Old Russian state. However, Vladimir the Great decided to choose Christianity as the state religion, although representatives from the Pope, Islam and Judaism came to him.

The Baptism of Rus' in 988 still took place. Vladimir the Great, his close boyars and warriors, as well as ordinary people, accepted Christianity. Those who resisted leaving paganism were threatened with all kinds of oppression. Thus, the Russian Church began in 988.

Reign of Yaroslav the Wise

One of the most famous princes of Kievan Rus was Yaroslav, who was not accidentally nicknamed the Wise. After the death of Vladimir the Great, turmoil gripped the Old Russian state. Blinded by the thirst for power, Svyatopolk sat on the throne, killing 3 of his brothers. Subsequently, Yaroslav gathered a huge army of Slavs and Varangians, after which in 1016 he went to Kyiv. In 1019 he managed to defeat Svyatopolk and ascend to the throne of Kievan Rus.

The reign of Yaroslav the Wise turned out to be one of the most successful in the history of the Old Russian state. In 1036, he managed to finally unite the numerous lands of Kievan Rus, after the death of his brother Mstislav. Yaroslav's wife was the daughter of the Swedish king. Several cities and a stone wall were erected around Kyiv by order of the prince. The main city gates of the capital of the Old Russian state were called Golden.

Yaroslav the Wise died in 1054, when he was 76 years old. The reign of the Kyiv prince, 35 years long, is a golden time in the history of the Old Russian state.

Domestic and foreign policy of Kievan Rus during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise

The priority of Yaroslav's foreign policy was to increase the authority of Kievan Rus in the international arena. The prince managed to achieve a number of important military victories over the Poles and Lithuanians. In 1036 the Pechenegs were completely defeated. At the site of the fateful battle, the Church of St. Sophia appeared. During the reign of Yaroslav, a military conflict with Byzantium took place for the last time. The result of the confrontation was the signing of a peace treaty. Vsevolod, son of Yaroslav, married the Greek princess Anna.

In the domestic arena, the literacy of the population of Kievan Rus increased significantly. In many cities of the state, schools appeared in which boys were trained in church work. Various Greek books were translated into Old Slavonic language. During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, the first collection of laws was published. “Russian Truth” became the main asset of numerous reforms of the Kyiv prince.

The beginning of the collapse of Kievan Rus

What are the reasons for the collapse of Kievan Rus? Like many early medieval powers, its collapse turned out to be completely natural. An objective and progressive process took place associated with the increase in boyar land ownership. In the principalities of Kievan Rus, nobility appeared, in whose interests it was more profitable to rely on a local prince than to support a single ruler in Kyiv. According to many historians, at first territorial fragmentation was not the reason for the collapse of Kievan Rus.

In 1097, on the initiative of Vladimir Monomakh, in order to stop strife, the process of creating regional dynasties was launched. By the middle of the 12th century, the Old Russian state was divided into 13 principalities, which differed in their area, military power and cohesion.

Decline of Kyiv

In the 12th century, there was a significant decline in Kyiv, which turned from a metropolis into an ordinary principality. Largely due to the Crusades, international trade communications were transformed. That's why economic forces significantly undermined the power of the city. In 1169, Kyiv was first stormed and plundered as a result of princely strife.

The final blow to Kievan Rus was dealt by the Mongol invasion. The scattered principality did not represent a formidable force for numerous nomads. In 1240 Kyiv suffered a crushing defeat.

Population of Kievan Rus

There is no information left about the exact number of inhabitants of the Old Russian state. According to the historian, the total population of Kievan Rus in the 9th - 12th centuries was approximately 7.5 million people. About 1 million people lived in cities.

The lion's share of the inhabitants of Kievan Rus in the 9th-12th centuries were free peasants. Over time, more and more people became stinkers. Although they had freedom, they were obliged to obey the prince. The free population of Kievan Rus, due to debts, captivity and other reasons, could become servants who were powerless slaves.

The reason for the formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs in the 9th century can be attributed to the desire

provide yourself with protection from external enemies. East Slavic tribes united for protection in large super-unions, which had the features of early statehood. Eastern sources suggest the existence on the eve of the formation of the state of 3 large associations of Slavic tribes: Cuiaba, Slavia and Artania. Cuiaba was located around Kyiv, Slavia in the area of ​​Lake Ilmen with a center in Novgorod, Artania in the area of ​​Ryazan or Chernigov.

Another reason for the formation of a state among the Eastern Slavs was the natural completion of a long process of decomposition of the primitive communal system. With the advent of iron tools among the Slavs, the tribal community was replaced by a territorial one, private property appeared, as a result of which a split in society began along property lines, gradually over the course of the 6th-9th centuries power was concentrated in the hands of the tribal nobility, the preconditions for feudal relations arose, which led to the formation of statehood. Thus, as a result of economic and socio-political development, the East Slavic tribes developed statehood.

Since 862, Rurik, according to the Tale of Bygone Years, established himself in Novgorod. His brothers Sineus are on White Lake, the other Truvor is in Izborsk. Two years later the brothers died. Rurik handed over the management of the city to his associates. Two of them, Askold and Dir, occupied Kyiv, and freed the people of Kiev from the Khazar tribute, and they made the first campaign against Byzantium. After the death of Rurik in 879, Oleg (879-911) seized power in Novgorod. In 882, Oleg killed Askold and Dir and captured Kyiv. Kyiv became the center of the united state. The unification of the southern lands with Kiev and the northern ones with the center in Novgorod was the most important stage development of the ancient Russian state. If before the capture of Kyiv we can talk about the existence of statehood among the Eastern Slavs, then from that moment we can talk about the creation of the Old Russian state, which presupposed the emergence of a strong central government and governing bodies

and rights that unite the entire territory of the country.

In 907 and 911, Oleg made campaigns against Byzantium to the walls of Constantinople. As a result, treaties were concluded with the Byzantines.

These agreements were drawn up in 2 copies - in Russian and Greek languages. This confirms, firstly, that Russian writing appeared long before the adoption of Christianity,

secondly, before the appearance of “Russian Truth”, legislation was already taking shape in Rus', since the agreement mentioned the “Russian Law”, by which the inhabitants of Kievan Rus were judged.

According to these agreements, Russian merchants had the right to live at the expense of the Greeks in the city for 1 month and trade there duty-free. These agreements, beneficial for the Russian side, provided the opportunity to export tribute collected in Rus' and sell it in the markets of Byzantium. In addition, the treaties established allied relations between states. They determined the procedure and conditions for the entry of Russian warriors into Byzantine service. Thus, the Byzantine campaigns were caused mainly by the desire to establish profitable trade relations between the two states for the young power, so they usually ended with the signing of trade agreements.

Oleg pursued a tough policy aimed at including all East Slavic tribal unions in the state. He subjugated almost all the Slavic tribes from Baltic Sea before Carpathian Mountains. He forced those who disagreed to admit himself by force of arms. Under him, the Drevlyans, northerners, and Radimichi were included in his state and began to pay tribute to Kyiv.

After Oleg's death, Igor began to reign (912-945). Igor continued the policies of his predecessor. In 941 and 944, campaigns were undertaken to confirm trade agreements with Byzantium. In 944 it was concluded new agreement, however, Russian merchants lost the right to duty-free trade. The appearance of official name Rus - Russian land. Under Igor, the streets became part of the Russian state. Igor died while collecting tribute from the Drevlyans. His wife Olga proved herself to be a decisive, powerful and far-sighted ruler. She ordered the killing of the Drevlyan ambassadors who came to Kyiv to marry her to their prince Mal. Then she herself and her army defeated the Drevlyans and burned their capital, the city of Iskorosten. Based on the experience of the Drevlyan uprising, Olga carried out a tax reform. The collection of tribute was orderly. For this purpose, lessons were established - the amount of tribute, and graveyards - places for collecting tribute. During Olga's reign, the Drevlyans and Tivertsy finally became part of Kievan Rus.

The son of Igor and Olga Svyatoslav (964-972) continued the work of his parents in uniting all East Slavic tribal unions into single state. The Vyatichi were annexed - the last tribe of Slavs to pay tribute to the Khazars. Svyatoslav continued to strengthen

control systems. He sent his sons to the Russian lands as governors. He continued his active foreign policy. He was faced with two most important foreign policy tasks: 1-to protect Rus' from nomads, 2-to clear trade routes to the countries of the East. During numerous campaigns, Svyatoslav defeated Volga Bulgaria, conquered the Mordovian tribes, defeated the Khazar Khaganate, successfully fought in the North Caucasus and Azov coast, captured Tmutarakan on the Taman Peninsula. Thus, during his military campaigns, the entire Volga trade route came under the control of the Russian state, and Rus' strengthened its position in the North Caucasus and the Black Sea region. He managed to repel the onslaught of the Pechenegs and secure, for a time, the southeastern borders.

He tried to bring the borders of Rus' closer to Byzantium and fought with the Byzantines for the Balkan Peninsula. However, this war ended in failure for him. After concluding an agreement with the Byzantines, on the way to Kyiv, he was ambushed by the Pechenegs at the Dnieper rapids, where he died.

After the death of Svyatoslav, his eldest son Yaropolk (972 - 980) became the Grand Duke. Between him on the one hand and his brothers Oleg and Vladimir on the other, an internecine struggle began during which Yaropolk and Oleg died, and the throne went to Vladimir. Under Vladimir I (980-1015), all the lands of the Eastern Slavs were united as part of Kievan Rus. It was Vladimir who solved the most important problem of that time, defended Rus' from Pecheneg raids; for this purpose, an entire defensive system was created on the southeastern borders, which included 4 lines of defense on the left bank of the Dnieper. The fortresses on the lines were located at a distance of 15-20 km. from each other and were, as a rule, at fords to prevent the crossing of the Pecheneg cavalry. Experienced warriors from all Russian lands were attracted to the fortress. In the depths of the system, Belgorod was built, which became the gathering place for all Russian forces. To warn of danger, a special warning system was introduced.

In addition to protecting Russian lands from enemies, Vladimir pursued an active policy aimed at strengthening the state apparatus at the local level. To this end, he used the practice of replacing local tribal princes with his proteges (deputies).

Understanding the role of religion in strengthening the state, Vladimir carried out 1 religious reform. The point was that a pantheon of East Slavic gods was created in Kyiv, headed by Perun. Moreover, the cult of Perun was implanted in Ancient Rus' using cruel measures. However, the pagan religion did not respond to the rapidly developing feudal relations, the strengthening of the grand ducal power and the raising of the authority of the state in the international arena. Therefore, Christianity in the form of Orthodoxy was adopted as the state religion in 988. Apparently, this decision was influenced by close political, economic and cultural ties with Byzantium. The baptism of Vladimir and his entourage took place in the Byzantine city of Korsun (Chersonese), present-day Sevastopol. After this event, the Byzantine emperor gave his sister Anna as a wife to Vladimir. The new faith was introduced in Rus' by force. Pagan idols were burned, and people who tried to evade baptism were driven to the Dnieper for baptism on pain of death. However, Christianity, despite the persecution of pagan religion, established itself in the outlying lands of Rus' slowly and was established much later than in Kyiv and Novgorod. The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for Rus': 1 it strengthened the power of feudal lords over the peasants, with its teaching sanctifying feudal property and subordination to authorities. 2 – Strengthened state power and territorial unity of Kievan Rus. 3- Increased the international prestige of Rus', now Kievan Rus became equal to other Christian countries. 4 – Played a big role in the development of Russian culture, introducing it to Byzantine, and through it to ancient culture.

With the adoption of Christianity, a church - a religious organization - arose in Rus'. At its head, a metropolitan was appointed, appointed from Constantinople by the patriarch. Regions were headed by bishops, to whom priests in cities and villages were subordinate. The entire population of the country was required to pay a tithe tax. In the hands of the church there was a court in charge of anti-religious crimes, as well as violations of moral and family norms.

Vladimir reigned for 50 years, actually exalted and strengthened the Russian state, he died in 1015.

After the death of Vladimir as a result of internecine struggle between his sons, Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) took the throne. He continued his father's policy aimed at strengthening the state. However, Yaroslav did not immediately manage to restore the former unity of Rus'. His brother Mstislav Tutarakansky did not want to submit to Kyiv. In 1024, he defeated his brother’s army and won the right to rule half of Rus'. Until 1036, when Mstislav died without leaving an heir, Rus' was divided between the brothers.

Continuing the line of his predecessors aimed at strengthening the state apparatus, Yaroslav sent his sons to large cities and lands and demanded unquestioning submission from them. Yaroslav himself began to be called Tsar. In an effort to establish order and legality in the Russian lands, he put into effect the first written code in Rus'

laws - Russian truth. The code concerned, first of all, issues of public order, protecting people from violence, outrages, and fights. In addition, Russian Truth strictly punished criminal offenses. At the same time, blood feud was still allowed. For a murder one could take revenge on the murderer and even kill him. However, only close relatives could take revenge. Thus, this custom of the primitive system was limited. If close relatives

was not, then the killer paid a fine of 40 hryvnia. Beatings and mutilations were also punishable by a large fine. According to the code, Novgorod men began to enjoy the same rights as those from Kyiv. In total, Yaroslav wrote 17 articles.

Yaroslav continued the foreign policy of his grandfather and father. He established his power west of Lake Peipsi and went on campaigns against the Lithuanian tribes. He managed to secure Rus' from the Pechenegs. In 1036, near Kiev, the Pechenegs suffered a major defeat, after which they were no longer able to recover. After the massacre of Russian merchants in Constantinople in 1043, a campaign against Byzantium was carried out. In 1046 peace was concluded and friendly relations were renewed. After the war with the Polish Kingdom for Transcarpathia, Rus' and Poland made peace and became allies.

The growth of power and authority of Rus' allowed Yaroslav to be appointed Metropolitan of Kyiv for the first time statesman and the writer Hilarion. Under him, Rus' achieved wide international recognition. The large royal courts of Europe sought to become related to the prince's family. So, Yaroslav was married to a Swedish princess. His daughters were married to French, Hungarian and Norwegian kings. Sons Vsevolod was married to the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh, and Izyaslav married the sister of the Polish king. Yaroslav's sister married the King of Poland.

The reign of Yaroslav was the heyday of Kievan Rus. She controlled a huge territory from the Black to the Baltic Seas. New cities of Yaroslavl and Yuryev were founded. By the middle of the 11th century, about 4 million people lived in Rus'. Under him, Kyiv became one of the largest cities in Europe. The Golden Gate, St. Sophia Cathedral and many other churches were built in the city. The Grand Duke was a zealous supporter of the development of culture and education. New schools were opened and the first libraries were created.

The Grand Duke died in 1054. His sons became his heirs: Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. In fact, the Russian land was divided into stripes between the sons before his death. Apparently, Yaroslav tried to prevent the possibility of future fragmentation and create conditions under which the brothers would depend on each other. He also bequeathed that henceforth the eldest in the family would be the Grand Duke of Rus'. This order of succession to the throne, based on seniority, later became one of the reasons for many civil strife among his descendants.

In the 11th century, the occupation of the squad did not change. She, as before, carried out various orders of the prince, helped to govern the country, judge, collect tribute and taxes. In the cities, the prince relies on the boyar-posadnikov, in the army - on the governor, the thousand, who came from the boyar class. At the same time, Polyudye was abolished and regular tribute collection was introduced. Smerdas become dependent on the state, that is, on the Grand Duke. They are no longer the owners of the land. A princely domain arises, i.e. princely possession - a complex of lands inhabited by people dependent on the head of state. Princes, in return for their service, begin to transfer lands to their vassals (combatants) - patrimony. A feudal system is emerging. The population turns into feudal-dependent. Ryadovichi - concluded an agreement (row) with the master and became dependent on him. Purchases were dependent until the debt (purchase) was repaid. Hiremen - those hired to work for a fee. Forgiven - those who were forgiven of their debts and crimes. Slaves and servants - depended on their masters, served them in the house, performed rural work. Ryadovichi and purchasers became slaves for violating the contract, as well as prisoners. Thus, the Old Russian state was early feudal with a multi-structure

transition economy.

Three Yaroslavich brothers were defeated in a battle with the new nomadic tribes of the Polovtsians on the Alta River in 1068. The people of Kiev demanded weapons in order to defend themselves against new enemies. However, the senior prince Izyaslav was afraid to arm the townspeople. A popular uprising began. As a result, Izyaslav was forced to flee from Kyiv, and only with the help of Polish feudal lords did he succeed to the throne in 1069. Massive popular protests also spread across other Russian lands. These anti-feudal actions forced the princes to add to the code of laws of Yaroslav. These additions were called the Yaroslavich Truth. This set of laws was aimed at protecting the property of the feudal lord and his estate. Now blood feud has been abolished and the difference in payment for the murder of different categories of the population has been strengthened. The code of laws also punished theft and harboring of slaves.

After Izyaslav was confirmed on the throne and the Polovtsians were defeated by Svyatoslav, between

The brothers began an internecine struggle. Izyaslav lost the throne, which went to Svyatoslav. However, in 1076, Svyatoslav dies and Izyaslav regains the throne, but he did not rule for long; after 2 years he died in one of the battles. Vsevolod became the Grand Duke. After his death in 1093, Izyaslav’s son Svyatopolk ascended the throne, but strife continued. Then in 1097, on the initiative of Vsevolod’s son Vladimir Monomakh, a princely congress met in the city of Lyubech. At this congress, a new principle of organizing power in Rus' was adopted: each prince independently governs his fiefdom. Thus, with the establishment of this principle, the already begun division of Kievan Rus into separate principalities was legally consolidated.

Prince Svyatopolk patronized moneylenders, was unscrupulous in his means of enrichment, and was involved in speculation in salt and bread. His death in 1113 was the signal for the uprising. The people destroyed the houses of feudal lords and moneylenders. The frightened boyars turned to Vladimir Monomakh, whose authority was high among the people, with a request to take the throne. He enjoyed well-deserved popularity in Rus', as he was the organizer of many campaigns against the external enemy - the Polovtsians. Having become the Grand Duke (1113-1125), Monomakh issued another addition to the Russian Truth - the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh. According to it, the collection of interest by moneylenders was streamlined, the transition to servitude was regulated, and the legal status of the merchants was improved. He managed, for a while, to recreate the unity of Rus', he forced all the princes to submit to the Grand Duke of Kyiv, and suppressed the separatism of individual princes. In foreign policy, he adhered to a further offensive doctrine against the Polovtsians. In 1116 he himself led a campaign against the Polovtsians, then sent his sons against them.

He strengthened the international authority of Rus'. Byzantium sent him rich gifts, among which were items of imperial ceremonial clothing, signs of imperial power, in particular the imperial crown. This is how the legend of Monomakh's Cap arose.

The Old Russian state Kievan Rus arose in Eastern Europe in the last quarter of the 9th century. At its peak, it occupied the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the headwaters of the Vistula in the west to the headwaters of the Northern Dvina in the north.

There are two main hypotheses for the formation of the Old Russian state. According to the Norman theory, based on the Tale of Bygone Years of the 12th century and numerous Western European and Byzantine sources, statehood in Rus' was introduced from outside by the Varangians - the brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor in 862.

The anti-Norman theory is based on the idea of ​​the emergence of the state as a stage in the internal development of society. The founder of this theory in Russian historiography was considered to be Mikhail Lomonosov. In addition, there are different points of view on the origin of the Varangians themselves. Scientists classified as Normanists considered them to be Scandinavians (usually Swedes); some anti-Normanists, starting with Lomonosov, suggest their origin from West Slavic lands. There are also intermediate versions of localization - in Finland, Prussia, and other parts of the Baltic states. The problem of the ethnicity of the Varangians is independent of the issue of the emergence of statehood.

The first information about the state of the Rus dates back to the first third of the 9th century: in 839, the ambassadors of the Kagan of the people of Rus were mentioned, who arrived first in Constantinople, and from there to the court of the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious. The term “Kievan Rus” appears for the first time in historical studies of the 18th – 19th centuries.

Kievan Rus arose on the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” on the lands of the East Slavic tribes - the Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Polyans, then covering the Drevlyans, Dregovichs, Polotsk, Radimichi, Severians, Vyatichi.

1. The emergence of the Old Russian state

Kievan Rus of the 9th-12th centuries is a huge feudal state stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from the Western Bug to the Volga.

The chronicle legend considers the founders of Kyiv to be the rulers of the Polyan tribe - the brothers Kiya, Shchek and Khoriv. According to archaeological excavations carried out in Kyiv in the 19th–20th centuries, already in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. there was a settlement on the site of Kyiv.

Kievan Rus is one of the largest states medieval Europe- developed in the 9th century. as a result of the long internal development of the East Slavic tribes. Its historical core was the Middle Dnieper region, where new social phenomena, characteristic of a class society.

In the northeast, the Slavs delved into the lands of the Finno-Ugric people and settled along the banks of the Oka and upper Volga; in the west they reached the Elbe River in Northern Germany. And yet most of them were drawn to the south, to the Balkans - with their warm climate, fertile lands, rich cities.

The existence of Kievan Rus covers the period from the 9th century to the 30s of the 12th century. The Old Russian state can be characterized as an early feudal monarchy. The head of the state was the Grand Duke of Kiev. His brothers, sons and warriors carried out the administration of the country, the court, and the collection of tribute and duties.

The young state faced major foreign policy tasks related to the protection of its borders: repelling the raids of the nomadic Pechenegs, fighting the expansion of Byzantium, the Khazar Kaganate, and Volga Bulgaria.

Since 862, Rurik, according to the Tale of Bygone Years, established himself in Novgorod.

During that period, the Slavs were subject to constant raids by nomads. Prince Oleg conquered Kyiv, killing Rurik, expanded Russian borders, conquering the Drevlyans, northerners, and Radimichi.

Prince Igor conquered Kyiv and became famous for his campaigns in Byzantium. Killed by the Drevlyans while collecting tribute. After him, his wife Olga ruled, who brutally avenged her husband’s death.

Then the throne of Kyiv was taken by Svyatoslav, who devoted his whole life to campaigns.

Prince Yaropolk was conquered by Vladimir (the Saint). He converted to Christianity and baptized Rus' in 988.

During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), the period of greatest prosperity of Kievan Rus began. Prince Yaroslav the Wise expelled Yaropolk the Accursed, fought with his brother Mstislav, and established family ties with many European countries. But already in the second half of the 11th century, the so-called princely war began between the princes, which led to the weakening of Kievan Rus.

In the second half of the 12th century, Rus' broke up into independent principalities.

2. Socio-economic system of Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus developed in the form of an early feudal monarchy. For feudal society The population is divided into classes. An estate is a closed social group that has rights and obligations defined by law. In Kievan Rus, the process of formation of estates had just begun.

At the pinnacle of state power stood the Grand Duke. The authorities also included the boyar council (council under the prince) and the veche.

Prince. It could only be a member of the family of Vladimir the Great. Kievan Rus did not have a clearly defined right of succession to the throne. At first, the Grand Duke ruled with the help of his sons, who were completely subordinate to him. After Yaroslav, the right of all the sons of the prince to inherit in the Russian land was established, but for two centuries there was a struggle between two approaches to inheritance: according to the order of all brothers (from eldest to youngest), and then according to the order of the sons of the eldest brother or only along the line of the eldest sons.

The prince's competence and power were unlimited and depended on his authority and the real strength on which he relied. First of all, the prince was a military leader; he took the initiative of military campaigns and their organization. The prince headed the administration and court. He had to “rule and judge.” He had the right to pass new laws and change old ones.

The prince collected taxes from the population, court fees and criminal fines. The Prince of Kiev had influence on church affairs.

The boyar council, and at first the council of the prince’s squad, was an integral part of the mechanism of power. It was the moral duty of the prince to consult with the squad, and later with the boyars.

Veche. The veche was a body of power that had been preserved since the times of the tribal system. With the growth of the prince's power, the veche loses its significance and only when the power of the Kyiv princes declines does it increase again. The veche had the right to elect a prince or deny him reign. The prince elected by the population had to conclude an agreement with the veche - a “row”.

The veche in Kievan Rus did not have a specific competence or procedure for convening. Sometimes the veche was convened by the prince, more often it met without his will.

Controls. There were no clearly defined governing bodies in Kievan Rus. Long time There was a tithe system (thousands, sots, tens), which was preserved from military democracy and performed administrative, financial and other functions. Over time, it is replaced by the palace-patrimonial system of government, i.e. such a system of government in which princely servants over time turned into government officials who carried out various functions of government.

The division of principalities into administrative units was not clear. Chronicles mention a volost, a churchyard. The princes carried out local government in cities and volosts through mayors and volostels, who were representatives of the prince. From the middle of the 12th century, instead of posadniks, the position of governors was introduced.

Officials of the local administration did not receive salaries from the Grand Duke, but were supported by levies from the population. This system is called a feeding system.

The body of local peasant self-government was the Verv - a rural territorial community.

The power of the prince and his administration extended to cities and the population of lands that were not the property of the boyars. Boyar estates gradually acquired immunity and were freed from princely jurisdiction. The population of these estates becomes completely subservient to the boyar-owners.

The entire population of Kievan Rus can be conditionally divided into three categories: free, semi-dependent and dependent people. The top free people were the prince and his squad (princes and men). From among them, the prince chose the governor and other officials. At first, the legal status of the “princely men” differed from the zemstvo elite - well-born, noble, of local origin. But in the 11th century these two groups merged into one - the boyars.

The boyars took part in the work of boyar councils, veche, and administration, where they held senior positions. The boyars were not homogeneous and were divided into different groups, membership of which gave the right to be a privileged part of society, and all crimes directed against the boyars were punished more severely. Thus, according to Russian Pravda, the life of the boyars was protected by a double vira (vira is the highest criminal fine). The boyars were also exempt from paying taxes.

The boyars were not a closed caste. For certain merits, a boyar could become a smerd, and even a foreigner - a Varangian, a Polovtsian, etc. In the Kyiv land, the boyars were not separated from the merchants, from the city elite. Over time, a patriciate was created in the cities, which was more connected with the city than with the personality of the prince.

Russian cities, especially Kyiv, were experiencing an acute process of struggle between the urban population, both with the princely power and with the urban patriciate. Thus, the usury of Svyatopolk and the extortion of the city patriciate led in 1113 to an uprising in Kyiv.

The free population also included the clergy, which represented a separate group of the population and was divided into black and white. At that time, the leading role in the state was played by the black clergy - monastics. The best scientists (Nestor, Hilarion, Nikon), doctors (Agapit), artists (Alympius), who kept chronicles, copied books, and organized various schools, lived and worked in the monasteries. The first place among the monasteries of Kievan Rus belonged to Kiev-Pechersk. He became an example for other monasteries and had a huge moral influence on the princes and the whole society.

The white clergy included churchmen: priests, deacons, clerks, palamari, and clerics. The number of white clergy was very large. According to some sources, in Kyiv at the beginning of the 11th century there were more than 400 churches.

Middle group cities gave free people. Residents of cities were legally free, even equal in rights with the boyars, but in fact they depended on the feudal elite.

The lowest group of the free population were peasants - smerds. They owned land and livestock. Smerds made up the overwhelming majority of the population of Kievan Rus, paid established taxes and served military service with personal weapons and horses. Smerd could inherit his property to his sons. Russian Truth protected the personality and economy of the smerd as if it were free, but the punishment for a crime against a smerd was less than for a crime against the boyars.

In the XII-XIII centuries, boyar land ownership increased throughout Rus', and in connection with this, the number of independent smerds decreased. The number of smerds who work on boyar land is growing, while remaining free.

Semi-dependent (semi-free) people. In Kievan Rus there was quite large group semi-free people - purchases. That's what they called the smerds who various reasons temporarily lost economic independence, but under certain conditions had the opportunity to regain it again. Such a smerd borrowed a “kupa”, which could include money, grain, livestock, and until he returned this “kupa”, he remained a purchase. The purchase could have his own farm, yard, property, or he could live on the land of the one who gave him the “kupa” and work on this land. Zakup himself was responsible for his actions, and the perpetrator was responsible for a crime against him as for a crime against a free man. For unfair punishment imposed by the creditor on the purchaser, the latter could complain to the court, and then the creditor would be held liable. An attempt to sell the purchase to slaves freed him from the debt, and the creditor paid a high fine for this. In case of theft committed by a purchaser or his escape from a creditor without paying the debt, he turned into a slave.

Dependent (involuntary) people were called serfs. At first, this term was used to describe male persons (lad - serf - serf), and over time, all involuntary people.

The main sources of servitude were: captivity in war; marriage with an involuntary person; birth from slaves; sale in front of witnesses; fraudulent bankruptcy; escape or theft carried out by the purchaser. The law provided for the conditions under which a slave could become free: if he was bought out, if his owner freed him. A woman servant, if her master raped her, after his death received freedom with her children. The slave actually had no rights. For damage caused to the slave, the owner received compensation.

However, he was also responsible for the crime committed by the slave. The slave could not have his own property; he himself was the property of the owner. With the spread of Christianity, the situation of slaves improved. The Church called for softening in relations with slaves, advising them to be set free to “remember the soul.” Such slaves moved into the category of outcasts.

Outcasts included people who, for various reasons, dropped out of the social group to which they previously belonged, but did not join another.

The main wealth and main means of production in Rus' was land. First, a domain was formed - the personal possession of the prince. By the X – XII centuries. Large private landholdings developed in Kievan Rus. The form of land ownership became patrimony - land transferred by inheritance with the right of full ownership. The estate could be princely, boyar, or church. The peasants living on it became land dependent on the feudal lord. A common form of organization of production has become the feudal estate, or fatherland, i.e. paternal possession, passed from father to son by inheritance. The owner of the estate was a prince or boyar.

A characteristic feature of the Russian economy was the subordination of peasants to a collective feudal lord - the state, which collected land taxes from them in the form of tribute. On initial stage development of Old Russian tribute was collected from the entire free population and was called polyudye. This was the exercise of the supreme right to the land, the establishment of allegiance to the prince.

The highest official positions in Kievan Rus were occupied by representatives of the druzhina nobility. The council under the prince constituted the Duma. Military detachments were led by governors. The collection of taxes was carried out by tributaries (land taxes) and letniks (merchants). There were court officials - swordsmen, virniks, zemstvos and minor officials - priviuchs, sweepers. By the 10th century, the lands of tribal unions turned into administrative units - volosts under the control of princes - governors of the Grand Duke.

The number of Russian cities continues to grow. It is known that in the 10th century 24 cities were mentioned in chronicles, and in the 11th century - 88 cities. In the 12th century alone, 119 of them were built in Rus'.

The growth in the number of cities was facilitated by the development of crafts and trade. At this time, handicraft production included dozens of types of crafts, including weapons, jewelry, blacksmithing, foundry, pottery, leatherwork and weaving. The center of the city was a market where handicraft products were sold. Internal trade, due to subsistence farming, was much less developed than external trade. Kievan Rus traded with Byzantium, Western Europe, Central Asia, and Khazaria.

On the basis of Christianization, the formation of a new type of statehood in Kievan Rus took place.

In the first half of the 11th century, the formation of church jurisdiction began. Matters concerning marriage, divorce, family, and some inheritance matters are transferred to the jurisdiction of the church. Towards the end of the 12th century, the church began to oversee the service of weights and measures. A significant role was assigned to the church in international affairs related to deepening relations with Christian states and churches.

The Metropolitan and the clergy governed and judged the people subordinate to them in the same way as was done in the Greek Church, on the basis of a special collection of laws, the Nomocanon, which in Rus' received the name Kormchay.

This collection contained the church rules of the Apostolic and Ecumenical Councils, as well as the civil laws of the Orthodox Byzantine emperors.

Thus, in Rus', along with a new creed, new authorities, new enlightenment, new landowners, new landowning customs, new laws and courts appeared.

The princes had neither the inclination nor the opportunity to interfere in social life and maintain order when the population itself did not turn to them for this. A crime was then considered an “offense” for which the offended person or his family had to repay, take revenge. The custom of “blood feud” and revenge in general was so strong and widespread that even the legislation of that time recognized it.

Family life was characterized by roughness, especially since the custom of polygamy existed everywhere. Tradition says that Prince Vladimir himself also adhered to this custom before his baptism. The position of a woman in the family, especially with polygamy, was very difficult.

Along with the Christian teaching about love and mercy, the church brought the beginnings of culture to Rus'. By teaching the pagans the faith, she sought to improve their everyday habits. Through its hierarchy and the example of the zealots of the new faith, the church influenced the morals and institutions of Rus'.

Having found a number of unions, clan and tribal, in Rus', the church formed a special union - a church society; it included the clergy, then the people whom the church cared for and nourished, and, finally, the people who served the church and depended on it. The Church provided shelter and protection to all outcasts who had lost the protection of worldly societies and unions. Outcasts and slaves came under the protection of the church and became its workers.

On the basis of church law, adopted and confirmed by the first Russian princes in their church statutes, all offenses and crimes against faith and morality were subject to court, not princely, but church.

The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for the entire Russian society. It created a broad basis for the unification of all peoples and gradually began to displace pagan rituals and traditions.

Christianity, having become the dominant religion, was expressed in a number of new institutions and institutions. The hierarchy came to Rus' from Greece, and a metropolitan appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople began to live in Kyiv. He exercised his power with a council of bishops. As the highest shepherds of the entire Russian land, the metropolitans had the right of administrative supervision over all dioceses of the Russian Church.

In other cities, bishops subordinate to the metropolitan were installed. The diocesan bishop of Kievan Rus, as required by the canons, was the supreme teacher of his flock, the high priest and the main superior over the clergy of his church. In addition, the bishop was usually an adviser to the appanage prince in state affairs. In princely feuds, bishops acted as guarantors of the inviolability of treaties. They sealed contracts with their testimonies, and usually gave the reconciling princes a cross to kiss. The church, through the bishop, blessed the prince to reign.

The parish clergy in Rus' became very numerous several decades after its baptism. This can be judged by the number of churches that existed at that time.

Monasteries were also established in Kyiv and in all dioceses, which were the main suppliers of the Russian episcopate.

4. Characteristics and features of the culture of Kievan Rus

The culture that developed in Kievan Rus differed in its originality from the eras that preceded it. The adoption of Christianity is the first attempt to “modernize” the culture of Rus', in which the spiritual, ideological culture that best met the requirements was adopted new civilization.

The uniqueness of Russian culture is manifested in a number of factors. This is primarily an agrarian, agricultural crop, and located in a zone of risky farming. Here, periodically, once every 4-5 years, due to weather conditions, the crop was lost almost completely: the reasons were early frosts, prolonged rains, and in the south - drought, locust invasions. This gave rise to insecurity of existence, the threat of constant hunger, which accompanied the entire history of Rus' and Russia.

At first, the cities had an agrarian character and only over time they turned into a center of crafts and trade. Cities also included lands administratively subordinate to them.

The most important achievement of the culture of Kievan Rus is the development of the vast space of north-eastern Europe, the establishment of agriculture here, the transformation of the natural landscape, giving it a cultural, civilized appearance: the construction of new cities - centers of culture, laying roads, erecting bridges, paths connecting the most remote corners of the once dense, “untrodden” forests with cultural centers.

With Orthodoxy came stone temple construction to Rus'. One of the first Christian churches was built in Pskov by Princess Olga around 965, that is, even before the baptism of Rus', and was dedicated to the Divine Trinity.

The cultural development of civilization is impossible without the advent of writing, the spread of literacy, and book art. The Slavs had their own system for recording information long before Orthodoxy. In addition to the “knot” method of recording information, another recording system was used, known as “lines and cuts”, or Slavic runes. The texts of agreements concluded with the Greeks were also written in Russian. The merit of Orthodoxy, undoubtedly, was the assistance that Byzantium provided in giving Russian writing - the Glagolitic alphabet - perfect forms, creating a "Cyrillic" alphabet that met the needs of the language of that time, and the sound composition of the Slavic language, and even modern language norms.

The creation of modern writing contributed to the formation of a single Russian language. Russian as a national language began to emerge very early. It originates from the “Slovenian”, “Slavic” language. For writing, the Russians used a specific material - birch bark.

The early formation of a single language gave rise to an extensive Russian literature. It was preceded by rich folk art and the creation of epics. In the IX - X centuries. epics were created about Mikhail Potok, about Ilya Muromets, about Stavr Godinovich, about Danil Lovchanin, about the Danube, about Ivan Godinovich, about Volga and Mikul, about Dobrynya, about the marriage of Vladimir, etc.

The first chronicle records appeared around 872 in Kyiv. The First Chronicles are based on oral traditions, Slavic myths, and epic tales. The pagan element dominates in them.

Kievan Rus was famous for the art of gunsmiths. It was in Rus' that the following first appeared: a shestoper, a bracer, a hook for pulling a crossbow, chain mail with flat rings, a horse steel mask, spurs with a plate visor and spurs with a wheel, plate armor.

5. Foreign policy of the Kyiv princes

The object of the princes' foreign policy was all matters related to dynastic relations, issues of war and peace, foreign trade, the attitude of the Grand Duke and his state to foreign religious organizations. All these problems required the personal participation of the head of state, because the affairs of the dynasty, military affairs, taxes, like the rest of the treasury, were concentrated in the hands of the prince.

Kievan Rus had foreign policy relations with three types of states during the period of its existence:

1. Russians are independent or appanage and related (dynastically) dependent on the Grand Duke of the Kyiv principality and land.

2. Non-Russians state entities and lands that were the closest neighbors of Kievan Rus, bordering on it, entering into wars, alliances, and treaty relations with it.

3. Western European states that did not have direct borders with Kievan Rus.

Thus, Kievan Rus had complex relations with almost four dozen foreign policy entities.

The concentration of all foreign policy and its leadership in the hands of one person - the Grand Duke - created favorable conditions for strengthening the tactics of caution, ensured greatest secret, the surprise of all the most important decisions of the head of state. And this was a huge advantage of the Kyiv princes over other European monarchs.

In the foreign policy of the princes of Kievan Rus we can distinguish following periods:

1. From Rurik to Yaroslav the Wise (862 - 1054) The main feature is the accumulation of lands, the expansion of the state at the expense of internal resources - the inheritance of weakened and impoverished princes - relatives of the Grand Duke.

2. From Yaroslav the Wise to Vladimir Monomakh (1054 - 1125) The period of stabilization of foreign policy advances, the period of consolidating the successes of foreign policy and protecting from interference in it by other Rurikovichs, appanage princes, attempts to defend and canonize the individuality of pursuing a foreign policy line as a personal policy prince or, at least, as a unified national policy.

3. From Mstislav I to Daniil Romanovich Galitsky (1126 - 1237) The period of a defensive direction of foreign policy, the main task of which was to preserve the acquisitions of previous centuries, to prevent the strengthening regional principalities from weakening the Kiev state. During this period, the weakened Kyiv princes had to share a monopoly on foreign policy with their Monomakhovich relatives. And this leads to the disappearance of the continuity of the foreign policy line that was preserved during the prince’s personal foreign policy. The frequently replaced great princes, who have ruled for a year or two, can no longer see foreign policy prospects. As a result, at the first strong external pressure from the Tatar-Mongols, all of Rus' collapses.

Beginning in 1125, a new dynasty was established on the Kiev grand princely throne - the Vladimirovich-Monomakhovichs. The influence of the grand dukes on foreign policy after Vladimir Monomakh weakens. The reason lies not only in the short duration of the princes’ tenure in their positions, but also in the need to take into account the opinion of the entire Monomakhovich clan. Along with the liquidation of the independence (political) of Kievan Rus, its independent foreign policy, determined in the Horde by the Great Khan.

However, the state unity of Rus' itself was not strong. Signs of the fragility of unity were revealed after the death of Svyatoslav, when young Yaropolk took power in Kyiv. Yaropolk relied on the Varangians - mercenaries hired by his father. The Varangians behaved arrogantly. Svyatoslav's second son Oleg began a fight with them and sought to replenish his squad with peasants - Oleg died in this strife, but Vladimir (3rd son) began to reign over the walls of Kyiv. After the death of Grand Duke Vladimir in 1015, Rus' experienced Hard times: his sons (12 of them) began long-term strife, in which the Pechenegs, Poles, and Varangian detachments were involved. The soldiers barely violated the established order in the state. The year 1073 came, and a new internecine struggle. This time, strife occurred between the sons of Yaroslav the Wise. If Yaroslav the Wise managed to maintain the unity of Rus' for a long time, then it turned out to be more difficult for his sons and grandsons to do this. There are many reasons for this.

Firstly, the order of succession to the throne established by Yaroslav turned out to be unsuccessful. The sons of the deceased Grand Duke did not want to give power to their elders, their uncles, and they did not allow their nephews to take power, putting their sons in their place, even though they were younger.

Secondly, among the successors of Yaroslav the Wise there was no purposeful and strong-willed personality like Vladimir I and Yaroslav himself were.

Thirdly, large cities and lands were gaining strength. The emergence of large patrimonial farms, including church estates, contributed to the general progress of economic life and the desire for independence from Kyiv.

Fourthly, the constant interference of the Polovtsians in the internal affairs of Rus' History of the Russian State.

In 1068, when the Polovtsian Khan Shakuran invaded Russian lands, the sons of Yaroslav the Wise took refuge in their fortresses. The Kiev people overthrew Izyaslav and proclaimed the Polovtsian prince Vseslav to the throne, who left a grateful memory for seven years. Having expelled Vseslav, the Yaroslavichs continued to quarrel with each other for eight years. During these years, popular uprisings broke out in the Volga region and in distant Belozer, in the Rostov land, Novgorod against the feudal nobility, which increased taxes: taxes and sales (judicial duties), feed (deliveries for officials). Since the anti-feudal movements were also directed against the church, the rebels were sometimes led by the Magi. The movement took the form of an anti-Christian movement, appealing to the return of the old pagan religion.

Since 1125, after the death of Monomakh, the son of Monomakh, nicknamed the Great, established himself on the Kiev throne. He ruled Russia as menacingly as his father. Under him, the Polotsk Vseslavichs were expelled from their possessions. Due to internal strife, the Chernigov Svyatoslavichs weakened: the Murom-Ryazan land separated from Chernigov. None of the princes dared to confront Mstislav. But after his death in 1132, strife began among the descendants of Monomakh. The Olegovichs immediately took advantage of this, and the relative calm in Rus' came to an end.

Thus, we can conclude that after the death of Svyatoslav, a new political situation arose in Rus': after the death of the ruler, several sons remained who shared power. The new situation gave rise to a new event - princely strife, the purpose of which was the struggle for power.

Conclusion

The existence of Kievan Rus covers the period from the 9th century to the 30s of the 12th century. The Old Russian state was one of the largest European states. The fight of Rus' against the raids of nomads was of great importance for the security of the countries of both Western Asia and Europe. Rus''s trade relations were extensive. Rus' maintained political, trade and cultural relations with the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria, had diplomatic ties with Byzantium, Germany, Norway and Sweden, and also established ties with France and England. ABOUT international significance Rus' testify dynastic marriages concluded by Russian princes. Treaties with Byzantium contain valuable evidence of public relations in Kievan Rus and its international significance.

However, already in the 12th century. A number of principalities separated from the ancient Russian state. Along with the economic prerequisites for fragmentation, there were also socio-political ones. Representatives of the feudal elite, having transformed from the military elite (combatants, princely people) into landowners, strived for political independence. The process of the squad settling to the ground was underway . In the financial field, it was accompanied by the transformation of tribute into feudal rent.

During this period, the system of public administration also changed. . Two control centers are formed - the palace and the fiefdom. All court ranks are simultaneously government positions within a separate principality, land, appanage, etc. Finally, in the process of disintegration of the relatively united Kyiv State Foreign policy factors played an important role. The invasion of the Tatar-Mongols and the disappearance of the ancient trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which united the Slavic tribes around itself, completed the collapse.

The Principality of Kiev, seriously damaged by the Mongol invasion, lost its significance as a Slavic state center.

List of used literature

1. Georgieva T.S. History of Russia: textbook. – M.: Unity, 2001

2. Isaev I.A. History of state and law of Russia: Complete course of lectures. – 2nd ed. reworked and additional – M.: Lawyer, 1998

3. History of the Russian State: tutorial\ A.M. Pushkarev. – M.: Pravda, 2003

4. Kondakov I.V. New history of Russia: textbook. – M.: University, 2000

5. Lyubimov L.D. Art of Ancient Rus'. – M.: Education, 1991

6. Pavlov A.P. History: textbook for universities. – St. Petersburg, 2005

7. Russia in the 9th-20th centuries: textbook \ under. ed. A.F. Nettle. – M.: Unity, 2004

8. Rybakov B.A. The birth of Rus'. - M.: “AiF Print”, 2003

9. Reader on the history of Russia: In 4 volumes, - Vol. 1. From ancient times to the 17th century. / Compiled by: I. V. Babich, V. N. Zakharov, I. E. Ukolova. - M.: MIROS, International relationships, 1994

At the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th centuries. On the East Slavic territory, conditions developed for the formation of an early feudal state. the local nobility retained the right to invite the prince, collect state revenues, etc. Rurik was invited to act as a judge for a certain salary, assigned a territory for him to live, stipulated in the agreement conditions that limited the freedom of action of his squad, etc. Prince Oleg led a campaign to the south and united in 882, two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - the Novgorod and Kiev lands, as well as vast territories that lay along the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" (from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea). The Old Russian state was formed - Kievan Rus. The territorial growth of the state continued in the future. In the middle of the 11th century. Kievan Rus became powerful and one of the largest states in Europe.

Characteristic features of the advancement of Slavic society towards the state were the mixing of clans and tribes, the ethnic unification of North Slavic and South Slavic tribes.

As a result tragic death husband in 945, Princess Olga became the ruler of Rus' with her young son Svyatoslav. Princess Olga managed to preserve the integrity and independence of the state in such a turbulent time. The princess took quite a long and cruel revenge on the Drevlyans for the murder of Igor. ditch Princess Olga, distinguished by her rare intelligence and abilities, ruled for almost two decades. It actually abolished the “polyudye” system of collecting tribute and replaced it with a centralized collection of fixed tribute - a lesson, establishing the time and place (cemeteries) for its collection. During her reign, an exchange of embassies took place with the German Emperor Otgon I. Already in her declining years, she decided to become a Christian

Wise Olga managed to avoid an unwanted marriage with the Byzantine emperor, recalling that Christian custom does not allow a godfather and his goddaughter to get married. Princess Olga was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church. ...

Prince Svyatoslav who refused to accept Christianity, citing his pagan warriors, devoted his life to raising the glory of Russian weapons and went down in history as a warrior prince. Svyatoslav liked Bulgaria so much that he even decided to move the capital of the Russian state from Kyiv to Pereyaslavl (at the mouth of the Danube). The nomads and Pechenegs took advantage of Svyatoslav’s absence in Kyiv and laid siege to Kyiv. The prince arrived in time and threw the attackers back into the steppe.

The death of Princess Olga accelerated Svyatoslav's decision to return to Bulgaria. But the Bulgarians did not greet the prince joyfully; the Greeks helped them. The battle, exhausting for both sides, ended with Svyatoslav’s promise never to return to Bulgaria and not to fight the Greeks. Upon returning home, he and his exhausted squad, contrary to intelligence advice to bypass the Dnieper rapids, were destroyed by the Pechenegs

After the death of Svyatoslav, discord began between the brothers. Yaropolk went against Oleg and in one of the battles, Prince Oleg was killed. Vladimir, having destroyed Yaropolk by cunning, took the Kiev throne Name youngest son Vladimir associated with important event national history- adoption of Christianity. For a deeper acquaintance and choice of a new religion, acceptable and convenient for the state authorities and attractive to the people, the Grand Duke sent ten prudent people to different countries. the service in the Christian church of Constantinople struck with its majesty and solemnity,

Vladimir made a decision and was baptized in 988 in the Greek city of Kherson (Korsun), which he conquered after a long siege. Having become a Christian, he married the sister of the Greek emperors, Anna, thereby dissolving previous marriages not sanctified by the Church. Chronicles report that during baptism, Vladimir was cured of an eye disease and his vision returned to him. The adoption of a single religion was necessary for Prince Vladimir in order to confirm and consolidate his rights as the Grand Duke of Kyiv by “God’s authority.” Returning to Kyiv, he baptized his sons in 988-989. Christianity was proclaimed the state religion. People were baptized and, under fear of the authorities, most of Ancient Russia accepted Baptism - Although two religions coexisted for a long time - paganism and Christianity.

Throughout Rus', Christian churches were erected on the sites of former pagan idols. Priests were invited from Byzantium, icons and church utensils were brought. At the beginning of the 11th century. in Kyiv alone there were already about 800 churches with icons, liturgical books, and church utensils. Vladimir, being the first prince of book culture, contributed to the spread of a new faith and enlightenment. By order of the prince, children of wealthy parents were taught to read and write. A galaxy of Russian preachers of Christianity was formed.

The prince, trying to realize the Christian ideal, initially refused to use the death penalty, forgave robbers, and replaced criminal penalties with fines. He took care of the poor and sick, food, honey and kvass were delivered around the city for them, and at the princely court they fed and watered everyone who came. In gratitude, the people nicknamed the prince Red Sun.

During the reign of Vladimir, the territory of Rus' expanded significantly: in the north - from the Baltic Sea, in the south - to the R-Bug. The Pechenegs were of particular concern in the south. battles on the banks of the river Trubezh. A brilliant victory. And at the site of the duel, Vladimir ordered the foundation of the city of Pereyaslavl; Vladimir took part in numerous battles. He fought with Poland, Lithuanian and Bulgar (Volga) tribes, and imposed tribute on the Vyatichi. In order to protect Russian borders from foreigners, defensive lines, fortresses and cities were erected with the settlement of part of the Slavs, Krivichi, Chud and Vyatichi on the southern borders.

After the death of Prince Vladimir's father, Yaroslav (c. 978-1054) won in the internecine struggle of the brothers for the Kiev throne, becoming the sole ruler of Kievan Rus. The reign of Yaroslav, nicknamed the Wise by the people, was marked by the true flourishing of the Russian state. Under him, the “Russian Truth” (11th century) was adopted - a set of Russian laws that prohibited revenge for murder and beatings. And for breaking the law, the culprit paid the prince a vira, the amount of which was differentiated.

Under Yaroslav, the last war with Greece in Russian history. Peace was secured by the marriage of Yaroslav's son, Vsevolod, and the daughter of the Greek Emperor Constantine Monomakh, Maria (their son, Prince Vladimir Monomakh). A victory was also won over the Pechenegs, in honor of whose defeat in Kyiv Yaroslav erected the Church of St. Sophia on the site of a fierce battle.

Yaroslav the Wise laid the foundation for the Russian metropolis. Instead of the main spiritual shepherds sent from Byzantium, he appointed a Russian priest as metropolitan.

Under Yaroslav, Kyiv became one of the largest cities in Europe. It was surrounded by a stone wall, and the main gate was named Golden. In the capital, as well as Novgorod, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, extensive church and secular construction was carried out. New cities were built: Yuryev, Yaroslavl, etc. He encouraged the creation of schools and libraries. Monasteries often became spiritual and political centers

With the death of Yaroslav, civil strife between his five sons intensified. The Congress of Yaroslavichs in the city of Lyubech (1097) approved the decision to inherit the lands of their fathers. Grandson of Yaroslav the Wise - great Prince Vladimir II Monomakh (1053-112. He participated in more than 80 major military campaigns both in Rus' and in Europe and the Polovtsian steppes.

In order to strengthen the power of his family, Vladimir transferred important princely tables (in Novgorod, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Suzdal, Vladimir-Volynsky) to his sons.

Vladimir Monomakh was well educated, familiar with the Russian and European literary tradition, and became, perhaps, one of the first secular writers. It was supplemented by “Russkaya Pravda” with a special “Charter”, which streamlined the system of collecting interest (cuts) by moneylenders, regulated the position of the dependent peasantry (slaves, purchases), and introduced measures to protect the property rights of merchants.

With the development of the Old Russian state, the system of the Early Feudal Monarchy emerged. It was a kind of federation of principalities, headed by a prince. The prince ruled the territory with the help of the Boyar Duma (council), which included senior warriors, local nobility, representatives of cities, and sometimes the clergy. The Boyar Duma symbolized the rights and autonomy of vassals and had the right of veto.

The body of local peasant self-government was the neighboring, territorial community - the world or rope. Communal peasants made up the majority of the population of Rus'. In fact, the state structure of Rus', the People's Council, was based on an agreement between the prince and the people's assembly, the veche gathering - the veche. At the veche, issues such as war and peace, city defense, crop failure, pestilence were discussed, princes were approved or expelled, laws were adopted and repealed, and trials were carried out. etc. Veliky Novgorod and Pskov and their surrounding areas were veche republics, the people's assembly had the highest legislative and judicial power. The veche had finances and a land fund at its disposal. However, already in the 11th century. the role of the veche begins to weaken, retaining its strength only in the “elder” cities - Novgorod, Pskov, Kyiv and some others.

Kievan Rus IX-XII centuries. - early feudal state. The main economic activities of the Slavs were agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting, fishing, and crafts.

In the X-XI centuries. Large private landholdings began to take shape in Kievan Rus. The feudal estate becomes a form of land ownership, not only not alienable, but also inheritable. Kievan Rus was famous for its cities. Their number was constantly growing. At first these were fortresses, political centers of government of feudal districts.

The products of Russian skilled artisans were widely known. There were more than 60 types of crafts. . The products of artisans were also sold abroad. Old Russian cities also performed the functions of trade and exchange. In the largest of them (Kyiv, Novgorod) there was widespread and regular trade. Internal trade in Rus', especially in the 9th-10th centuries, was predominantly of an exchange nature. Then, along with the exchange, the monetary form appears. At first, livestock and furs were used as money. There was also metal money. The minting of its coins from gold and silver in Rus' dates back to the 10th and early 11th centuries. The prince was depicted on the front side, and Jesus Christ on the back. The main metallic monetary unit of account was the hryvnia kun. Since the 14th century this currency unit was replaced by the ruble. Along with Russian coins, foreign coins were also in circulation - Byzantine, Arab, and European.

Polyudye - collection of tribute from the entire free population ("people"), chronologically covering the end of the 8th - the first half of the 10th century, and locally - up to the 12th century. .

Grandiose, well-guarded military-trade expeditions, occurring in the summer, delivered the export part of Polyudye along the Black Sea to Byzantium, Bulgaria, and the Caspian Sea. Russian land caravans reached Baghdad on their way to India.

Princess Olga organized the collection of tribute. The size of the tribute was clarified and the time and place of its delivery were determined. By the end of the 10th century. the function of collecting tribute was assigned to the governor of the volost.

Subsequently, a system of various taxes, trade, judicial and other duties was developed.



The Old Russian state arose in Eastern Europe. It is worth noting that this state was quite powerful and influential. During its existence, the ancient Russian state conquered a large number of lands. Those who are interested in history know that there are two main theories of the formation of the represented state: Norman and anti-Norman. More precisely, the ancient Russian state arose on a fairly popular and important path “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”

The territory of this state occupied the lands of the following tribes:

• Ilmen people;
• Krivichi;
• Vyatichi;
• glades;
• Dregovichi;
• Drevlyans and many others.

Features of the economic structure of the Old Russian state in the 9th-12th centuries

Kievan Rus is the first ancient Russian early feudal state, which was formed in the 9th century. If we talk about the level of economic development of this state, then it corresponded to its time. It is worth noting that the ancient Russian state in the 9th-12th century was in a rather difficult situation, as Rus' was fragmented.

So, let's go back to the economic mechanism of that time, which represented subsistence and semi-subsistence farming. Domestic market in this period time was developed quite poorly. Among the main economic functions of the ancient Russian state during this period of time, one can highlight the collection of tribute for princes of almost all levels.

Special attention should be paid to the tribute, whose name is “Polyudye”. It is surprising that tribute of this type was collected by the princes themselves, who were guarded by a squad.

The Grand Duke at that time owned all the power in the state. The residence of such a prince was, of course, in Kyiv. It is worth noting that the following attributes of power date back to the 9th-12th centuries: the Grand Duke, the veche, and also the military squad. The bulk of the population were free peasants, who were protected by military squads. The peasants, of course, paid tribute for this. This is precisely what distinguishes the ancient Russian state in the 9th-12th centuries. from another time.

If we talk about communities, they paid tribute to the state, mainly in cash. Christianity, which was adopted in Rus' in 988, significantly strengthened state power. More precisely, Christianity became the ideological basis of the ancient Russian state.

Early feudal monarchy

It is no secret that thanks to the rather rapid development of the ancient Russian state, the so-called system of the Early Feudal Monarchy was formed. Such features of the formation of the ancient Russian state are unique. More precisely, the early feudal monarchy was a kind of federation of principalities, the head of which was the prince. More precisely, the princes could easily govern various territories with the help of the boyar duma. It should be noted that this Duma included warriors, clergy, local nobility, as well as various representatives of the cities.

In general, the boyar duma was a symbol of the autonomy of vassals, as well as a symbol of law. The territorial, as well as the neighboring communities, were a body of local peasant self-government. The veche was the most important state structure of Rus', where the following issues were discussed: the expulsion of princes, peace, war, crop failure, etc. At such meetings they could easily pass or repeal a law. Kievan Rus of the 9th-12th centuries was an early feudal state.