Classification of vowel sounds. Principles of vowel classification

Contrasting vowels and consonants (phonemes)

Principles of consonant classification

2.1. Classification of consonants by method of formation

2.2. Classification of consonants by place of formation

2.3. Classification of consonants by noisiness/sonority and strength of articulation

2.4. Additional Consonant Classification Options

Principles of vowel classification

3.1. Basic parameters of vowel classification

3.2. Additional vowel classification options

3.3. Monophthongs and polyphthongs

Literature

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1. Contrasting vowels and consonants (phonemes)

In all languages ​​of the world there are two classes of speech sounds: vowels And consonants. The combination of vowels forms vocalism(lat. vō cā lis 'vowel'). Set of consonants - consonantism(lat. consonantis 'consonant'). Consonants in the languages ​​of the world more than vowels [Kodukhov, p. 120, 125].

The division of speech sounds into vowels and consonants is based on several criteria:

acoustic criterion,

three articulatory,

functional.

Degree of sonority(acoustic criterion)

The following are involved in the formation of sounds:

or tone,

or noise,

or tone combined with noise(in various proportions).

Classification of sounds by degree of sonority Scheme No. 1.

speech sounds (phonemes)

┌─────────────┴────────────┐

sonorous noisy

┌──────┴─────┐ ┌─────┴─────┐

vowels sonants voiced voiceless

consonants

Vowels sounds – maximally sonorous, because when they form in the larynx, as a result of the work of the vocal cords, tone, and in the cavity of the pharynx and mouth there is an air stream meets no obstacles which could create noise.

Sonants(< лат.sonans ‘sounding’), or sonorous(< лат.sonorus‘sonorous’) is especially sonorous consonants. During their articulation, as well as during the formation of vowels, a tone in the larynx, but in the oral cavity the air stream meets obstacle, creating noise:

[m], [n], [l], [r], [j], [ŋ].

In Russian language plus corresponding soft:

[m’], [n’], [l’], [r’].

Voiced consonants pronounced with obligatory participation vocal cords in the larynx, a tone is formed there, but noise in the oral cavity, which occurs when an air stream passes through an obstacle, prevails over tone. Voiced consonants less sonorous than sonants.

Voiceless consonants- This noises, the proportion of tone during their formation is very insignificant.

So, With acoustic points of view vowels – sounds based on tone, A consonants- sounds that are based on noise.

The differences between vowels and consonants are not absolute: articulatory and acoustic differences between vowels and some sonants may be completely absent [LES, p. 477]. For example,

In fact we are dealing with sonority scale.

Polar In terms of sonority in the Russian language, they are the vowel [a] and the consonant [p].

A e o i u m n l r y v z f ... b d g f s w x ... t k P

vowels sonants voiced consonants voiceless consonants

In addition, the degree of sonority of similar sounds can be different

a) in different languages:

[l] maybe sonant and form a syllable (cf. Czech. vl k'wolf'),

he can be deaf noisy(in Korean, Khanty and other languages);

b) in different phonetic positions in the same language:

Wed in Russian: [l] before a vowel ( l ampa) – very sonorous, and at the end of the word ( one hundredl ) – stunned [Kodukhov, p. 110].

“Not all linguists share the opinion about the possibility of separating vowels and consonants. Thus, Saussure and Grammont distribute all speech sounds into 7 (or 9) “solutions”, where the boundary of vowels and consonants is erased (although Saussure has corresponding reservations).

Shcherba and his students do not find a sharp boundary between vowels and consonants, contrasting only vowels and noisy consonants […]. This theory does not illuminate the nature of sonorant consonants clearly enough” [Reformatsky, p. 170 (note)].

Character of articulation(1st articulatory criterion)

The most significant feature distinguishing vowels and consonants from a physiological point of view:

vowels are formed due to the opening movements of the pronunciation organs (“mouth openers”),

A consonants– thanks to the closures (“mouth closures”)

(This distinction was proposed by V. A. Bogoroditsky (1857–1941)).

Differencein the tension of the speech apparatus(2nd articulatory criterion)

During education consonants is created in the speech apparatus block, and tension of the speech apparatus localized at the place where the barrier is created, and when formed vowelsthere is no barrier, and tension distributed throughout the speech apparatus.

Differencein the intensity of the air stream(3rd articulatory criterion)

Due to the need to overcome an obstacle, the air stream is more intense when forming consonants[OOF, p. 19–20; Reformatsky, p. 171–172].

ParticipationVsyllable formation (functional criterion)

Typically, the top of a syllable is a vowel.

However, sonorant consonants can also form a syllable:

Czech: pr st, vl k,

English: garden .

Wed. Russian extR , wisdomR , R zhav,l style

Not only sonants, but also noisy consonants can form the apex of a syllable (cf.: shh!),But

the syllable-forming function is uncharacteristic for them and

in combination with a vowel cannot be realized: in the combination of a vowel + consonant, the top of the syllable is necessarily the vowel [LES, p. 165, 477; Vendina, s. 71].

1. Definition of phonetics, various sections of phonetics

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of language. It includes all the sound means of the language, that is, not only sounds and their combinations, but also stress and intonation.

Depending on the volume of material that is the subject of direct research by phoneticians, general phonetics and comparative phonetics and private phonetics of individual languages ​​are distinguished. General phonetics explores patterns characteristic of the sound side of any language. Comparative phonetics deals with identifying the common and special in the sound side of two or more comparable or compared languages. Phonetics of individual languages studies the features of the sound side of a particular language as fully as possible.
In turn, the phonetics of individual languages ​​differ historical phonetics and descriptive phonetics. Historical phonetics of a particular language studies the history of the sound means of a given language to the extent that it is reflected in written records in this language, dialect speech, etc. Descriptive phonetics studies the sound means of a particular language at a certain period of its history or in its present state.
In phonetics, such private disciplines are distinguished as articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, perceptual phonetics, functional phonetics, or phonology, accentology, or the study of word stress, intonology, or the study of intonation. Articulatory phonetics studies the activity of the human speech apparatus, as a result of which sounds are produced. Acoustic phonetics studies purely physical features
(characteristics, parameters) of speech sounds in individual languages. Perceptual phonetics examines the characteristics of the perception of speech sounds by the human hearing organ.
Functional phonetics, or phonology, studies the functions that speech sounds perform as part of the sounds that form the material, perceptual side of the meaningful units of language: morphemes, words and their forms. Thus, the terms phonetics and phonology cannot be equated: phonology is only a part of phonetics, a private discipline that studies the functions of speech sounds and phonemes.
Among other linguistic units - grammar, lexicology - phonetics occupies an equal position with them as an independent science. It interacts primarily with grammar. This interaction is due to the fact that the same sound features of the sound form of linguistic phenomena turn out to be significant not only for the sound side of the language, but also for some areas of its grammatical structure. For example, certain types alternations turn out to be morphologized, that is, they are used in the formation different forms the same words or different words from the same root morphemes. (cf. in Russian: wake up - wake up, drive - drive, friend or friend German: sprechen-sprach, stechen-stach.
Such morphologized alternations of sounds are studied by a discipline called morphonology that emerged at the intersection of phonetics and morphology. For both phonetics and syntax, the rules of phrasal intonation of specific languages ​​are very important, since each specific proposal characterized by a certain intonation pattern. Therefore, the data obtained in intonological studies themselves find the most direct application in works on descriptive syntax.

2. General information from acoustics

From the point of view of acoustics, sound is the result of the oscillatory movements of a body in any environment, accessible to sound perception.
Acoustics distinguishes the following features in sound:
1. Height, which depends on the vibration frequency.
2. Force, which depends on the amplitude (span) of vibrations.
3. Duration, or longitude, that is, the duration of a given sound in time.
4. Timbre of sound, that is, the individual quality of its acoustic characteristics.

3. Structure of the human speech apparatus

The speech apparatus is a set of organs of the human body adapted for the production and perception of speech. The speech apparatus in a broad sense covers the central nervous system, organs of hearing and vision, as well as organs of speech.
The speech organs, or speech apparatus in the narrow sense, include:
lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs.
Based on their role in pronouncing sounds, the speech organs are divided into active and passive. The active organs of speech produce certain movements necessary for the formation of sounds, and thus have a special important for their formation. The active organs of speech include: vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, posterior dorsum of the pharynx (pharynx) and the entire lower jaw. Passive organs do not perform independent work during sound production and perform only an auxiliary role. The passive organs of speech include the teeth, alveoli, hard palate and the entire upper jaw.

Articulation of speech sound

To form each speech sound, a complex of work of the speech organs is required in a certain sequence, that is, a very specific articulation is needed. Articulation is the work of the speech organs necessary to pronounce sounds.
The articulation of the sound of speech consists of a set of movements and states of the speech organs - the articulatory complex; therefore, the articulatory characteristic of speech sound turns out to be multidimensional, covering from 3 to 12 different features.
The complexity of sound articulation also lies in the fact that it is a process in which three phases of sound articulation are distinguished: attack (excursion), endurance and retreat (recursion).
An articulation attack is when the speech organs move from a calm state to the position necessary to pronounce a given sound. Exposure is maintaining the position necessary to pronounce a sound. Indentation of articulation consists of transferring the speech organs to a calm state.

On the relationship between sounds and letters

One of the most remarkable discoveries of the science of language in the middle of the last century can be briefly formulated as follows: the establishment of differences between sounds and letters with the help of which these sounds are represented. Even the great founders of comparative historical linguistics of the first third of the 19th century - F. Bopp (1791 - 1867), Rask (1787 - 1832), Vostokov (1791 - 1864) - often mixed languages ​​and sounds and letters did not know how to clearly formulate the essence of the difference between them . And only in the second half of the century before last this distinction found general and indisputable recognition. Despite the fact that the nature of sounds is completely different from the nature of letters, nevertheless, these concepts are correlated. There is no unambiguous correspondence between sound and letter; if there was, it would be an ideal alphabet. A letter represents the designation of sounds in a letter.

Classification of sounds

The classification of speech sounds is based on the acoustic and anatomical and physiological characteristics of sounds. The starting point is to divide all sounds into
vowels and consonants. The totality of vowels forms vocalism, and the totality of consonants forms consonantism.

4. Signs that distinguish vowel sounds from consonants

1. The main difference between vowels and consonants is their role in syllable formation. A vowel sound always forms the top of a syllable and is a sonant; a consonant accompanies a sonant and is a consonant.
2. The articulatory difference between vowels and consonants consists of different tensions of the pronunciation apparatus and the absence or presence of a focus of formation.
3. During the formation of vowels, the voice dominates over noise, while during the formation of most consonants (with the exception of sonorants), the relationship is the opposite: noise dominates over the voice.
The presence of two types of speech sounds (vowels and consonants), differing in articulation, forces a classification of vowels to be made separately from the classification of consonants.

5. Classification of vowel sounds.

The basis for the classification of vowels is the row and rise of the tongue, as well as the work of the lips.
Articulatory vowels are distributed horizontally along the row, that is, along the part of the tongue that is raised when pronouncing a given sound. There are three rows, and accordingly three types of speech sounds, which are front, middle and back.
Front vowels - and e; middle row - s; back row at o a.
Vertically, vowels differ in their rise - that is, in the degree of elevation of one or another part of the tongue during the formation of a given vowel. There are usually three lifts - upper, middle and lower. In the Russian language, high vowels include u y, middle vowels e o, and low vowels a.

According to the position of the lips, vowels are divided into labial, that is, in the formation of which the lips take part - o y (labialized, rounded) and unglobbed, that is, in the formation of which the lips do not take part - a e and s. Labial vowels are usually back.
Nasalization.
A number of languages ​​have nasal vowels, for example French, Polish languages. Old Church Slavonic also featured nasal vowels, which in Cyrillic were represented by special letters: yus large, or o nasal and yus small, or e nasal. Articulation of nasal vowels occurs when raised? the palatine curtain and the lowered back of the tongue, so that the air stream simultaneously and equally enters the oral and nasal cavity.

6. Classification of consonants.

The classification of consonants is more complex because there are more consonants in the world's languages ​​than vowels.
Noisy - sonorous. As part of the consonant sounds of any language, two large classes of consonants are distinguished: noisy, that is, sounds in the formation of which main role noise plays a role, and sonorant ones, that is, sounds in the formation of which the main role is played by the voice that arises from the vibration of the vocal cords.
The difference between consonants according to the nature of the barrier and the method of overcoming it. Consonants differ depending on what kind of barriers the speech organs form for the air flow coming from the lungs. If the speech organs are closed, then the air stream opens them. As a result, there are stop or plosive consonants. In those cases when the organs of speech are not closed, but only brought closer together, a gap remains between them. An air stream passes into this gap, characteristic air friction is formed, and the consonant sounds arising from this noise are called fricative (from the word gap), or fricative(from Latin name fricare - “to rub”, as the air seems to rub against a gap in the loosely adjacent organs of speech). In various languages ​​there are also consonant sounds that combine the features of plosives with the features of fricative consonants. Such consonants seem to begin with a plosive element and end with a fricative element. They are called affricates. The Russian affricate ts consists of the plosive t and the fricative s, the affricate h - from the plosive t and the fricative sh. Africates occur in English language(Georg), in German (Deutsch) and many other languages.
According to the method of formation of the barrier, trembling consonant sounds are also distinguished, during the formation of which the barrier is formed by periodically bringing the active organ of speech closer to the passive one until a very weak stop appears, which is immediately broken by a stream of air emerging from the lungs.
If the first row of differences in the area of ​​consonants is determined by the nature of the obstacles standing in the way of the air flow coming from the lungs, then the second row of differences is associated with activity of active speech organs- tongue and lips. According to this series of differences, consonants are divided into lingual and labial. When the anterior part is involved in lingual articulations part of the tongue, frontal consonants appear. Middle and back lingual consonants are also possible.
The fragmentation continues: among the front-lingual consonants, dental consonants are distinguished, for example, t, and alveolar consonants, for example w). When articulating midlingual consonants, the middle part of the back of the tongue rises and moves closer to the hard palate (for example, the German so-called Ich-Laut in words like ich, Recht). When articulating posterior lingual sounds, the back of the tongue is brought closer together by the soft palate. The back-lingual ones include the Russians k, g, x. In addition to lingual, the same group of consonants also includes labial consonants, which in turn are divided into labiolabial (bilabial, for example, Russian p) or labiodental, for example, v). The difference between labiolabial and labiodental is easy to detect experimentally: to do this, you just need to pronounce the Russian sounds p and v several times in turn.
The third row of differences in the system of consonant sounds is created by the so-called palatalization (from the Latin palatum - hard palate). Palatalization, or softness, is the result of raising the middle and anterior part of the tongue towards the hard palate. Any consonant, except the middle ones, can be palatalized or softened. The presence of palatalized consonants is a striking feature of Russian phonetics.

The number of speech sounds found in different languages ​​of the world is quite large. The number of typical sounds (phonemes) ranges from 12 to 80. Despite the different set of sounds in different languages, in all languages ​​of the world there are two types of speech sounds - vowels and consonants. The set of vowel sounds forms vocalism (from the Latin vocalis - vowel) of the phonetic system of a particular language, and the set of consonants forms its consonantism (from the Latin conson?ns, genus consonantis - consonant). The classification of sounds can be based on both acoustic and articulatory features. When dividing sounds into vowels and consonants and their internal classification, both of these characteristics are most often taken into account.

Vowels- these are sounds, during the formation of which in the supraglottic cavities there are no obstacles to the path of the air stream: the stream of exhaled air passes freely through the speech canal. For vowel sounds, the so-called diffuse tension of the muscles of the entire pronunciation apparatus is typical, when all speech organs taking part in sound formation are tense. The degree of tension can change: with greater tension, the pronounced vowel has a clearer character (for example, a stressed vowel in Russian). When characterizing vowels, other features are usually noted: vowels are tonal sounds. They are characterized by the presence of musical tones (voices), which are formed by the work of the vocal cords.

Consonants- these are sounds, the formation of which in the supraglottic cavities or in the larynx necessarily creates one or another obstacle to the path of the air stream (in the form of close or even closed speech organs). Consonants are characterized by concentrated muscular tension at the point of formation of the obstruction and a stronger air stream than vowels. In addition, consonant sounds are characterized by the presence of noise that occurs when overcoming an obstacle. The admixture of musical tones (voices) may be greater or lesser.

Acoustic classification of speech sounds

The peculiarities of acoustic classification are that it describes vowels and consonants with the same set of terms. In this case, acoustic classification is based, as a rule, on a binary principle, that is, two-term oppositions. In other words, the application of the binary principle in acoustic classification at each division gives two classes of speech sounds. For example, sign vocality - non-vocality, based on the presence or absence of a clearly defined formant structure of sound, it divides speech sounds into sonorant (from the Latin sonorus - sonorous) and noisy. Sonorant (vocal) consonants include vowels and sonorant consonants [m], [n], [l], [p], [j]. Nonvocal consonants include noisy consonants [b], [p], [d], [t], [g], [k], [v], [f], [z], [s], [zh], [ w], [x], [ts], [h]. Sonorant sounds are characterized by the presence of resonator tones; noise in them is either absent (vowels) or minimally involved (for example, in p different types). In noisy consonants, the timbre is determined by the noise characteristic of this sound.

Based on consonance - non-consonance, based on low or high general level energy of sound, all sounds are divided into consonant (all consonants) and non-consonant (all vowels). In terms of energy level, non-consonant are strong sounds, consonantal - weak sounds. This sign does not duplicate the previous one, since in the first case some consonants have the sign of “publicity”. This is clearly visible on the following plate, where + indicates the presence of the attribute, and - (minus) its absence:

Another binary sign sonority - deafness, based on the presence or absence of harmonic vibrations in low frequencies, allows you to divide all sounds into voiced and unvoiced. TO ringing sounds classify all vocal sounds - and these are vowels, sonorant consonants and voiced noisy ones - as voiceless — non-vocal, that is, deaf noisy. As already noted, vowel sounds are characterized by the presence of only voice; in sonorant, or sonant sounds, the voice predominates over noise. Voiced noisy [b], [v], [g], [d], [z], [z] are formed with a predominance of noise over the voice, and voiceless noisy [k], [p], [s], [t] , [f], [x], [ts], [h], [w] - without voice participation.

The acoustic characteristics of sounds are based on experimental data from electroacoustics. It is based both on the actual frequency characteristics of the formants and on the location of the formants in the sound spectrum. To describe the phonetic systems of the world's languages, 12 pairs of features are usually used. In addition to the noted pairs, these are such signs as compactness - diffuseness, discontinuity - continuity, tension - non-tension, sharpness - blurredness, nasality - non-nasality, aruptiveness - non-abruptiveness, flatness - non-flatness, sharpness - non-sharpness, high tone - low tone.

Formants compact sounds on the spectrogram occupy the central part of the spectrum, formants diffuse- located at the ends of the spectrum. For example, Russian consonants [zh], [k], [r] are compact, and [b], [s], [f] are diffuse sounds. Intermittent sounds on spectrograms are characterized by a sharply broken edge of the wave, while continuous there are transitional tones. An example is the contrast between Russian stop consonants (discontinuous) and fricative consonants (continuous). U tense sounds, the total amount of energy is higher, and the duration of sound is longer than that of relaxed, for example, in German consonants [ä-a, ö-o, ü-u].

Acoustically sharp and unsharp sounds differ in noise intensity. When sharp sounds are formed in the oral cavity, turbulent air flows arise - jet turbulence, when part of the air flows across the general flow, disturbing it. In Russian, sharp sounds include affricates [ts, ch"] and tremulous [rr"]. Nasality due to the participation of the nasal resonator in the formation of sound. Nasal sounds include nasal vowels and consonants. Under abortiveness This refers to the formation of consonants accompanied by a glottal stop.

Abruptive, or glottalized, consonants are found in many languages ​​of America, the Caucasus, Far East. Acoustically, aruptive ones are characterized by a higher rate of energy consumption than non-abruptive ones. U flat sounds at least one of the formants is lowered compared to non-flat. So, in the Russian language, the vowels [a-e-y-i] are non-flat, and the vowels [o], [u] are flat, which is due to the roundness of these sounds. U sharp sounds, unlike flat ones, have at least one formant higher than that of unsharp. An example of sharp sounds are soft consonants Slavic languages. Opposition low tone- high tone is based on the concentration of energy in the lower or higher frequencies of the sound spectrum. In the Russian language, for example, vowels [у, о], hard consonants have a low tonality, and vowels [i, e], soft consonants have a high tonality.

To describe the phonetic system of the Russian language, 9 pairs of features are considered sufficient. At the same time, some of them for individual sounds turn out to be insignificant and duplicative in some cases, since their presence or absence follows from other signs and is predicted by them. For example, the vocality of [a] predicts its nonconsonantity; from the absence of vocality [s] follows its consonance.

Articulatory classification of speech sounds

The peculiarities of the articulatory classification are that vowels and consonants are described separately and, as a rule, in different terms, which is due to the specific articulation of these speech sounds.

Vowel classification

In different languages, the number of vowels does not coincide: for example, in modern Russian and Belarusian there are six of them, in modern German there are thirteen, and in modern English twenty-one. The International Phonetic Association (IPA) chart of vowel sounds is represented by 25 vowel sounds. The vocalism of the Russian language is considered quite simple, in contrast, for example, to the vocalism of English and French, which have tense and labial front vowels, long vowels and diphthongs.

Articulatory classifications of vowels are based on the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically (rise), the degree of its advancement forward or backward horizontally (row), on the participation or non-participation of the lips (the presence or absence of labialization; from the Latin labium - lip), on the position soft palate.

According to the degree of tongue elevation vowels are divided into: sounds of the upper rise (Russian [и], [ы], [у]), during the formation of which the tongue occupies the highest position in the oral cavity; sounds of the lower rise (Russian [a]), when articulating them, the tongue occupies the lowest possible position in the oral cavity; mid-rise sounds (Russian [e], [o]), when they are formed the tongue occupies a middle position in the oral cavity; There can be quite a lot of average rises.

During education front vowels(Russian [i], [e]) the tongue moves forward in the oral cavity, the back row (Russian [u], [o]) - back, the middle row (Russian [s], [a]) - the tongue is extended along the oral cavity.

By participation or non-participation of lips vowels are divided into labialized (rounded) and non-labialized (unrounded). Rounded sounds are formed by rounding and stretching the lips. In Russian it is [u], [o]. When pronouncing unrounded sounds, the lips are passive.

In the speech stream, vowel sounds, in addition to their basic form, exist in a variety of shades, which depend on various phonetic conditions: on the place in relation to stress, on proximity to hard or soft consonants, on the place in the word.

According to the position of the soft palate Vowels are divided into oral, or oral, and nasal. When the oral cavity is formed, the soft palate is raised and closes the passage into the nasal cavity. When nasal vowels are formed, the soft palate is lowered and the air stream passes freely into the nasal cavity. In modern Russian there are no nasal vowels. In ancient times, the Slavs had nasal vowels; they are still preserved in the Polish language.

Vowels are also distinguished degree of mouth opening. For example, the Russian vowel [and] belongs to the “narrow” sounds, since when pronouncing it the mouth almost does not open. And, on the contrary, the sound [a] is one of the “widest” sounds, since when it is pronounced, the widest mouth opening is formed.

The simplest table of Russian vowels looks like this:

In the languages ​​of the world, there are also complex vowels, consisting of two elements pronounced in one syllable and acting as one phoneme. These are the so-called diphthongs. They are divided into descending, or falling, and ascending. In a descending diphthong, the first element of the sound is strong. For example, in the English diphthong [оu] in words go - go, home - home, By - - no, this is the initial [o] - figurative overtone, while the second element is pronounced less clearly. In an ascending diphthong, the second element of the sound is strong, or syllabic. For example, in Spanish diffthongs, in words biep- Fine, biepo - a good one is the final [e] - figurative overtone.

Classification of consonants

The articulatory classification of consonant sounds is more complex, since there are more consonant sounds in the languages ​​of the world than vowels. In some languages, the number of consonants ranges from 50% to 90% of the total number of sounds. For example, in English there are 24 consonants and 21 vowels, French 21 consonants and 13 vowels, in Lithuanian - 45 consonants and 12 vowels, in Armenian - 30 and 6, respectively, in Georgian - 28 and 5, in Uzbek - 24 and 6, in Estonian - 16 consonants and 9 vowels (data from V. I. Kodukhova). In the Russian language there are 36 consonants and 6 vowels (sometimes other numbers are given).

The basis for the classification of consonants are the following articulatory features:

1) an active organ that forms a barrier;

2) place of formation of the barrier;

3) method of formation of the barrier;

5) position of the soft palate.

According to the active organ, consonants are divided into labial, lingual, uvular, pharyngeal and laryngeal.

During education labial sounds the barrier is created by the bow lower lip with the upper or bringing the lower lip closer to; upper teeth. In the first case, labial-labial (bilabial) sounds are obtained [p-p", b-b", mm"], in the second - labio-dental (labiodental - from the Latin labium - lip, dens (dentis) - tooth ) [v-v", f-f"].

lingual consonants are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual. Forelingual Consonants according to the place of formation are divided into dental and anteropalatal. In the production of dental sounds, an obstruction is created by the approach of the front and tip of the tongue to the teeth, teeth and alveoli or alveoli. The vast majority of front-lingual sounds belong to the category of dental sounds: [d-d", t-t", z-z", s-s", n-n", l-l", ts]. Anteropalatines are formed by raising the anterior part of the back of the tongue or its tip towards the alveoli and the anterior part of the hard palate. In Russian these include [zh, sh, ch", r-r"].

The articulations of front-lingual consonants vary across languages. Depending on the position of the tip of the tongue, they are also divided into dorsal(from lat. dorsum - back), apical (from lat. apex - top) and kakuminal (from lat. cacumen - sharp end, top). Dorsal ones are formed by bringing the front part of the back of the tongue closer to the upper teeth and alveoli (for example, Russian [t, n, s]), while the tip of the tongue is lowered to the lower teeth. During education apical sounds, together with the front part of the back of the tongue, the tip of the tongue rises towards the upper teeth and alveoli (for example, English). During education cuminal sounds, the tip of the tongue is raised, and the front part of the back of the tongue is somewhat concave inward (for example, Russian [r]).

Middle language consonants are formed by bringing the middle part of the back of the tongue closer to the hard palate - palatum, which is why they are sometimes called palatal(for example, Russian [j]).

During education posterior lingual the barrier of sounds is created by the convergence of the back of the tongue with the soft palate, which is why they are also called velar(from Latin velaris), or posterior palatal. The back-lingual sounds include [g-r", k-k", x-x"].

Education uvular sounds are characterized by the convergence of the soft palate and uvula (uvula) with the back of the tongue (for example, German [x] in the words ach, Buch).

During education pharyngeal, or pharyngeal, The barrier to sounds is created by a narrowing of the pharynx associated with the backward movement of the root of the tongue and contraction of the muscles of the pharynx. Pharyngeal sounds are found in German ([h] in words Held- hero, ha-ep - have), Arabic and some other languages.

Laryngeal, or laryngeal, sounds are formed when the vocal cords are bowed or brought together. Laryngeal sounds are very close to pharyngeal sounds and are often not distinguished between them (both are called laryngeal).

Thus, the division of consonants according to the active organ is layered on their division according to the place of formation, which is natural, since during the formation of a sound all its articulatory features appear, acting in a complex, in interconnection. This applies to the way the speech organs form an obstruction, to the functioning of the vocal cords, and to the position of the soft palate.

The method of formation refers to the nature of the barrier and passage for a stream of air (free, narrowed, closed) during the formation of a speech sound. That's why articulatory feature all consonants in one of the classification options are divided into stops, fricatives, stop-frictions, stop-passages and tremors.

During education stops a complete closure of the organs of speech occurs, which then ends in an “explosion” under the pressure of an air stream, which explains another term for these consonants - “explosive”. The articulation of stops has three elements - stop (implosion), sustain and explosion (explosion). The bow, hold and explosion occur very quickly, so these sounds are also called instantaneous, emphasizing the speed of their pronunciation: Russian. [b-b", p-p", d-d", t-t", g-g", k-k"], English. and etc.

Slotted consonants are created by the passage of air through the gap formed by the speech organs. A gap occurs in the oral cavity - between the lips and teeth or between the tongue and teeth or palate. An air stream passes through it with friction, which is why slot sounds are also called fricatives(from Lat. fricare - to rub): Russian. [v-v", f-f", z-z", s-s", zh, sh, j, x-x"], English, etc. Friction consonants can be unifocal and bifocal. When forming unifocal consonants the air stream passes through one obstacle, that is, one focus, in the oral cavity. When articulating bifocal consonants, an obstacle is formed simultaneously in two places, that is, in two foci, passing through which the air stream creates a complex specific noise. An example of bifocal consonants is Russian [ш , and].

Occlusion-slit consonants arise as a result of complete closure of the speech organs and the subsequent transition of the shutter into the gap: rus. [ts, h]. In other words, the attack of the affricate is a stop, and the indentation is a fricative. Stop-friction sounds are called differently affricates(from Latin affricata - ground).

Connectively-passing sounds are formed when an air stream bypasses the resulting closure of the speech organs. Depending on the path of passage of the air stream, the occipital passages are divided into nasal and lateral. When the nasal passages form, the soft palate descends and closes the passage to the oral cavity, air passes through the nose: Russian. [mmm", n-n"]. Lateral, or lateral (from Latin lateralis - side), occur when air leaks along the sides of the tongue: Russian. [l-l"].

Trembling consonants are formed by rhythmic vibration of the tip of the tongue, that is, vibration, which is why they are also called vibrants. In Russian these are the sounds [р-р"].

As already noted in the acoustic classification of sounds, according to the relationship between voice and noise, all consonants are divided into sonorant and noisy; the latter, in turn, are divided into voiced and voiceless.

Along with the main articulation in the formation of sounds in each language, there is an additional one that creates a specific coloring of timbre. Based on additional coloring, consonants are distinguished between palatalized, or soft, and non-palatalized, or hard.

Palatalization consists of additionally raising the front or middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate. The consonant [j] occupies a special place in this system: it is always soft - palatal, since during its formation there is only the main articulation of the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate and there is no additional one. In different languages, the degree of palatalization of consonant sounds varies. There are languages ​​for which palatalization is unknown.

The opposite process of palatalization is called velarization(from Latin velum palati - curtain of palate). During velarization, the back of the tongue moves toward the soft palate.

The proposed classification very incompletely reflects the real diversity of sound differences in consonants that exist in the phonetic systems of the world's languages. The simplest table of Russian consonants can be presented as follows:

Articulation method

Place of articulation

Involvement of voice and noise

Labial

lingual

labiolabial

labiodental

front-lingual

middle language

posterior lingual

dental

anteropalatal

Occlusive

b-b"

d-d"

g-g"

sound

p-p"

t-t"

k-k"

Ch.

Slotted

in-in"

z-z"

and

j

sound

f-f"

s-s"

sh-sh"

x-x"

Ch.

Occlusion-slit

ts

h"

Ch.

Connectively-passing

nasal

mm"

n-n"

dream.

lateral

l-l"

dream.

Trembling

rr"

dream.

TV

m.

TV

m.

TV

m.

TV

m.

chambers

TV

m.

Absence or presence of palatalization

Thus, the acoustic and articulatory classification of speech sounds shows that each sound has a number of characteristics that are preserved or not preserved when the sound is in proximity to others in the speech stream.

Language is truly a wonderful gift to humanity. This perfect instrument of communication has a complex structure and is a system. Traditionally, when starting to study a language, one turns to phonetics - a branch of the science of language, the subject of which is the sounds of speech, and more specifically, the classification of vowels and

Phonetics

Phonetics is designed to study speech sounds. It occupies a special position, which is determined by the fact that the subject of its study is language units that have material nature. Sounding speech is formed by the human speech organs and air vibrations. The perception of sounding speech occurs through the human hearing organs.

Phonetics deals with the most minimal unit of language - the sound of speech. There are an infinite number of such sounds. After all, everyone pronounces them in their own way. But among this variety we can identify sounds that are pronounced in the same way. The method of formation is the basis for the classification of sounds.

The main thing is the classification of vowels and consonants. Articulation and speech occur or provide speech with melodiousness. Consonants are noise.

Consonant sounds are produced when air overcomes obstacles in its path. They consist of voice and noise or only noise. Different ways formation and overcoming these obstacles make it possible to distinguish consonant sounds from each other. The classification of vowel/consonant sounds in the Russian language is based on these differences. We will consider its principles further.

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the articulatory and acoustic features of speech sounds. Articulatory phonetics deals with the study of the anatomical and physiological nature of sound and the mechanisms of its production. Acoustic phonetics studies sound as oscillatory movements carried out by its passage through the vocal cords and oral cavity. The subjects of study of acoustic phonetics are its pitch, strength, longitude and timbre.

Acoustic classification of vowel sounds

Introduction to phonetics usually begins with the study of vowel sounds. Let us not deviate from traditions that are due to their greater significance. They are syllabic. Consonants are adjacent to vowels.

What classification of vowels and consonants will be the subject of our attention for the study of vowel sounds in the first place?

First, let's look at the acoustic features of vowels:

• all these sounds are formed using the tone of the voice;
• characterized by stress and unstress, that is, they can be weak and strong;
• weak vowels are short in sound and do not require straining the vocal cords when pronouncing them;
• Strong vowels are distinguished by longer pronunciation and with tension in the vocal cords.

The tone of vowel sounds is not a meaningful characteristic. Can only transmit emotional condition speaker or grammatical meaning. For example, in interrogative sentence The vowel in the word that carries the greatest semantic load is pronounced in a higher tone.

Weak and short sounds are called unstressed in Russian. Strong and long are percussive. Stress is unfixed in our language and most often performs a grammatical function: house (singular), houses (plural). Sometimes the emphasis is meaningful: lock (structure), lock (device for locking a door).

Classification of vowel sounds according to articulatory features. Rounded/unrounded vowels

The articulatory classification of vowel sounds is much broader than the acoustic one. In addition to the voice, they are formed by the lips, tongue and lower jaw. Sound is formed in a certain way and is characterized by the following characteristics:

• participation of lips in its formation;
• degree of tongue elevation;
• horizontal movement of the tongue in the oral cavity.

Vowels can be formed by stretching the lips, then they are called rounded (labialized). If the lips do not participate in the formation of a vowel, then it is called unrounded (non-labialized).

Rounded vowels are formed when the lips are protruded forward and close to each other. The air passes through a narrow space formed by the lips folded into a tube, and the oral resonator lengthens. The degree of rounding varies: the vowel [o] has less, and the vowel [u] is characterized by a greater degree of rounding. The remaining vowels are unrounded, that is, non-labialized.

Vowels by the degree of vertical movement of the tongue, that is, by rise

Based on the way the tongue rises to the palate, vowel sounds are:

The lower the rise, the wider the mouth opens and the lower the jaw drops.

Vowels by horizontal tongue movement

Vowels, based on the horizontal movement of the tongue in the mouth, are also divided into three groups:

• The front row is the sounds [i], [e]. When they are formed, the front part of the tongue must be raised to the front of the palate.
• The middle row is the sounds [a], [s]. When they are formed, the middle part of the tongue rises to the middle part of the palate.
• Back row - [y], [o]. When they are formed, the back of the tongue rises towards the back of the palate.

In a generalized form, the classification of vowel sounds is reflected in the vowel triangle. You can see it in the picture below.

Shades of vowel sounds

Division by row and rise does not in any way correspond to the entire richness and variety of vowels. In general, the classification of vowels/consonants in the Russian language is much broader than what is given in textbooks school curriculum. Both the first and second may have pronunciation options. It depends on the position in which they stand.

In addition to the sound [and] there is one that is pronounced with a slightly greater openness of the mouth and a lower rise of the tongue than [and]. This sound has a name [and] is open. In transcription it is designated [and e]. Example: forests [l "i e sa"].

The sound [s e] is not so open. For example, in the word “iron”, which is pronounced [zhy e l"e"zny].

In a weak position, before a stressed syllable, instead of the sounds [a], [o], a non-labialized sound is pronounced. According to the position of the tongue, it occupies a place between [a] and [o], for example: grass [tr/\va"], fields [p/\l"a"].

There are also reduced vowels, they are also called weakened sounds. These are [ъ] and [ь]. [ъ] is the sound of the middle row of the middle-low rise. [b] - this sound is the sound of the front row of the middle-low rise. Examples: steam locomotive [pар/\в"с], water [въд" и е no"й]. The weakening of their pronunciation is due to the distance of these vowels from the stress.

The sounds [and е], [ы е], , [ъ], [ь] occur only in a position without stress.

Dependence of vowel sounds on the softness of consonants

Changes in the pronunciation of vowels depending on soft (palatalized) consonants are considered by phonetics. The classification of vowel sounds depending on such proximity can be presented as follows:

• The vowels ["a", "e", ["o", ["u] move slightly upward and forward at the beginning of pronunciation.
• If these vowels stand between soft consonants, changes in articulation persist throughout the entire pronunciation of the sound: son-in-law [z"a"t", aunt [t"o"t"a], tulle [t"u"l"].

Types of stressed vowels

There are six positions in our language, which are represented by different types stressed vowels. All of them are presented in the table below.

Types of unstressed vowels

The classification of unstressed vowels depends on the proximity or distance from the stress and preposition or postposition in relation to it:

• The vowels [i], [ы], [у], standing in the pre-stressed syllable, are slightly weakened in their articulation, but do not change radically.
• If [y] comes after hissing and hard ones before soft ones, then it moves slightly up and forward at the end of the sound, for example in the word zh[y˙]vet.
• The sound [y] at the very beginning of the word, standing before soft consonants and after hard back-lingual or hissing ones, also slightly moves up and forward at the end of pronunciation. For example: [u˙]iron, zh[ar˙]rit.
• The vowel [у], if it comes after a soft consonant and before a hard consonant, moves up and forward at the beginning of pronunciation. For example: [l’˙u]bove.
• If [y] is between soft consonants, it moves up and forward throughout the entire time of pronunciation: [l’˙u˙]beat.
• Vowels [a], [o], if they come after back-lingual ones at the beginning of a word, hard and [ts], are pronounced as [ㆄ], this vowel is formed in the middle row, is mid-low in its rise, it is non-labialized.
• Vowels [a], [o], [e], if they come after soft consonants, [ch], [j] are pronounced as [ie], which is characterized as a non-labialized vowel, intermediate between [i] and [e], according to in the row of formation it is anterior, in ascent it is middle-upper.
• The vowels [e], [o], which come after [sh], [z], are pronounced as [ые], it is the sound of the non-front row, it is no longer ы and not e, such a sound can be heard, for example, in the word " live."
• The vowel [a] after [sh], [zh] is pronounced [ㆄ]. This sound can be heard in the word "sh[ㆄ]lit".
• [i], [ы], [у] weaken their articulation in the third and second pre-stressed syllables, but do not change their character of pronunciation.
• The vowel [у], if it is in the second and third pre-stressed syllables, before palatalized consonants and behind hard sounds, does not differ from the sound pronounced in the pre-stressed syllable, this also applies to the vowels [ы] and [и].
• The vowels [a], [o], [e] in the third and second pre-stressed syllables, at the very beginning of the word, change according to the type of the syllable before the stress - in place of the stressed vowels [a], [o] is pronounced [ㆄ], and in place of [e] it is pronounced [ee].

Vowel changes percussion sounds in overstressed syllables are reflected in the table below.

Conclusion

To summarize, we can conclude: the classification of vowel sounds is influenced by the position of the tongue. Moving in the mouth, it creates different conditions to produce sounds. They are perceived as different vowels.

Vowels, as already indicated, are purely tonal sounds. Having arisen in the larynx as a result of vibration of the vocal cords, the musical tone and voice acquires a special timbre in the supraglottic cavities. The mouth and pharynx are the resonators in which differences between vowels are formed. These differences are determined by the volume and shape of the resonating cavities, which can change as a result of movements of the lips, tongue and lower jaw. Each vowel sound in every speaker is pronounced with a special arrangement of the organs of the mouth, characteristic only of this sound.

The classification of vowels is based on three characteristics: 1) the participation of the lips, 2) the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically in relation to the palate, 3) the degree of the tongue being pushed forward or pushed back horizontally.

Based on the participation of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded (labialized) and unglobbed (non-labialized). When rounded vowels are formed, the lips come closer, rounded and protrude forward, reducing the exit opening and lengthening the oral resonator. The degree of rounding can be different: less at [o], greater at [y]. The vowels [a, e, i, s] are unrounded.

According to the degree of elevation of the tongue in relation to the palate, the vowels of the upper rise [i, ы, у], middle rise [e, o] and lower rise [a] differ. When articulating high vowels, the tongue occupies the highest position. In this case, the lower jaw usually moves slightly away from the upper, creating a narrow mouth opening. Therefore, high vowels are also called narrow and. When articulating lower vowels, the lower jaw is usually lowered to its lowest position, creating a wide mouth opening. Therefore, low vowels are also called wide.

According to the degree to which the tongue is advanced or pushed back horizontally, the vowels of the front row [i, e], the middle row [s, a] and the back row [u, o] differ. When articulating the front, middle and back vowels, the tongue is concentrated in the front, middle or back of the mouth, respectively.

_ _ _ [s] Vowel articulation scheme:

The shape of the tongue can be different. When the front vowels are formed, the front part of the back of the tongue rises towards the front of the palate. When forming back vowels, the back of the tongue rises towards the back of the palate. And when forming middle vowels, the tongue either rises with the middle part to the middle part of the palate, as sometimes happens when pronouncing [s], or lies flat, as when pronouncing [a].

The simplest table of Russian vowels is:

Rounded vowels are indicated in bold.

The study of vowels in school is limited to this set of sounds.

But this table is too schematic. The division into three rises and three rows does not reflect the full richness of vowel sounds. So, in addition to [and], there is also a sound pronounced with a slightly greater openness of the mouth and a slightly lower rise of the tongue. This sound is called [and] open. In a more accurate transcription this is [and e]. There is [e] closed - a sound that differs from [e] by a slightly greater closedness of the mouth and a slightly higher rise of the tongue. In a more accurate transcription it is [e and] or [e¨].

Thus, open and closed vowels are “shades” of sounds, pronounced with a slightly greater openness or closure of the mouth and a slightly smaller or greater rise of the tongue.

Shades of sounds can be considered as special sounds. Then the table should be more detailed. This is the following table (although it shows, of course, not all vowel sounds of the Russian language).

The vowel [ъ], one of the most common sounds of Russian speech, is pronounced, for example, in the words [въдаόс] water carrier,[flutter] steamship,[gόrt] city. It can be pronounced in isolation if you form a continuous series of sounds from [s] to [a] and stop in the middle.

The vowels [ä, e, ö, y] are advanced and upward compared to [a, e, o, y]. They are pronounced between soft consonants, for example, in the words [p’ät’] five,[Pat') sing,[t’ot’) aunt,[t'ul'] tulle.

Vowels [and e, ы ъ, а ъ] occur only in an unstressed position. For example: [and e sk’it’] spark,[s’i e zhu] sitting,[breeze] breathe[zhy ry] fats,[wa da] water,[tra b va] grass. For some speakers, instead of [a ъ], [Λ] sounds - an unrounded vowel, in terms of the position of the tongue, intermediate between [a] and [o].

SYLLABLE

Syllable theories. Syllabic and non-syllabic sounds. Our speech is divided into words, and words into syllables. A syllable can consist of one or more sounds. One sound in a syllable is syllabic (or syllabic), the rest are non-syllabic (non-syllabic).

There are several theories of the syllable.

The expiratory theory interprets a syllable as a sound combination that is pronounced with one impulse of exhaled air. This definition of a syllable is the most obvious. This is what is given in primary school. You can check it like this. If you say the word in front of a burning candle house, the flame will flicker once, word hand- the flame will flicker twice, milk- three times.

But this theory does not explain all cases. Let's say a one-syllable word alloy, and the candle flame will flicker twice: the closure of the lips at [p] will break the air flow into two parts. Let's say ow!- and the flame flickers once, although the word has two syllables.

In modern Russian linguistics, the sonorant theory of the syllable, based on acoustic criteria, is most recognized. In relation to the Russian language, it was developed by R.I. Avanesov. According to this theory, a syllable is a wave of sonority, sonority. A syllable groups sounds that have to varying degrees sonority. The most sonorous is the syllabic (syllable-forming) sound, the remaining sounds are non-syllabic.

Vowels, as the most sonorous sounds, are usually syllabic. But, for example, the vowel [i] can also be non-syllabic: [iu-b’i-l’ei] - anniversary. Consonants are usually non-syllabic, but sometimes they can also be the top of a syllable. Most often, sonorant consonants play this role, as the most sonorous of the consonants.

Here are Lermontov's poems:

I used to think it was kisses

I happy life my...

Each line has 3 trisyllable feet with stress on the last syllable. Size - anapest:

At the same time the word life pronounced in two syllables [zhy-z’n’]. The syllable-former of the second syllable is a sonorant consonant.

We can designate according to the degree of sonority: vowels - 4, sonorant voiced consonants - 3, noisy voiced consonants - 2, voiceless - 1. We will designate a pause as 0. On the rulers corresponding to these indices, we will put off sounds, denoting them with dots. If you connect these dots, you get waves of sonority that characterize the word.

Then the word long-haired will be presented like this:

There are so many syllables in this wave of peaks, peaks of sonority. The sound [and] is a vowel, but with weakened sonority, so it is lower than the upper line.

Words ice, viewing in this diagram they look like this:

These words are disyllabic - they have two peaks of sonority: [l’dy], [look]. Words can also be spoken mosses, Mtsensk, flatter, lions, lies, mouths, mercury, ditches, rusting, blushing And Peter, boar, meaning, thought, execution and so on.

But these same words can also be monosyllabic, with one peak of sonority:

When pronounced in this way, a sonorant is partially or completely deafened, its sonority is at the level of a noisy consonant, voiced or voiceless. The words [mkh’i], [l’s’t’it’], [v’epr’], etc. can also be pronounced.

Poets use the duplicity of such words. So, in a poetic line by Khlebnikov V. "This Life and That Life" word life in the first case it is monosyllable, and in the second it is disyllabic.

But syllabic consonants are atypical for the Russian language. Therefore, they often develop a front vowel. Pronounced [káz’in’], [t’iá’tar] execution, theater,[b rzhy], [b l’n’inόi] rye, flax, and in the dialects [arzhanόi], [il’n’inoi], etc. The voiceless sonorant is poorly perceived by the ear, so it is often dropped out. Related to this is the pronunciation [rup’] from ruble,[akt'apsk'ii] from October etc. In the Old Russian language, along with forms of verbs carried, carried, could, could etc. there were also forms male carried, could with a vowel [ъ] at the end of the word. After its loss, the voiceless [l] also ceased to be pronounced. This is how the forms arose carried, could, carried, died down and so on.

In some languages, syllabic sonorants are quite common, for example in Serbo-Croatian and Czech: Serbian-Croatian. LOL- "rye" krv- "blood", rushing- “finger, finger” vrba- “willow”; Czech vrch - “top, top”, vlk - “wolf”, slza - "a tear".

Not only sonorant consonants can be syllabic, but also noisy, even voiceless ones. So, Russians can call a cat Puss, puss, puss. This interjection has three syllables, although all sounds are unvoiced. The syllabic sound here is [s]. The voiceless fricative consonant also appears as a syllabic consonant in the exclamation of scaring away birds ksh! and in a call for silence shh! In Russian colloquial speech and in southern Russian dialects, an unstressed vowel can be dropped, but the number of syllables in a word can be maintained. The role of the syllabic sound in these cases is taken over by a consonant, including a voiceless one: [t] it's time- ax, you[With] pano- poured out. Such a syllabic consonant differs from neighboring sounds in greater tension. Thus, the apex of a syllable can be formed not only by the most sonorant sound in the syllable, but also by the most intense.

Sounds characterized by increased sonority and increased tension have a common feature: they have greater strength and intensity, which manifests itself in an increase in the amplitude of vibration. The dynamic theory of the syllable is based on taking into account this acoustic feature of syllabic and non-syllabic sounds. From the point of view of this theory, a syllable is a wave of force, intensity. The strongest, most intense sound of a syllable is syllabic, less strong ones are non-syllabic.

One syllable can have two vowel sounds. The combination of two vowels within one syllable is called a diphthong. In Russian literary language There are no diphthongs, but they are found in Russian dialects where it is pronounced core[y^o] wow, milk[y^o], l[u^e] With, with [and ^ e] but, etc. Diphthongs exist, for example, in English, German, Spanish and many other languages. Diphthongs can be balanced when both vowels have the same strength and duration, as, for example, occurs in Russian dialect pronunciation. If in a diphthong the first vowel is syllabic and the second is non-syllabic, then it is a descending diphthong, for example in English time - “time”, table - “table”, go - “to go”, in German mein - “my”, heute - "Today". If in a diphthong the first consonant is non-syllabic and the second is syllabic, then it is an ascending diphthong, for example in Spanish puerta - “door”, tierra - "Earth", pievo- "new". Diphthongs always refer to the same phoneme (see §119).

A syllable that begins with a syllabic sound is called undisguised: [on], [il], ​​[á-ist]. A syllable that begins with a non-syllable sound is called covered: [sam], [da-ská], [iu-lá] spinning top

A syllable ending with a syllabic sound is called open: [da-lá], [za-kό-ny], [t’i-gr]. A syllable ending with a non-syllable sound is called closed: [table], [edge], [pai-mát’] catch.