Archaisms, historicisms. Outdated vocabulary in historical prose D

There are many special categories of words in the Russian language. They help people describe certain things and phenomena in more detail. One of these special categories of words is historicisms. In this article we will talk about this group, as well as the difference between historicisms and archaisms. Moreover, let's look at examples of historicism words and their meanings.

What is historicism?

The Russian language, like any other language, is a constantly changing living organism that often takes on new forms. The modern Russian language is very different from the one used by the first princes. He went through several stages in his development. There are three stages historical development:

1. Old Russian language.
2. Old Russian language.
3. National language period.

In various historical eras it sounded different. Due to constant development lexical composition changed a lot. Let's take documents as an example Ancient Rus'. The average person is unlikely to be able to understand what is written in the text. There are too many unknown words, and familiar words have a completely different meaning. Thanks to scientific and technological progress, the vocabulary has a large number of new concepts that enrich lexicon language. You can also increase active vocabulary if you borrow foreign words to add variety to your vocabulary. This rule works vice versa. Some words cease to be used, because many objects have disappeared from everyday life. So the words that described these objects are disappearing from everyday life. These words are called historicisms. The picture below is an example of historicisms.

What is archaism?

Archaism means something slightly different. They have one thing in common with historicisms, which is why they are often confused. Historicisms and archaisms are often used in old works. But there is enough between them a big difference: if historicisms describe objects that have disappeared from our lives, then archaisms are an outdated form of naming an object that exists. As an example, let's take a word that we know from children's books - gold. This is archaic, because this word has modern form- gold.

What is the difference between them?

The difference is quite big. One small detail will help determine what is in front of you, historicism or archaism. The second has commonly used synonyms. Of course, these two concepts are quite arbitrary. Words fall out of use various reasons. In some cases, they return to active vocabulary after a long period of time. Here is an example of historicism words that returned to circulation after some time: lieutenant, minister, officer, etc. Linguistic scientists create special dictionaries, in which such words are entered.

Another important difference between archaisms and historicisms is that archaisms have 3 degrees of obsolescence. They are specially identified by linguists to track the age of the vocabulary of a language.

What can be concluded? Many words fall out of frequent use and become passive or disappear. For words that have passed into a passive state, there are two options: if they were replaced by others, the word became an archaism; if the object itself has disappeared - then by historicism. They differ in meaning, this should not be forgotten. Below in the picture you can see an example of historicism and archaism. This way you can more clearly understand the difference between them.

Examples of historicisms and archaisms in the Russian language and their meanings

Historicisms can be divided into several categories, depending on which historical period the vocabulary belongs to. Examples of historicisms in Russian:

1. Tiun - princely steward.
2. Smerd is a peasant who is directly dependent on the prince.
3. Bratina - composition for serving alcoholic drinks.
4. Nepman - entrepreneur in the USSR during the NEP period.
5. Boyar is the highest stratum of society in Ancient Rus'.
6. Educational program - program to eliminate illiteracy.
7. Tax in kind is a food tax levied on farms, introduced to replace food appropriation.
8. Altyn is a coin equal to three kopecks.
9. A landowner is a landowner who belongs to the privileged class.
10. Prince is the title of a person close to the throne.
11. Count is the title of a major nobleman.
12. Onuchi - wrappings for feet under boots.
13. Clerk - a scribe and clerk in the clerk's office.
14. A short fur coat is a short sheepskin coat.

Let's look at examples of archaic words:

1. Eyes - eyes.
2. Eight - eight.
3. Finger - finger.
4. An adversary is a villain, an enemy, a scoundrel.
5. The belly is life.
6. Lanita - cheeks.
7. Mouth - lips, mouth.
8. Shelom - helmet.
9. Night - night.
10. To speak - to speak.
11. Hand - right hand.
12. Voice - voice.
13. Just now - a long time ago.
14. Evening - last night.

Here are also examples of words that became historicisms, but then returned to active vocabulary:

1. Hryvnia. Initially - a neck decoration in the form of a hoop, later - a monetary unit of Ukraine
2. An officer. After the revolution, officer ranks were removed from the army, but were returned in 1943.
3. Shoulder straps. Also after the revolution they were removed from military uniform, however, they were returned in 1943.
4. Ministry. They were liquidated after the revolution, and in the 1950s they were created anew instead of the People's Commissariats.

Again, the difference between these categories of words is clearly visible. Historicism can only be expressed by a term, archaism by a synonym. There's one more enough interesting feature. Historicisms are more often found in history textbooks and are used there as scientific terms. Archaisms are closer to language, just one word has been replaced by another. So we have seen examples and meanings of historicisms, so now the reader will have a clearer understanding of this topic.

The role of historicisms and archaisms in literary works

Special vocabulary helps to recreate the historical flavor in works so that the reader can completely immerse himself in the atmosphere of the time being described. Also, poets do not disdain special vocabulary. It helps create a solemn atmosphere in the poem. Typically, poets use archaisms to give speech a higher poetic sound. Another important detail that special vocabulary helps to emphasize is the display of comic and satirical moments. Saltykov-Shchedrin especially often used this property to create ironic situations and ridicule human vices.

What cultural role does outdated vocabulary play?

The use of such vocabulary by writers expands the reader’s understanding of historical period and Russian culture. Thanks to this, a person receives additional knowledge. This knowledge will help to form a full-fledged personality who knows how to get acquainted with the world through languages. A person learns to think broadly, to be spiritually and morally strong, aesthetically educated, to love and respect the history of our country.

Conclusion

Special vocabulary plays a big role in the Russian language. With its help, we can recreate the atmosphere of the past, which writers often use in their works. Her role is difficult to overestimate. After all, these words describe historical objects that we will never see. That is why it is considered “passive vocabulary”, because it is quite difficult to hear historicisms and archaisms. They can be considered the historical heritage of our language, so they need to be protected. Even though this vocabulary has fallen out of active use, most people know it and, meeting it in literary works, understands. And without the use of archaisms and historicisms in literature, works lose their solemnity and originality. In this article we looked at examples of historicisms and archaisms that helped us understand what they are and what the difference is between them.

Active and passive composition of vocabulary.

Changes in the life of society (political, social, economic, cultural) are reflected in the language, primarily in its vocabulary

In the process of historical development, a language undergoes semantic transformations of words: the emergence of new meanings for a word and the loss of old ones (changes in meanings).

Thus, there are two layers of words in the language:

1.Active vocabulary. This includes popular and commonly used words that do not have (regardless of the time of their appearance) a connotation of obsolescence or novelty.

The vocabulary of the active composition includes the words:

A) neutral, common : table, chair, new, good, I, he, five, ten, write, work, tomorrow, in, on;

b) book words : coming, dominance, inexhaustible, test, extreme;

V ) terms : subject, predicate, molecule, proportion, hypotenuse;

G) words with emotional and expressive connotations : buddy, dear, little house, little boy;

d) words expressing response concepts : research, movement, honesty, Oblomovism, brotherhood;

e) professionalism : scalpel, veneer, block, lattice (in the speech of lumberjacks).

2. Passive vocabulary. This includes words that are rarely used, which either recently entered the vocabulary and have not yet become part of the general literary language, or denote objects or phenomena of reality that are gone or passing away.

Words fall out active stock for different reasons. The main ones:

1. Disappearance of objects and phenomena that these words previously designated. So at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, before the advent of the tram, there was a city Railway with horse traction. It was called a horse-drawn horse. With the advent of the tram, this road disappeared, and the word horse-drawn was forgotten.

Military historicisms have long gone out of use: chain mail, arquebus; social: smerd, boyar, oprichnik.

2.Replacement of some words with others (synonyms).

semo – “here”, ovamo – “there”, izhe – “which”, in order – so that.

Depending on the reasons why a particular word is classified as obsolete, historicisms and archaisms are distinguished.

Historicisms - these are words that have fallen out of active use in our speech due to the disappearance of objects and phenomena that were previously designated by them.

The process of obsolescence of certain words can be very fast. For example, many words that arose in Soviet era: kombed (committee of the poor), tax in kind, NEP, this is evidenced by the book of N.M. Shansky "Words born in October."

V.V. Mayakovsky perfectly notes the transition of words from active, living vocabulary to the category of historicism due to changing social conditions:

Grandchildren will ask: - What is a capitalist?

Like the children now: - What is this policeman?

Historicisms represent quite diverse thematic groups:

1.names of ancient clothing: zipun, camisole, caftan, kokoshnik;

2.names monetary units: altyn, penny;

3.names of titles: boyar, count, prince;

4. names of officials: policeman, landowner, clerk;

5.names of the weapon: arquebus, pistol;

6.administrative names: volost, province, district.

The second group of obsolete words is represented by archaisms.

Archaisms name words that have fallen out of active use due to the fact that they have been replaced by synonymous words: in other words archaisms - these are outdated words and phrases (from the Greek archaios - ancient).

Unlike historicisms, archaisms denote objects and phenomena that exist in modern life, have not left it, but have modern name(mouth, axe, etc.).

Archaisms always have synonymous correspondences in modern language.

Let us give examples of archaisms from different categories of significant and auxiliary words:

A) nouns: shepherd - shepherd, finger - finger, forehead - forehead;

b) adjectives: prophetic - foreseeing, pitch - external;

V) pronouns: this – this, this – that;

G) numerals: twelve - 20, distant - 27;

d ) Verbs: to advocate - to achieve;

e ) adverbs: day, night

conjunctions: for, in order to; prepositions: after – through.

Depending on whether the entire word, the meaning of the word, the phonetic design of the word, or a separate word-forming morpheme becomes obsolete, archaisms are divided into several groups:

1.Actually lexical archaisms - these are words that have completely fallen out of use and have passed into the passive vocabulary:

aki - like piit - poet

eye - eye thief - thief

scoundrel - accuser, doubter - dreamer

2.Lexico-semantic archaisms – these are words for which one or more meanings have become obsolete:

belly - life scoundrel - unfit for military service

idol - statue shelter - port, pier

verb – word

3.Lexico-phonetic archaisms - these are words whose sound design has changed as a result of historical development, but the meaning of the word has been fully preserved:

seducer - seducer creator - creator

mirror - mirror ironism - heroism

eighteen - eighteen passport - passport

4. Lexico-word-formative archaisms – these are words in which individual morphemes or word-formation patterns are outdated:

dol - valley friendship - friendship

fisherman - fisherman phantasm - fantasy

whitewash - protein rottenness - rottenness

Special group make up accentological archaisms – words whose emphasis has changed: music, suffix, philosopher.

The archaization of words is not related to their origin. The following may become obsolete:

1) original Russian words: in order, lzya, outcast;

2) Old Slavonicisms: hunger, one, zelo, child;

3) borrowed: natura - nature, satisfaction - satisfaction, sicurs - help.

U old words, as well as dialectal, can be divided into two different groups: archaisms And historicisms .

Archaisms- these are words that, due to the emergence of new words, have fallen out of use. But their synonyms exist in modern Russian.

Eg:

right hand- right hand, cheeks- cheeks, ramen- shoulders, loins- lower back and so on.

But it is worth noting that archaisms may still differ from modern words-synonyms. These differences may be in the morphemic composition ( fisherman- fisherman, friendship - friendship), in their lexical meaning (stomach- life, guest- merchant,), in grammatical form ( at the ball- at the ball, fulfill- perform) and phonetic features ( mirror- mirror, Spanish- Spanish). Many words are completely outdated, but they still have modern synonyms. For example: destruction- death or harm, hope- hope and firmly believe, so that- to. And in order to avoid possible mistakes in the interpretation of these words, when working with works of art, it is strongly recommended to use a dictionary of outdated words and dialect phrases, or an explanatory dictionary.

Historicisms- these are words that denote such phenomena or objects that have completely disappeared or ceased to exist as a result of the further development of society.

Many words that meant various items the life of our ancestors, phenomena and things that were in one way or another connected with the economy of the past, the old culture, the socio-political system that once existed. Many historicisms are found among words that are one way or another connected with military themes.

Eg:

Redoubt, chain mail, visor, arquebus and so on.

Most obsolete words refer to items of clothing and household items: prosak, svetets, endova, camisole, armyak.

Also, historicisms include words that denote titles, professions, positions, classes that once existed in Rus': tsar, footman, boyar, steward, stable boy, barge hauler,tinker and so on. Types of production activities such as horse tram and manufactory. Phenomena of patriarchal life: purchase, quitrent, corvée and others. Disappeared technologies such as mead making and tinning.

Words that arose during the Soviet era also became historicisms. These include words such as: food detachment, NEP, Makhnovist, educational program, Budenovo and many others.

Sometimes it can be very difficult to distinguish between archaisms and historicisms. It has something to do with rebirth cultural traditions Rus', and with the frequent use of these words in proverbs and sayings, as well as other works of folk art. Such words include words denoting measures of length or measurements of weight, calling Christian and Religious holidays and others and others.

Dictionary of obsolete words by letter of the alphabet:

Historicisms and archaisms

Historicisms are outdated words that have left the active vocabulary, since the objects and phenomena that they denoted have disappeared from the life of society [Kasatkin 2001: 206]. For example, the word “gridnitsa” (from “Ruslan and Lyudmila” by A. Pushkin) meant “a room where the prince and his squad held receptions and ceremonies.” It fell out of use along with the disappearance of such buildings in Rus'. The obsolete words “bursa, caftan, okolotochny, solicitor, constable, plow” and many others have also become historicisms, because the corresponding educational establishments, clothing, tools, etc. Some words that appeared in the first years of Soviet power are also historicisms, for example: “Kombedy, NEPman, Revkom, educational program”, etc.

For many polysemantic words, one of the meanings can become historicism, for example, the word “people” has the following meanings: 1) plural the words "person"; 2) other, unauthorized persons; 3) persons used in some business, personnel; 4) in a noble, rich house: servants [Ozhegov 2002; 336].

The word "people" in first three meanings is included in the active dictionary, the fourth meaning of this word is outdated.

Historicisms have no synonyms in modern Russian. Their meaning can only be explained by resorting to an encyclopedic description.

Sometimes words that have become historicisms return to active use. The condition for this is the revival of the realities themselves, which are designated by these words. This happened, for example, with the words “gymnasium, lyceum,” which are now used to name varieties of modern educational institutions.

Archaisms are outdated words that have left the active dictionary, unable to withstand competition with more commonly used words denoting the same objects, actions, signs [Kasatkin 2001; 207]. For example: “Let him know,” he said, still sternly, “that sovereigns not only live happily, but also have a hard time. - But sensing sadness and dissatisfaction in the ensuing silence, he added softly: “Let’s go, Ivan.” I’ll let you go and play games” (V. Yazvitsky. Ivan III - Sovereign of All Rus') [Kasatkin 2001; 208].

Archaisms have synonyms in modern Russian, with the help of which explanatory dictionaries explain their meaning, accompanied by the mark “obsolete.”

The words “knows, tokmo, vborze” (as well as the forms “Ivane, igati”) are perceived by the modern reader as outdated, and the concepts that they denoted exist and are called by the modern words “knows, only, soon.”

Thus, archaisms in modern language certainly have synonyms: “sneezing - sneezing, velmi - very” and many others.

Often words, being outdated in direct meaning, continue to live in the language as general linguistic metaphors. So, “master” we call a person who does not like to work himself, “lackey” - a sycophant, “servant” - a servant, henchman. The noun “hanger-on” (hanger-on), which in its literal meaning is historicism (“an impoverished nobleman, a merchant, an intellectual, living out of mercy in a rich house, entertaining the owners”” [IA vol. 3: 408], in modern speech used as a disapproving characteristic of a person who lives at someone else’s expense and panders to patrons. The noun "tavern" (in Tsarist Russia- “drinking establishment of the lowest category”) [MAS T.2: 10] is widely used in youth slang to refer to a restaurant, cafe, where you can have a drink

In such metaphorical meanings, words are not perceived by speakers as outdated; there is no mark “outdated.” to the indicated meanings of these words and in dictionaries. However, our intuitively felt opposition of this group of words to modern words makes metaphors of this kind very bright characteristics persons, objects, expressing all kinds of emotional and evaluative nuances.

Often, outdated words, under the influence of a variety of linguistic (most often social) factors, can acquire a “second life”, returning again to active word usage. Most often, this process is experienced by historicisms. So, the word "bard" for a long time which was literally obsolete (bard - “poet, singer among the ancient Celts”) [MAS T.1: 61], and in figurative meaning used only in poetry as a traditionally poetic high synonym for the word “poet”, in the 60s of the 20th century it again became widely used to refer to singers performing their own songs with a guitar, such as Yu. Vizbor, Yu. Kim, V. Vysotsky , A. Galich et al.

The noun “ensign” (“the most junior officer rank in the pre-revolutionary army, as well as a person in this rank”) [MAS T.3: 358-359], having been historicized for almost sixty years, returned to speech use in the 70s of the 20th century after resuming this military rank already in the modern army.

The fads of fashion returned several years ago to our lexicon the noun “leggings” - a former historicism that previously meant “tight-fitting trousers made of rough suede - part of the military uniform of some regiments in Tsarist Russia” [MAS T.2: 201], and now - an item of clothing modern fashionistas. Words such as “governor”, ​​“Duma”, “gymnasium”, “lyceum”, “cadet corps”, “Cossack circle”, “entrepreneur”, “share”, “stock exchange” have also been revived; in Moscow again there is a “Noble Assembly” and “Gostiny Dvor”, etc.

In modern lexicology, there is a traditional classification of the main types of obsolete words. N.M. Shansky was the first lexicologist to develop and publish a typology of obsolete vocabulary, according to which for the first time obsolete words are classified according to the degree and nature of obsolescence (historicisms are words that served as names of disappeared objects, concepts, phenomena; archaisms are obsolete words, names not obsolete, modern things, signs, phenomena for which there are later names). These are the types of archaisms that N.M. Shansky identifies: lexical-phonetic - words in which the sound form of the word is obsolete (mirror - mirror); lexical-word-formative - words in which only some morphological part is outdated (rubber - rubber); proper lexical - words that are completely obsolete (apple - eyelids); semantic archaisms - words used in an outdated meaning (presence - institution); phraseological - outdated stable combinations of words, idioms, sayings (a lamb in a piece of paper - a bribe); lexical-syntactic - outdated connections of a given word with others (glorious misfortunes, safe robbers) [Shansky 1987].

Shouldn't be overlooked valuable contribution other lexicologists on this issue, since their additions make the typology of obsolete words much more impressive and complete and therefore deserve our attention. This issue was investigated, thereby supplementing the typology of outdated vocabulary with new concepts by O.E. Voronichev, D.N. Shmelev, L.P. Krysin and T.G. Terekhova, L.L. Kasatkin, M.N. Nesterov and others.

Thus, O.E. Voronichev supplements the typology of historicisms with lexical and lexical-semantic historicisms themselves [Voronichev 2000]. D.M. Shmelev distinguishes partial historicism and exoticism [Shmelev 1960]. L.P. Krysin and T.G. Terekhova complement the typology of archaisms with accentual archaisms [Krysin 2001]. L.L. Kasatkin identifies lexico-grammatical archaisms and spelling archaisms [Kasatkin 2004]. M.N. Nesterov gives the following typology of outdated vocabulary: semantic-expressive archaisms, semantic-word-forming archaisms, semantic-morphological archaisms, semantic-syntactic archaisms [Nesterov 1994]. E.I. Dibrova distinguishes between multi-root and single-root archaisms. Different-rooted ones include actual lexical archaisms that have an obsolete root (hand - palm). The composition of single-root archaisms includes: 1) lexical-semantic archaisms - meanings of a polysemantic word that have disappeared from their use, having a different, modern name; 2) lexical-phonetic archaisms - differing from modern version words by sounds (phonemes) or place of stress (accentual archaisms); 3) lexical and word-formative archaisms - differing from a modern single-root word by suffixes and / or prefixes; 4) lexico-morphological archaisms - grammatical variants that differ from modern words by outdated morphological categories and word forms [Dibrova 2001].

O.S. Akhmanova gives the following definition of archaism: “1. A word or expression that has fallen out of everyday use and is therefore perceived as outdated: Russian sculptor, widow, widow, healing, in vain, giving, from ancient times, covetousness, slander, instigation. 2. A trope consisting in the use of an old (antique) word or expression for the purpose of historical stylization, giving speech a sublime stylistic coloring, achieving a comic effect, etc.” [Akhmanova 1966: 6]

In our study, we will take as a basis the typology of archaisms by L.I. Rakhmanova and V.N. Suzdaltseva:

1) lexical-phonetic, accentological;

2) lexical and word-formative;

3) actual lexical ones;

4) grammatical;

5) semantic [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva 2003].

In D.M. Balashov’s novel “Mr. Veliky Novgorod” we read: “I’ll send my boats to Stockholm! ... The thief stepped up, Oleksa did not move from his place ... ... so much to talk about unnecessarily ... about that now ... he poked with a dry finger, like a spear, from afar ... " [Balashov 2007; 62].

The highlighted words are archaisms that have corresponding non-obsolete equivalents in modern Russian. Now we say: boats, thief, talk, now, finger. At the same time, it is obvious that archaism may differ from a modern synonymous word in various ways: different grammatical design, different meaning, different morphemic composition, etc. Depending on what feature distinguishes an obsolete word from its modern synonym, the following groups of archaisms are distinguished:

Lexico-phonetic archaisms are words that have in their phonetic appearance a sound or combination of sounds unusual for modern pronunciation: tie (tie), gishpansky (Spanish), zertsalo (mirror), project (project), vlasy (hair), etc. A variety of lexical-phonetic archaisms are accentological archaisms, i.e. words that differ from modern ones in the place of stress: symbol/l, epigraph/f, etc. [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva 2003: 145].

Lexico-word-formation archaisms that differ from the modern equivalent by some word-formation affix (most often a suffix): Asians (Asians), druzhestvo (friendship), ryber (fisherman), etc. [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva 2003: 145-146].

Actually, lexical archaisms are words that are completely outdated: so that - so that, shelter - roof, destruction - death, paradise - paradise, hope - hope and firmly believe, this one - that one, this one - this one. [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva 2003: 146].

Grammatical archaisms are obsolete forms of words that do not exist in the modern language, for example, forms of the vocative (seventh in the system of cases of the Old Russian language) case of nouns: father, king, man, virgin; as well as such grammatical forms, which in modern language are formed differently: at the ball - at the ball, perform - perform, russago - Russian. [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva 2003: 146].

Semantic archaisms are outdated values such words that exist in modern Russian, but name another phenomenon or object. For example, previously the word “thief” was used to describe any state criminal, traitor, or villain; the words “shame, disgrace” meant “a spectacle, usually shameful”; “belly” meaning “life”; "language" in the meaning of "people". [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva 2003: 146-147.]

In the composition of obsolete words, a distinction is made between historicisms proper and semantic historicisms.

Actually, historicisms are words denoting objects, phenomena, professions that have emerged from modern life: corvée, plow, frock coat, zipun, boyar, etc.

Semantic historicisms - meanings of polysemantic words that have fallen out of use, naming disappeared objects, phenomena: “cartel” - a written challenge to a duel; “fortress” - serfdom; “subscriber” is an artist who paints buildings, walls, ceilings [Dibrova 2001; 328].

Historicisms reflect the social system, production activity, life, morals, fashion, etc. of one time or another. Each time is characterized by its own thematic paradigms that fix the foundations of a certain era. A system of concepts arises that coexist and are interconnected objectively, intellectually, and professionally. Individual members of a paradigm or the entire paradigm can emerge from living speech (for example, the names of primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal system), but in the paradigms associated with the life of the nation (management, production activity, family) there is only a replacement and replenishment in the system of concepts corresponding to the content and style of thinking of the era.

Now we don’t measure arshins, we don’t bow to volost elders and clerks, and we’re happy to forget all the “unnecessary” words. But what should writers and historians do if they want to describe a bygone era? IN historical literature, V works of art, telling about the past of our people, one cannot help but use historicisms and archaisms. They help to recreate the flavor of the era and give the description of the past a touch of historical authenticity.

Russian language

Archaisms and historicisms - what is the difference between them?

2 comments

Cultural, economic, and social changes occur in the life of society: science develops, technology appears, life improves, and political transformations occur.

This leads to the fact that words cease to be used, become obsolete, and are replaced by new words. let's consider illustrative examples What are historicisms and archaisms? Two layers of vocabulary coexist. The first is words that native speakers know and use (active vocabulary).

The other layer is words that do not sound in speech, the majority of language users do not know them, require additional explanations, or understandable names that have ceased to function in speech - passive vocabulary.

The passive dictionary includes obsolete words. They differ in the level of obsolescence and the reasons why they became so.

The difference between historicisms and archaisms

Historicisms are not used in speech; the objects and concepts that they named do not exist. Archaisms denote objects and phenomena that still exist today, but have been replaced by other phrases. The difference between the two groups is that archaisms have synonyms, this is important.

Examples: ramena (shoulders), tuga (sadness), destruction (death)

Historicisms have been in use for a very long time. Words that were once popular under Soviet rule have already become forgotten - pioneer, communist, Soviet power, Politburo. Sometimes words become common vocabulary: lyceum, gymnasium, police, governor, department

It also happens that outdated words return to speech in a new understanding. For example, the word squad in Ancient Rus' it meant “princely army.” In vocabulary, its meaning is “a voluntary community of people formed for a specific purpose” - people's squad.

Historicisms - how did they appear?

Society is developing at a rapid pace, and therefore cultural values ​​are changing, some things are becoming obsolete, and new ones are appearing. Fashion moves forward and the previously popular kaftan is now just an outdated word. Such clothes are not worn, and many outdated names can be found in ancient books or historical films.

For modern man Historicisms are part of history, they can be studied for development, but there is no need to use them in speech, others will not be able to understand their meaning. Misunderstandings will arise.
To understand historicisms, consider examples and interpretation of words.

Historicisms, examples	Interpretation of the word
barnkeeper	private barn owner who buys grain or rents out barns
disgusting	food, dishes
business card	men's clothing, a type of jacket with rounded flaps that diverge in front; originally intended for visits
hryvnia	neck silver or gold decoration in the form of a hoop
hound bear	a bear specially trained for palace “funny games”
clerk	official in the order
stoker	court official in the Moscow state
unworthy money	money for unserved time, which the soldier was obliged to return to the community in case of early termination of service
order	governing body of individual industries
cold shoemaker	in Russia until 1917 - a shoemaker who did not have a workplace, but repaired shoes right on the street near a client who had taken his shoes off his feet

Among the reasons for the formation of historicisms: the improvement of tools, the complication of production processes, the development of culture, and political transformations.

The abolition of the dependence of the peasant on the landowner in Russia left the words: master, quitrent, corvee, tax, serf in the past. The main thing is that historicisms remain in the history of mankind and do not return to speech, therefore they do not matter. No one will wear a caftan now or there will be no corvée and serfdom.

Historicisms disappear from speech forever

Historicisms can be divided into groups to understand the meaning of words:

• old clothes and shoes – salop, armyak, camisole, hose, shoe, bast shoes;
• names of social life phenomena – duel, Comintern member, farm laborer, collective farmer, kulak, self-destructive;
• craft and professions of people: squire, buffoon, journeyman, water-carrier, cooper;
• monetary units – half, imperial, five-altyn;
• measures of weight and length - verst, vershok, span, pound, fathom, pud;
• titles and positions - excellency, driver, highness, mayor, hussar, orderly;
• military household items - mace, chain mail, axe, flail, aventail, squeal;
• names administrative units – district, parish, province;
• letters of the ancient alphabet - beeches, yat, lead.

Outdated phrases may appear in scientific style to designate phenomena in an epoch-making period, to give expressiveness to heroes and images in an artistic style.
In modern language one cannot find a synonym for historicism. What is remarkable is the fact that historicisms can date back several centuries.

Archaisms - what are they?

These are outdated names of objects and concepts that have been replaced with other words that are familiar modern society. The world is changing, people are changing along with it, and the language is expanding with new concepts, and new words are being invented for the old ones.

Archaisms have taken on a new look, therefore they can be classified as synonyms of modern words, but still their use in the Russian language will be strange rather than a common occurrence. For understanding ancient objects, for an in-depth study of the culture of ancient people, archaisms and their meaning can play a role.

To figure it out, let's look at the table where the interpretations of old words are written. It is not necessary to know them, but it will be a godsend for a historian.

Archaisms are divided into groups. Sometimes it is not the whole word that becomes obsolete, but only part of it. Let's take meanings that are completely outdated: verses (verses). Some words have outdated morphemes - prejudice.
The process of formation of archaisms is uneven. Thematic groups of archaisms are different:

• person's character - word sower(chatterbox, idle talker), lover of words(scientist, expert), wordsmith(flatterer), fusser(idle talker);
• profession - jump rope(gymnast), cattle feeder(cattle breeder), warehouseman(writer), skoroposolnik(messenger, messenger);
• social relations - coverb(companion), friend(friend, companion), suvrazhnik(enemy);
• family relations - sister(sister), kindred, kindred(relative);
• objects of surrounding reality - Selina(a. dwelling, building; b. crevice), sennitsa(tent, tent);
• natural phenomena - arrow(lightning), students(cold, cold);
• things - saddle(chair, armchair), Servet(napkin), scramble(peel, skin, shell), screenshot(chest, casket), standing(stand);
• abstract concepts - literature(eloquence), cleverness(inference), laughing(mockery), commonwealth(acquaintance, friendship).

Archaisms are rarely used in literature. If the writer is literate enough and speaks not only modern, but also ancient language, then such words will add a special “zest” to the speech. The reader will ponder and delve deeper into the reading, trying to understand and unravel what the author meant. It will always be interesting and informative.

Archaisms perform this function in rhetoric, judicial debates, and fiction.

A word may lose one of its meanings

Types of archaisms

Archaisms in literature and social activities People are usually divided into species. For a deeper understanding of the language and its historical development. No novel based on historical events, cannot do without mentioning outdated words.

1. Semantic archaisms

Words that previously had a different meaning, but in modern language they have a new meaning. We understand the word “housing” as a kind of real estate where a person lives. But earlier the word had a different meaning: he feels so bad as if he was walking to the fifth building; (housing - floor).

2. Phonetic archaisms

They differ from modern ones in one or two letters, even the spelling can be similar, as if one letter was removed or added. It may even seem like a mistake, but it's just an outdated expression.
For example: poet - drink, fire - fire, dishonest - dishonored.

3. Derivatives

Obsolescence occurs only in part of a word and usually in a suffix. It is easy to guess the meaning for understanding, but it is more common to recognize archaisms if you already know which letters have been replaced, removed or added.

• The rubber ball bounces off the floor (rubber - rubber).
• What a wonderful pencil drawing (pencil - pencil).
• The entire audience, competing with each other, shouted different phrases(competing - competing).
• This nervous person is simply terrible (nervous - nervous).

4. Phraseological

When we talk about this type of archaism, we understand entire sayings, volatile expressions, a special ancient combination of words that was previously in use.
Examples of stable expressions include: I’ll buy myself a farm; wifey makes a nice profit from coke and juice; stuck it to whoever it should be.

5. Grammar

Such words remain in modern speech, but their gender has changed. Examples include tulle and coffee. Our coffee is masculine, but they want to make it mean. The word tulle is masculine, but sometimes it is confused and people want to make it feminine.
Examples of words: swan - was earlier female, now has masculine. Previously, poets wrote that a lonely swan floats.

The importance of obsolete words

Outdated vocabulary - valuable material to form knowledge about the history of the people, introducing it to national origins. These are tangible threads that connect us to history. Its study allows us to restore information about the historical, social, economic activity ancestors, gain knowledge about the way of life of the people.

Outdated words are a means that allows you to diversify speech, add emotionality to it, and express the author’s attitude to reality.