Reasons, features and stages of the formation of a unified Russian state. Formation of a centralized state

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………3

1. Formation of a centralized Russian state……………….4

2. Formation of an estate-representative monarchy in Russia.…………7

3. Institute of serfdom –

an important element of Russian statehood……………………………..14

4. Social and political crisis in Russia

at the end of the 16th – beginning of the 17th century…………………………………………………………..16

5. Strengthening Russian statehood

in the 2nd half of the 17th century……………………………………………………...21

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………25

List of used literature……………………………………………………..26

Introduction

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The more than two-century struggle of the Russian people for their state unity and national independence ended with the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow into a single state.

Despite the commonality of socio-economic and political facts underlying the state-political centralization that took place in the XIII-XV centuries. In many European countries, in Russian education centralized state had its own significant features. The catastrophic consequences of the Mongol invasion delayed economic development Rus', marked the beginning of its lag behind the advanced Western European countries that escaped the Mongol yoke. Rus' bore the brunt of the Mongol invasion. Its consequences greatly contributed to the conservation feudal fragmentation and strengthening feudal-serf relations. Political centralization in Rus' was significantly ahead of the beginning of the process of overcoming the economic disunity of the country and was accelerated by the struggle for national independence, for organizing resistance external aggression. The tendency towards unification manifested itself in all Russian lands. Russian state was formed during the XIV-XV centuries. on a feudal basis in conditions of the growth of feudal land ownership and economy, the development of serfdom and the aggravation of class struggle. The unification process ended with the formation at the end of the 15th century. feudal-serf monarchy.

The purpose of this work is to analyze state reforms of the 16th-17th centuries. To achieve it, it is necessary to identify the features of the formation of a centralized state in Russia, consider the social and state system, as well as the development of the legal policy of autocracy in the 16th-17th centuries.

1. Formation of a centralized Russian state

In parallel with the unification of Russian lands, the creation of the spiritual basis of the national state, a process was underway strengthening Russian statehood, formation of a centralized Russian state. The prerequisites for this process were laid during the period Tatar-Mongol yoke. Researchers note that the vassal dependence of Russian lands on the Golden Horde to a certain extent contributed to the strengthening of Russian statehood. During this period, the volume and authority of princely power within the country increased, the princely apparatus crushed the institutions of popular self-government, and the veche - the oldest organ of democracy - gradually disappeared from practice throughout the entire territory of the historical core of the future Russian state.

During the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, city liberties and privileges were destroyed. Outflow of money to Golden Horde prevented the emergence of the “third estate,” the pillar of urban independence in Western Europe. The wars with the Tatar-Mongol invaders led to the destruction of most of the warriors - the feudal lords. The feudal class began to be reborn on a fundamentally different basis. Now princes distribute lands not to advisers and comrades, but to their servants and stewards. All of them are personally dependent on the prince. Having become feudal lords, they did not cease to be his subordinates.

Due to the political dependence of the Russian lands on the Golden Horde, the unification process took place in extreme conditions. And this left a significant imprint on the character power relations in the emerging Russian state. The process of annexing other states, “principalities-lands” to the Moscow principality most often relied on violence and assumed the violent nature of power in the unifying state. The feudal lords of the annexed territories became servants of the Moscow ruler. And if the latter, in relation to his own boyars, according to tradition, could retain some contractual obligations that came from vassal relations, then in relation to the ruling class of the annexed lands he was only a master for his subjects. Thus, due to a number of historical reasons in the formation of statehood of the Moscow kingdom is dominated by elements of eastern civilization . The relations of vassalage, established in Kievan Rus before the Tatar-Mongol yoke, are inferior to the relations of submission.

Already during the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505), a system of authoritarian power, which had significant elements of eastern despotism. The “Sovereign of All Rus'” had a volume of power and authority immeasurably greater than that of European monarchs. The entire population of the country - from the highest boyars to the last smerd - were the tsar's subjects, his slaves. Citizenship relations were introduced into law Belozersk charter of 1488. According to this charter, all classes were equalized in the face of state power.

The economic basis of subject relations was predominance of state ownership of land. In Russia, noted V.O. Klyuchevsky, the tsar was a kind of patrimonial owner. The whole country for him is property, with which he acts as a rightful owner. The number of princes, boyars and other patrimonial lords was constantly declining: Ivan IV (1533-1584) reduced their share in economic relations in the country to a minimum. The decisive blow to private land ownership was dealt by the Institute oprichnina. From an economic point of view, the oprichnina was characterized by the allocation of significant territories in the west, north and south of the country to a special sovereign inheritance, which were declared the personal possessions of the tsar. This means that all private owners in the oprichnina lands had to either recognize the sovereign rights of the tsar or be subject to liquidation, and their property was confiscated. The large estates of princes and boyars were divided into small estates and distributed to the nobles for the sovereign's service as hereditary possessions, but not as property. In this way, the power of appanage princes and boyars was destroyed, and the position of serving landowners and nobles under the unlimited power of the autocratic tsar was strengthened.

The oprichnina policy was carried out with extreme cruelty. Evictions and confiscation of property were accompanied by bloody terror and accusations of conspiracy against the tsar. The most severe pogroms were carried out in Novgorod, Tver, and Pskov. As a result of the oprichnina, society submitted to the unlimited power of a single ruler - the Moscow Tsar. The serving nobility became the main social support of power. Boyar Duma was still preserved as a tribute to tradition, but became more manageable. Owners who were economically independent from the authorities, who could serve as the basis for the formation of a civil society, have been eliminated.

In addition to state property, corporate, i.e., collective property, was quite widespread in the Muscovite kingdom. The collective owners were the church and monasteries. Free communal peasants (chernososnye) had collective ownership of land and holdings. Thus, in the Russian state there was practically no institution of private property, which in Western Europe served as the basis for the principle of separation of powers and the creation of a parliamentary system.

However, Russian statehood cannot be fully attributed to Eastern despotism. For a long time, it operated such public representation bodies like the Boyar Duma, Zemstvo self-government and Zemsky Sobors.

2. Formation of an estate-representative monarchy in Russia

From the middle of the 16th century. a new period begins in the history of the state, which in Russian historiography is called the period of the estate-representative monarchy. Estates-representative monarchy - this is a form of government in which the power of the sovereign is limited to a certain extent by the presence of some body of class representation. Through this body, the authorities have the opportunity to contact society and learn about public demands. In European countries, a monarchy with class representation arose during the period of mature feudalism. In England, the parliament became the body of class representation, in France - the Estates General, in Spain - the Cortes, in Germany - the Reichstag, etc. In Russia, the body of class representation became Zemsky Sobors .

Unlike the corresponding bodies in European countries, zemstvo councils were not a permanent institution and did not have competence defined by law. They did not ensure the rights and interests of the entire people. The role of the third estate was much weaker compared to similar institutions in Western European countries. In fact, zemstvo councils did not limit, like representative institutions of Europe, but strengthened the power of the monarch. The largest researcher of the history of zemstvo cathedrals, L.V. Cherepnin, counted 57 cathedrals. It is possible that there were more of them. As a rule, representatives of the clergy, boyars, nobility, dyacry and merchants were present at the councils.

Zemstvo councils can be conditionally divided into four groups: 1) convened by the tsar, 2) convened by the tsar on the initiative of the estates, 3) convened by the estates or on their initiative in the absence of the tsar, 4) elective for the tsar. Most cathedrals belong to the first group.

The emergence of a separate Moscow principality in the 13th century and the expansion of its territories in the 14th-15th centuries became the main step towards the formation of a Russian centralized state, the stages and features of the creation of which are presented in our article.

Conditions for education

Let's talk briefly about the prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state:

• Development of agriculture, handicrafts, trade (especially in newly formed cities) :
  improvement in farming has led to the emergence of products and products not only for personal use, but also for sale;
• Increased need for centralization of power to curb anti-feudal protests by peasants:
  the increase in forced labor and payments forced the peasants to offer serious resistance to the landowners (robberies, arson);
• The emergence of a strong center (Moscow), uniting around itself more and more previously fragmented principalities (not always in an honest way):
  profitable territorial location allowed Moscow to become a major principality, controlling the relationships of other Russian lands;
• The need for a joint action against the Principality of Lithuania and the Mongol-Tatars to recapture the original Russian territories:
  the majority of representatives of all classes were interested in this;
• The existence of a single faith and language in Rus'.

We must pay tribute to the Mongol-Tatars: they did not impose their faith on the occupied lands, allowing the common people to profess Orthodoxy and the church to develop. Therefore, having freed itself from the invaders, by the 16th century Russia became the only independent Orthodox state, which allowed it to consider itself the successor not only of Kievan Rus, but also of the Byzantine Empire.

Rice. 1. Russian church of the 16th century.

Formation periods

It is believed that a centralized state was formed already in the 15th century during the reign of Prince Ivan ΙΙΙ Vasilyevich (1462-1505). Later, Russian territories expanded significantly due to the policies of Vasily ΙΙΙ (1505-1533) and the conquests of Ivan ΙV the Terrible (formally from 1533; 1545-1584).

The latter took the title of king in 1547. Grozny was able to annex lands that had not previously been Russian to his possessions.

The process of creating a unified state can be divided into the following main stages:

• 13th-14th centuries:
  The formation of the Moscow Principality takes place. From 1263 it was a small appanage within the Principality of Vladimir, ruled by Daniil Alexandrovich ( younger son Nevsky). Earlier attempts at isolation turned out to be temporary. Gradually the holdings expanded. Special meaning had a victory over the Tver Principality for the rights to the Grand Duke's throne in Vladimir. Since 1363, “great” was added to the name. In 1389 the Vladimir principality was absorbed;
• 14th-15th centuries:
  The Principality of Moscow led the fight against the Mongol-Tatars. Moscow's relations with the Golden Horde were controversial. Ivan Ι Kalita (Prince of Moscow from 1325) collected tribute from all the conquered Russian principalities for the Mongol-Tatars. The Moscow princes often entered into an alliance with the invaders, concluded dynastic marriages, bought a “label” (permission) to reign. Dmitry Ι Donskoy (Prince of Moscow from 1359) in 1373 offered serious resistance to the Mongol-Tatars who attacked Ryazan. Then Russian troops won the battle on the Vozha River (1378) and on the Kulikovo Field (1380);
• 15th-early 16th century:
  the final formation of a centralized state. Its founder is considered to be Ivan ΙΙΙ, who completed the annexation of the northeastern lands to the Moscow Principality (by 1500) and overthrew the Mongol-Tatar government (from 1480).

Rice. 2. Moscow Prince Daniil Alexandrovich.

The strengthening of statehood also occurred through the adoption of legislative acts aimed at centralizing power. The basis for this was the formation of the feudal system: prince-landowner. The latter received lands for management during the period of their princely service, becoming dependent on a representative of a higher class. At the same time, the landowners themselves sought to enslave the peasants. Hence the creation of the Code of Laws (code of laws of 1497).

Historians identify three main stages in the unification of lands around the Moscow Principality. (see appendix 2.)

1. The first stage of unification (the first half of the 14th century) is associated with the activities of the Moscow princes Daniil Alexandrovich (1276-1303) and Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325-1340). Daniil Alexandrovich expanded the territory of his inheritance and achieved control over the Moscow River. In 1301 he occupied Kolomna. In 1302, he received the Pereyaslav inheritance according to his will. In 1303 Mozhaisk annexed Moscow. Under Yuri Danilovich (1303-1325), the Moscow principality became one of the most powerful in North-Eastern Rus', he was able to receive the label for a great reign. In 1325, Yuri was killed by the Tver prince Dmitry. The claims of the Tver princes become the main obstacle to the gathering of Russian lands around Moscow. Ivan Kalita managed to take Tver out of the political struggle. In 1328, he received a label for the Great Reign, achieved the abolition of the Baska system and took over the collection of Horde tribute from Rus'. As a result, Tatars did not appear in Rus' for 40 years, economic growth was ensured and economic conditions were created for unification and transition in the second half of the 14th century. to armed struggle against the Tatars. Ivan Danilovich acquired and annexed the Galician, Belozersk and Uglich principalities to Moscow.

2. The second stage of unification (second half of the 14th - first half of the 15th centuries) is associated with the activities of the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-1389), his son Vasily I (1389-1425) and grandson Vasily II the Dark (1425-1462). At this time, there was an awareness of the need for unification, the creation of a strong unified state and the overthrow of the power of the Mongol-Tatar khans. The main success in the reign of Dmitry Ivanovich was the first major victory over the Tatars on the Kulikovo Field on September 8, 1380, which marked the beginning of the process of overthrowing the Tatar yoke. For this victory, Dmitry was named Donskoy. After the battle, Moscow was recognized as the center of the emerging unified state. The son of Dmitry Donskoy, Vasily I, managed to strengthen the position of Moscow as the center of Russian lands. He annexed the Nizhny Novgorod, Murom, Tarusa principalities, and some possessions of Veliky Novgorod. Further unification and liberation of the Russian lands was slowed down by the brutal princely civil strife of the second quarter of the 15th century, called the feudal war. The reason for it was a dynastic conflict between the princes of the Moscow house. After the death of Dmitry Donskoy's son Vasily I, his 9-year-old son Vasily and brother Yuri Dmitrievich became contenders for the throne. According to Donskoy's will, after the death of Vasily I, the throne was supposed to pass to Yuri Dmitrievich, but it was not specified what to do if Vasily had a son. The forces in the ensuing struggle were not equal: Yuri was known as a brave warrior, a builder of fortresses and temples, and the guardian of the 9-year-old boy was the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas. The death of Vytautas in 1430 freed Yuri's hands.

In 1433, he expelled Vasily from Moscow and took the grand-ducal throne. However, the Moscow boyars supported the young prince, and Yuri was forced to leave Moscow. The fight was continued by his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. The princes did not disdain the most barbaric means: first Vasily Kosoy was blinded, and then Vasily Vasilyevich (who later received the nickname “Dark” - blind). The church and the Moscow boyars supported the Moscow prince. In 1447, Vasily the Dark entered Moscow. The feudal war lasted until 1453 and cost the country dearly: burned villages, hundreds of killed supporters of Shemyaka and Vasily the Dark, increased dependence of the Moscow principality on the Horde. The feudal war confirmed the need to unite the Russian lands, showing the danger of new princely strife. Subsequently, Vasily II significantly strengthened the grand ducal power. Moscow's influence in Veliky Novgorod, Pskov, Ryazan and other lands increased. Vasily II also subjugated the Russian church, and after the fall of Constantinople under the blows of the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Grand Duke began to play decisive role when choosing a metropolitan. In subsequent years, Dmitrov, Kostroma, Starodub, the Nizhny Novgorod principality and other lands were annexed to Moscow. In fact, the foundations of a unified Russian state were laid.

3. The third stage of unification (second half of the 15th - first quarter of the 16th centuries), associated with the activities of Grand Duke Ivan III (1462-1505) and his son Vasily III (1505-1533), completed the process of creating a unified Russian state. Ivan III annexed the Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities. The fight against Novgorod was more difficult for him. In July 1471, a battle took place on the Shelon River between the troops of the Moscow prince and the Novgorodians, which ended in the complete defeat of the latter. Novgorod was finally included in the Moscow Principality in January 1478. After the fall of Novgorod, the struggle for the annexation of the Tver principality began.

Since 1476, Ivan III did not send tribute to the Horde, as a result of which Khan Akhmat decided to punish Moscow and in 1480 launched a campaign against it. At the beginning of October 1480, Moscow and Tatar troops converged on the banks of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka River). Khan Akhmat's ally, the Lithuanian prince Casimir, did not appear; after the snow appeared, the cavalry became impossible to use and the Tatars left. Khan Akhmat died in the Horde, and the “stand on the Ugra” ended in victory for the Russian troops.

In September 1485, Moscow troops approached Tver, Tver Prince Mikhail fled, and the Tver lands became part of the Moscow state. From that moment on, Ivan III began to call himself the sovereign of all Rus'. In the new state, specific remnants coexisted with national institutions. The Grand Duke was forced to put up with the fact that the princes retained their power locally. But gradually the power of the sovereign became autocratic. The Boyar Duma was an advisory body. The number of Moscow boyars included princes of early independent principalities.

The central state apparatus had not yet taken shape, but its two highest bodies - the Palace and the Treasury - already existed. Administratively, the country was divided into counties, camps, and volosts, headed by governors and volostels. In 1497, the Code of Laws was the first code of laws of a unified state.

In 1472, Ivan III married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine I. The fall of Byzantium and the twinning with the ancient Palaiologan dynasty gave grounds for the Moscow sovereigns to proclaim themselves successors to the Byzantine Empire. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. a well-known theory appears about Moscow as the successor of Constantinople - the “second Rome”. Moscow is proclaimed the “third Rome” - the capital Orthodox world. Ivan III takes upon himself the title “By the grace of God, Sovereign of all Rus',” adding a long list of his princely possessions. The concepts of “tsar” and “autocrat” appear for the first time. The coat of arms - a double-headed eagle - was borrowed from Byzantium.

Vasily III continued his father's work. He completed the unification of the country. In 1510 he annexed Pskov to Moscow, in 1514 Smolensk, in 1517 the Ryazan principality, in 1523 the Chernigov-Seversk land.

The first stage: the rise of Moscow and the beginning of the unification of the state.

At the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. The political fragmentation of Rus' reached its apogee. In the northeast alone, 14 principalities appeared, which continued to be divided into fiefs. By the beginning of the 14th century. the importance of new political centers has increased: Tver, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, while many old cities fell into decay, never regaining their positions after the invasion. The Grand Duke of Vladimir, being the nominal head of the entire land, having received the label, practically remained the ruler only in his own principality and did not move to Vladimir. True, the grand reign provided a number of advantages: the prince who received it controlled the lands that were part of the grand ducal domain and could distribute them to his servants, he controlled the collection of tribute, as the “eldest” represented Rus' in the Horde. This, ultimately, raised the prince’s prestige and increased his power. That is why the princes of individual lands fought fiercely for the label.

The main contenders in the 14th century. there were Tver, Moscow and Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod princes. In their confrontation, it was decided which way the unification of Russian lands would take place.

In the initial period, the main rivalry developed between Moscow and Tver. At first, the predominant position belonged to the Tver Principality. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, the Grand Duke's throne was occupied by him younger brother Tver Prince Yaroslav (1263-1272). The favorable geographical location in the Upper Volga and fertile lands attracted people here and contributed to the growth of the boyars. The Moscow principality, which went to the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil, became an independent principality only in the 1270s. and, it seemed, did not have any prospects in competition with Tver. However, the founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes, Daniel, managed to make a number of land acquisitions (in 1301, take away Kolomna from Ryazan, and in 1302, annex the Pereyaslavl principality) and, thanks to prudence and frugality, somewhat strengthen the Moscow principality.

His son Yuri (1303-1325) had already waged a decisive struggle for the label with Grand Duke Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver. In 1303, he managed to capture Mozhaisk, which allowed him to take control of the entire Moscow River basin. Having gained the trust of Khan Uzbek and having married his sister Konchak (after the baptism of Agafya), Yuri Danilovich in 1316 received a label taken from the Tver prince. But soon he was defeated in a battle with Michael’s army, and his wife was captured. She died in Tver, which gave Yuri grounds to accuse the Tver prince of all sins. Realizing what awaited him in the Horde, Mikhail Yaroslavovich nevertheless decided to appear before the Khan's court, hoping thereby to save his land from Tatar devastation.

Thus, in his behavior one can trace features characteristic of the Russian princes of the pre-Mongol era. The Moscow princes represented politicians of a new generation, professing the principle “the end justifies the means.”

As a result, Mikhail was executed. In 1324, his son Dmitry the Terrible Eyes, having met the culprit of his father’s death in the Horde, could not stand it and hacked to death Yuri Danilovich. He had to pay for this lynching own life, but Khan Uzbek decided to give the label for the great reign to Dmitry’s younger brother, Alexander Mikhailovich. Thus, by pitting the Russian princes against each other, fearing the strengthening of one of them and transferring the label to the weakest, the Horde maintained dominance.

The economic, political and military strengthening of the Moscow principality occurred under Ivan Kalita and his sons. In 1327, a spontaneous popular uprising broke out in Tver, caused by the actions of a Tatar detachment led by Baskak Chol Khan. The successor of Moscow Prince Yuri, Ivan Danilovich, nicknamed Kalita, took advantage of this (Kalita was the name given to a purse for money). At the head of the Moscow-Horde army, he suppressed popular movement and devastated the Tver land. As a reward, he received a label for a great reign and did not miss it until his death.

After the Tver uprising, the Horde finally abandoned the Baska system and transferred the collection of tribute to the hands of the Grand Duke. The collection of tribute - the “Horde exit”, the establishment of control over a number of neighboring territories (Uglich, Kostroma, northern Galich, etc.), and in connection with this - the expansion of land holdings, which attracted the boyars, and ultimately strengthened the Moscow principality. In addition, Kalita himself acquired and stimulated the purchase by his boyars of villages in other principalities, which strengthened the influence of Moscow and brought boyar families from other principalities under Kalita’s rule.

In 1325, taking advantage of the quarrel between Metropolitan Peter and the Tver prince, Ivan managed to move the metropolitan see to Moscow. The authority and influence of Moscow also increased in connection with its transformation into the religious center of North-Eastern Rus'.

Historians explain in different ways the reasons for the transformation of Moscow from a seedy principality of North-Eastern Rus' into the strongest economically and military-politically.

Some advantages lay in the geographical location: important trade routes passed through Moscow, it had relatively fertile lands that attracted the working population and boyars, and was protected from attacks by individual Mongol detachments by forests. But similar conditions existed in Tver, which stood on the Volga and was even further from the Horde.

Moscow was the spiritual center of the Russian lands, but it became one after the first victories in the struggle for the right to lead the unification process.

The main role was played by the policies of the Moscow princes and their personal qualities. Having relied on an alliance with the Horde and, in this regard, continuing the line of Alexander Nevsky, realizing the role of the church in the conditions of the Horde’s departure from the policy of religious tolerance, the Moscow princes of the first half of the 14th century. used all means to achieve their goals. As a result, humiliating themselves before the khan and brutally suppressing anti-Horde protests, hoarding, enriching themselves and collecting Russian land bit by bit, they managed to elevate their principality and create conditions for both unifying the lands and entering into an open fight with the Horde.

Second stage of unification

If at the first stage Moscow only became the most significant and powerful principality, then at the second stage (second half of the 14th - mid-15th centuries) it turned into the undisputed center of unification. The power of the Moscow prince increased and began active struggle with the Horde, the dependence gradually weakened.

Kalita's grandson Dmitry Ivanovich (1359-1389) at the age of 9 found himself at the head of the Moscow principality. Taking advantage of his early childhood, the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince Dmitry Konstantinovich obtained a label from the Horde. But the Moscow boyars, rallying around Metropolitan Alexei, managed to return the great reign into the hands of their prince. Evidence of the strengthening of the position of the Moscow prince was the construction of the Kremlin from white limestone in 1367 - the first stone structure in Rus' after the invasion.

His opponent was Lithuania, on which Tver relied. Grand Duchy of Lithuania (9/10 of its inhabitants were Orthodox people, inhabited the Southern, Southwestern and Western lands of the former Ancient Rus') under the leadership of Prince Olgerd turned into powerful force, claiming to unite all Russian lands. Olgerd inflicted a series of defeats on the Horde and liberated the Kiev, Chernigov and Volyn principalities from the yoke. Three campaigns against Moscow (1368, 1370 and 1372) did not bring him the desired success. As a result, Lithuania, due to internal religious and ethnic contradictions, the weakness of the princely power and the intervention of external Catholic forces, was unable to become the head of the unification process of the Russian lands.

In 1375, Dmitry Ivanovich, at the head of a coalition of princes of North-Eastern Rus', attacked Tver, took away the label, which, as a result of intrigues, ended up in the hands of the Tver prince, and forced him to recognize vassal dependence on Moscow (to become a “young brother” in the terminology of that time) . Thus began the process of transforming independent princes into appanages, which unusually strengthened the Moscow principality, secured its rear and allowed it to enter the fight against the Horde.

This was also facilitated by the offensive from the late 1350s. “Great trouble” in the Horde itself, expressed in frequent and violent changes of khans. In 1375, power was seized by Temnik Mamai, who had no legal rights to the “royal throne.” Dmitry Ivanovich, taking advantage of the weakening of the Horde, refused to pay tribute. A collision became inevitable. After the first defeat of the Russians on the river. Drunk in 1377, Dmitry Ivanovich in 1378 personally led the regiments and inflicted a crushing defeat on the troops of Murza Begich on the river. Vozhe.

The decisive battle took place on the Kulikovo field on September 8, 1380. Mamai entered into an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Jagiello and moved towards him. Dmitry, having rallied the forces of almost all the North-Eastern lands under his banners (except Tver and Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal; information about the participation of Novgorodians in the militia is contradictory), supported by two brothers Yagaila (Andrei Polotsky and Dmitry Bryansky) crossed the Don to prevent the allies from uniting . In addition, with this action he cut off the possible routes of retreat of the Russian troops and demonstrated his readiness to fight to the last. The forces of the parties (approximately 50 thousand people each) were equal.

Thanks to the patriotism and courage of the Russian soldiers, united by a common faith and unified leadership, as well as the skillful actions of the ambush regiment under the command of Dmitry’s cousin Vladimir Andreevich Serpukhovsky and the governor Dmitry Bobrok-Volynets, who at the decisive moment managed to turn the tide of the battle, a brilliant victory was won.

The historical significance of the victory lay in the fact that Rus' was saved from ruin, which threatened to become no less terrible than Batyev’s. Moscow finally secured for itself the role of a unifier, and its princes - the defenders of the Russian land. This first strategically important victory, which gave Dmitry the nickname “Donskoy,” made the Russian people believe in their strength and strengthened them in the correctness of their faith.

However, the Battle of Kulikovo has not yet brought liberation. In 1382, Khan Tokhtamysh, who led the Horde after the murder of Mamai, burned Moscow. Dmitry, having lost a lot of strength in the Battle of Kulikovo, left before the Horde arrived from the city in order to have time to recruit a new militia. As a result, Rus' resumed paying tribute, but political dependence on the Horde became much weaker. In his will, Dmitry Donskoy transferred to his son Vasily I (1389-1425) the right to a great reign, without referring to the will of the khan.

Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, eldest son of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy. He ascended the throne in 1389. Both by his character and by the conditions created partly under his father, Vasily could have little influence on the policy of the great reign. After the Tokhtamyshev pogrom in 1382, sent by his father to the Horde to represent in the dispute over the grand-ducal table with the Tver prince Mikhail Alexandrovich, Vasily was held there as a hostage for the eight-thousand-dollar debt of the Moscow Grand Duke. After spending two years in the Horde, he fled from there to Moldavia and through Lithuania, where he saw Vytautas and where his marriage to Sophia Vitovtovna was decided (concluded in 1391), accompanied by a Polish-Lithuanian retinue, he returned to Moscow only in January 1387 G.

In the East, thanks to the experience of the 80s. and skillful politics in the Horde of the Moscow boyars, Vasily was given the opportunity to succeed in collecting appanage Russian lands. The acceptance of the great reign with the approval of the Horde provided Vasily with a strong political position. In the same 1389, an agreement was concluded recognizing Vasily’s grand-ducal power. One clause of the agreement provided for the possibility of expanding (Murom, Tarusa and “other places”) Vasily’s possessions.

Having secured peace on the western border (a treaty with Veliky Novgorod in 1390, marriage with Sophia in 1391), Vasily in 1392 went to the Horde, where Moscow money and, perhaps, the danger from the approaching Tamerlane brought him a label for the Great Nizhny Novgorod principality, Gorodets, Meshchera, Murom and Tarusa. The Nizhny Novgorod prince Boris Konstantinovich failed to defend either his rights, confirmed by the Horde in 1389, or the city: Nizhny Novgorod was taken by the Moscow boyars as a result of the betrayal of the local boyars led by Vasily Rumyants; Moscow governors settled there.

After the death of Boris Konstantinovich in captivity (1393), Vasily had to fight for his acquisition with Boris’s nephew, Semyon Dmitrievich; in 1401 it was possible to bring him to renounce his claims to inheritance. With the death of Semyon in 1402, the Nizhny Novgorod issue was resolved in a sense favorable for Moscow for a long time.

The invasion of Tamerlane, which touched the south-eastern edge of Rus', but did not penetrate to Moscow, in 1395 upset the Horde of Tokhtamysh in the lower Volga and threw Tatar masses from there along the Volga up to the Kama, threatening the Russian border. The Moscow prince was faced with the task of defending the border, and subsequently a colonization offensive to the east. In his hands was the beginning of the trade route down the Volga and new source influence on Veliky Novgorod: with the strengthening of Moscow power on the Volga, Veliky Novgorod had to fear more for its Dvina and other lands, weakly connected with the metropolis and economically looking more to the south than to the west.

Immediately after the annexation of the Nizhny Novgorod principality, Vasily made demands on Veliky Novgorod, including the metropolitan court (abolished in the evening in 1385 and not restored, contrary to the insistence of Metropolitan Cyprian, in 1391). Novgorod responded with an attack on Ustyug and Beloozero, but then asked for peace, which was concluded “as of old” (1393), with the fulfillment of all Vasily’s conditions.

An attempt to tear away its “lands” from Veliky Novgorod soon became possible - at the cost of national humiliation. The year 1395 was critical for Moscow in this sense: only an accident saved it from ruin by Tamerlane; Vitovt launched an offensive to the east, taking Smolensk and sending an army to Ryazan, where one of the Smolensk princes took refuge. Vasily not only did not come to the defense of the Russian regions, but together with Metropolitan Cyprian he ended up in Smolensk in 1396 visiting Vytautas, where negotiations (on church affairs in Lithuania) were successfully conducted by the metropolitan. After Vitovt’s defeat of the Ryazan land, he was honorably received by Vasily Dmitrievich on Moscow territory, in Kolomna. Here joint actions were decided against Veliky Novgorod, which concluded an agreement with the Germans that was undesirable to Vytautas and indifferent to Moscow. Vasily's embassy demanded in 1397 in Novgorod the abolition of this treaty, but to no avail. But at the same time an invitation was sent to the Dvina to leave Novgorod and kiss the cross of Moscow. The Dvinians accepted the offer. Volok-Lamsky, Torzhok, Bezhetsky Verkh and Vologda were taken away from Novgorod, but in 1398 the Novgorodians returned what had been taken away, and Vasily had to make peace again “in the old way.”

Attempts to get out of the influence of Vytautas’s policies lasted several years. In 1408, Vasily took in Jogaila's unfortunate rival, Svidrigail. With the princes of Zvenigorod, Putivl, Peremyshl and Minsk and the boyars of Chernigov, Bryansk, Starodub and Roslavl, they gave Svidrigail the cities of Vladimir, Pereyaslavl and others. Vitovt responded to this with a campaign to the Ugra River, where the Moscow regiments with Vasily Dmitrievich also marched; The stand ended this time with eternal peace.

Meanwhile, a Tatar thunderstorm approached from the east. The leader of the Horde army Edigei in November 1408, within a month, devastated Moscow cities right up to Nizhny Novgorod. Moscow was freed from the siege for 3,000 rubles, Edigei was recalled by the khan, explaining to Vasily in a letter the reasons for the attack on the “ulus” (as the Tatars called Rus') by the obstinacy of Rus'. Under the influence of a circle of young boyars, headed by the treasurer Ivan Fedorovich Koshka, the Moscow government stopped sending an embassy to the Horde and stopping the payment of tribute.

Edigei's campaign once again aroused the claims of the Nizhny Novgorod princely family to the inheritance taken from them; Her efforts in the Horde convinced Vasily of the need for personal opposition to them. Vasily Dmitrievich won the Nizhny Novgorod case against the new Khan Kerimberdey. In 1419, Vasily appointed his son Vasily as his successor; dying, Vasily entrusted Vitovt with protecting the grand-ducal rights of his ten-year-old son.

Under Vasily Dmitrievich, Moscow's positions continued to strengthen. In 1392, he managed to annex the Nizhny Novgorod principality, generally improve, thanks to his marriage to Vitovt’s daughter, relations with Lithuania, and defend Moscow in 1408 from the raid of the Horde troops of Edigei. Some local princes moved into the category of service princes - servants of the Moscow prince, i.e. became governors and governors in counties that had previously been independent principalities.

In the second quarter of the fifteenth century. the unification process took on a more intense and contradictory character. Here the struggle for leadership no longer took place between individual principalities, but within the Moscow princely house. At the same time, behind the clash between Vasily II (1425-1462) and his uncle Yuri Dmitrievich Galitsky (the second son of Dmitry Donskoy), there was hidden a confrontation between the traditional principle of inheritance (from brother to brother), inherent in the transitional society of the era of Ancient Rus', with the new family one (from the father to his son), coming from Byzantium and strengthening the grand-ducal power.

During his childhood, Vasily II was under the patronage of his grandfather Vytautas, which forced Yuri in 1428 to recognize his 13-year-old nephew as “eldest brother” and grand duke. But after the death of the Lithuanian prince, the talented commander Yuri expelled Vasily II from Moscow in 1433. Having not received the support of the Moscow boyars, who began to “move” to Vasily II in Kolomna, allocated to him as an inheritance, Yuri was forced to leave the city. The behavior of the Moscow boyars, guided by clear ideas about the differences in the status of the great and appanage princes and understanding that with the arrival of Yuri, the service-local hierarchy that had developed within the boyars would change, predetermined the outcome of the war. True, due to the military and political inexperience of Vasily II and his fatal failure, it will continue long years and will entail numerous casualties. Already in 1434, near Galich, the troops of the Grand Duke would be defeated again, and Prince Yuri would take the Moscow throne for the second time.

He soon died, and the fight for the great reign was continued by his eldest son, Vasily Kosoy (1434-1436). Yuri's younger sons, Dmitry Shemyaka and Dmitry Krasny, knowing the imperious nature of their brother, recognized Vasily II as the “eldest brother,” and therefore the legal heir to the throne. In the fratricidal war, means were used that corresponded to the spirit of this cruel age. Thus, Vasily II, having achieved victory and captured Vasily Kosoy, ordered him to be blinded.

Until 1445 a peaceful respite continued, which, however, did not extend to the foreign policy sphere, because The disintegrating Horde increased pressure on Rus'. In the summer of 1445, Vasily II was defeated by the founder of the Kazan Khanate, Ulu-Muhammad, and captured. He is released for a huge ransom, the full burden of which falls on the civilian population. Taking advantage of the discontent of Muscovites, Dmitry Shemyaka carried out a coup in February 1446. Having seized the Moscow throne, he blinded Vasily II (hence his nickname “Dark” came from) and exiled him to Uglich, but the situation of 1433 repeated itself - the Moscow boyars began to “move away” from the capital, which allowed Vasily II, who received the support of the church and Prince of Tver in 1447 once again regained the throne. The war continued until Dmitry, who hid in Novgorod, was poisoned there by the people of Vasily II in 1453.

What are the results of the war? On the one hand, bringing with it innumerable disasters and devastation, it strengthened the power of the Horde, which again gained the opportunity to interfere in the affairs of weakened Rus'. On the other hand, the war aroused among all segments of the population a thirst for order, which only strong princely power could provide. And the fact that Vasily II, who was unsuccessful in military affairs, won the victory only confirms this situation.

Vasily II conducted a census of the tax-paying population, reduced land grants to the boyars and increased the number of conditional holders - landowners, faithful servants of the Grand Duke of Moscow.

The church also came under the influence of princely power. After Metropolitan Isidore signed the Union of Florence and recognized the supreme power of the Pope, Basil II ordered his arrest. In 1448, at a council of hierarchs of the Russian Church, at his insistence, Ryazan Bishop Jonah was installed as metropolitan, which meant the establishment of autocephaly of the Russian Orthodox Church (i.e., its complete independence from the Byzantine one). But, on the other hand, this was the beginning of her transformation into an obedient instrument of the grand ducal power.

Thus, the bloody events of the second quarter of the 15th century ultimately accelerated the unification of the Russian lands, which, in turn, led to the final liberation from the yoke and the creation of a unified Russian state.

Third stage: completion of the unification of Russian lands. Formation of a single state.

At this stage, the process of unification of Russian lands acquired new dynamics. Grand Duke Ivan III (1462-1505) by 1468 completely subjugated the Yaroslavl principality, and in 1474 eliminated the remnants of independence of the Rostov principality.

The annexation of Novgorod and its vast possessions took place more intensely. Of particular importance to the struggle with Novgorod was the fact that there was a clash between two types of state system - the veche-boyar and the monarchical, moreover, with a strong despotic tendency. Part of the Novgorod boyars, trying to preserve city liberties and their privileges, entered into an alliance with Casimir IV, the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the Polish king. Ivan III, having learned about the signing of an agreement in which Novgorod recognized Casimir as its prince, organized a campaign and defeated it in 1471 on the river. Sheloni Novgorod militia, and in 1478 he completely annexed it. All attributes of former freedom, including the veche bell, were eliminated; instead of posadniks, the city was now ruled by the prince’s governors. In addition, not keeping his word, Ivan III gradually evicted Novgorod land boyars, transferring its possessions to Moscow service people.

In 1485, Tver, surrounded by the troops of Ivan III and abandoned by its prince Mikhail Borisovich, forced to seek salvation in Lithuania, was included in the Moscow possessions. The annexation of Tver completed the formation of the territory of the state, which filled the title previously used by the Moscow prince with real content - sovereign of all Rus'.

As a result of the wars with Lithuania (1487-1494, 1500-1503) and the transfer of Russian Orthodox princes from Lithuania to Moscow service with their lands Ivan III managed to expand their holdings. Thus, the principalities located in the upper reaches of the Oka (Vorotynskoye, Odoevskoye, Trubetskoye, etc.) and the Chernigov-Seversky lands became part of the Moscow state.

Under the son of Ivan III Vasily III Pskov was annexed (1510), after a new war with Lithuania - Smolensk (1514), and in 1521 - Ryazan.

Thus, the main content of the third stage was the annexation of the remaining territories of North-Eastern Rus' to the Moscow Principality. If Ivan III, upon his accession to the throne, inherited a territory of 430 thousand km 2, then his grandson Ivan IV in 1533 received 6 times more.

One of the main conquests of Rus' during the reign of Ivan III was the complete liberation from the Horde yoke. In 1480, Khan Akhmat decided to force Rus' to pay tribute, the receipt of which probably stopped in mid. 70s To do this, he gathered a huge army and, having concluded a military alliance with the Lithuanian prince Casimir, moved to the southwestern borders of Rus'.

Ivan III, after some hesitation, took decisive action and closed the road to the Tatars, standing on the bank of the river. The Ugrians are a tributary of the Oka. The Khan's attempts to cross the Ugra were decisively repulsed by Russian troops. Therefore, the famous “stand” on the Ugra River can hardly be called peaceful and bloodless, as some historians believe. Without waiting for help from Casimir, whose actions were neutralized by the raid on Lithuania by the troops of the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, an ally of Ivan III, and internal strife, as well as fearing the early cold weather, Akhmat eventually retreated.

Thus ended the 240-year Horde yoke. The Horde broke up into a number of independent khanates, which the Russian state fought against throughout the 16th-18th centuries, gradually incorporating them into its composition.

Reasons and prerequisites for the formation of a centralized state.

At the end of the 13th century. the formation of a centralized state begins. This process actually continued until the 15th century. Feature The unification process was that the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion delayed the economic development of Russian lands and contributed to the preservation of feudal fragmentation. Political centralization significantly outpaced the beginning of overcoming economic disunity and was accelerated by the struggle for national independence.

One of the prerequisites for centralization was the approximate synchronicity in the development of all principalities.

Reasons the formation of a centralized state was the growth and development of feudal land ownership, and the absorption of the peasant community by the feudal lords (the feudal lords were interested in creating a centralized apparatus of power to suppress the resistance of the peasants); the rise of cities (city residents were interested in eliminating feudal fragmentation, which impeded free trade); princely strife devastated peasant lands, so the peasants were also interested in stabilizing power.

In addition, the patrimonial owners (boyars) were interested in the unity of the country, since, for example, they did not have the right to buy land outside the borders of their principality.

Stages of formation of a centralized state.

Conventionally, the process of formation of a centralized state can be divided into three periods:

1) The end of the XIII - first half of the XIV centuries - the movement of the economic center to the North-East; strengthening of the Moscow and Tver principalities, the struggle between them; the growth of the territory of the Moscow Principality, its victory over Tver.

2) II half of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries - defeat by Moscow in the 60-70s. its main rivals and the transition from the assertion of political supremacy to the state unification of Russian lands around Moscow. Moscow's organization of a nationwide struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke. The feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century was the defeat of a coalition of appanage princes who tried to defend the independence of their principalities.

3) Second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries. - subordination of Novgorod to Moscow; completion of the unification of lands around Moscow; elimination of the Mongol-Tatar yoke; registration of statehood.

The fight between Moscow and Tver.

At the end of the 13th century. center economic life moves to the Northeast. About 14 principalities arose here, of which the most significant were: Suzdal, Gorodets, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Pereyaslavl, Tver and Moscow. However, most of them could not maintain their political independence for long and were forced to submit, one way or another, to a stronger neighbor.

The main rivals at the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. become Moscow and Tver.

The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky. Daniel (1271-1303). The Tver principality in 1247 was received by the younger brother of Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav Yaroslavich.

At the first stage, both principalities fought to increase their territories.

Alexander Nevsky allocated the Moscow principality to his youngest son when Daniil was only two years old, so until 1271 the principality was ruled by the governors of the Grand Duke of Vladimir. From the beginning of the 80s, Daniil began to actively participate in the struggle of his brothers (princes Dmitry Pereyaslavsky and Andrei Gorodetsky) for the reign of Vladimir. In 1301, Daniel captured Kolomna from the Ryazan princes; in 1302, according to the will of the childless" Pereyaslavl prince Ivan Dmitrievich, who was at enmity with Tver, the Pereyaslavl principality passed to him; in 1303, Mozhaisk was annexed. Thus, in the interfluve of the Oka and Volga, the Moscow principality was formed, which included four cities, each of which had its own fortress-kremlin. In Moscow itself, two fortified monasteries were built - Epiphany, next to the Kremlin, and Danilov (founded in 1298) - in the south, on the road along which the Tatars most often approached the city. g., before his death, Prince Daniil became a monk at the Donskoy Monastery.

After the death of Daniel, the Principality of Moscow passes to his eldest son, Yuri (1303-1325), who, after the death of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Andrei Yaroslavich, enters the struggle for the grand-ducal throne.

In 1304, Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver received a label from the Horde for a great reign.

In 1315, Yuri Danilovich went to the Horde. Having married the sister of Uzbek Khan, Konchak (Agafya), and promising to increase the tribute from Russian lands, he finally received the label for the great reign. But the Tver prince did not obey the khan’s decision and started a war against Yuri. In December 1318, in a battle near the village of Borteneva, Mikhail defeated Yuri’s squad and captured his wife. Agafya died in captivity, and Yuri blamed Mikhail for her death. The Tver prince was summoned to the Horde and killed. The Moscow prince received the label for the great reign in 1319.

But in 1325, Yuri Danilovich was killed in the Horde by the Tver prince Dmitry Mikhailovich. Khan executed Dmitry, but the label was again transferred to Tver (Prince Alexander Mikhailovich).

Ivan Kalita.

The youngest son of Daniil Alexandrovich, Ivan Kalita (1325-1341), becomes the Prince of Moscow.

In 1326, Metropolitan Peter moved his residence from Vladimir to Moscow. It was officially moved under Theognostus in 1328. In 1327, an uprising against the Horde broke out in Tver. The Tatar took the horse from the local deacon, and he called on his fellow countrymen for help. People came running and rushed at the Tatars. Baskak Chol Khan and his entourage took refuge in the princely palace, but it was set on fire along with the Horde. Prince Alexander Mikhailovich initially tried to dissuade the townspeople from the uprising, but in the end he was forced to join them.

Ivan Danilovich, together with the Horde troops, came to Tver and suppressed the uprising. The Tver prince fled to Pskov, but Metropolitan Theognost, an ally of Kalita, cursed the Pskovites and excommunicated them. Alexander Mikhailovich had to flee to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Having defeated the uprising in Tver, Ivan Kalita in 1328 received the label for the Great Reign of Vladimir. In addition, he receives the right to collect tribute 6 Russian principalities and delivering it to the Horde.

Under Ivan Kalita, the boundaries of the Moscow Principality expanded significantly; The Galich, Uglich, and Beloozersk principalities submitted to him. Active construction is underway - four stone churches are being built in the Moscow Kremlin: the Assumption Cathedral (1326), the Church of Ivan Climacus (1329), the Church of the Savior on the Bor (1330), the Archangel Cathedral (1333).

Historians have different assessments of the role of Ivan Kalita in the formation of a centralized state. Some believe that Ivan Kalita did not set himself any major state goals, but pursued only selfish goals of enriching himself and strengthening his personal power. Others, on the contrary, believe that he sought to make the Moscow principality not “just one of the largest in Rus', but a center for the unification of lands. Ivan Kalita died on March 31, 1341.

Semyon Proud.

After his death, Semyon the Proud (1341-1353) becomes the Grand Duke. During this period of time, four great principalities were active on the political scene in North-Eastern Rus': Moscow, Tver, Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan. From the mid-40s, a long internecine struggle began in the Tver Principality, which was skillfully supported by Moscow. At the same time, the Moscow princes have to put up with the loss of the Nizhny Novgorod territories, which in 1341 Uzbek Khan transferred from the Grand Duchy of Vladimir to the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod Principality. The conflict with Ryazan over Lopasny also did not continue. Relations with Novgorod became complicated - they were only able to be established under Ivan the Red. Tensions are growing in relations with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

In 1353-1357 there was a plague epidemic in Moscow, from which Metropolitan Theognost died in March 1353, and later Semyon the Proud. His heir was his brother, Ivan the Red (1353-1359). Under the sons of Ivan Kalita, the Moscow principality included the Dmitrov, Kostroma, Starodub principalities and the Kaluga region. At the same time, the independence of most Russian lands is increasing.

The second stage of the creation of a centralized state begins in the second half of the 14th century.

Dmitry Donskoy.

After the death of Ivan Ivanovich the Red in 1359, his son, nine-year-old Dmitry Ivanovich, became the prince of Moscow. Taking advantage of his early childhood, Prince Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod tried to obtain a label from the Horde for the Great Reign. However, Metropolitan Alexei and the Moscow boyars achieved in 1362 the transfer of the label to Dmitry Ivanovich. Soon, in 1363, Dmitry Konstantinovich again received the label, but this time his great reign lasted only 12 days - the Moscow army ravaged the outskirts of Vladimir, and the prince himself was expelled. In 1366, he renounced his claims to the Grand Duke's throne, and even married his daughter Evdokia to Dmitry Ivanovich.

In 1367, the construction of the stone Kremlin in Moscow began.

Tver remained a serious rival of Moscow. Based on an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Olgerd, the Tver prince Mikhail Alexandrovich attacked Moscow several times. Having failed to subjugate the Muscovites by force, he turned to the Horde and in 1371 received a label for the Great Reign. But the residents of Vladimir did not let Mikhail in. In 1375, Mikhail again received the label, but Dmitry refused to recognize him. Dmitry was supported by Yaroslavl, Rostov, Suzdal and even Novgorod, and the residents of Tver themselves, after a three-day siege of the city by Moscow regiments, demanded that their prince renounce his claims to the Grand Duke's throne. The peace of Tver and Moscow in 1375 lasted until 1383.

The struggle for the Grand Duke's throne showed a new balance of forces - the Horde increasingly supported the opponents of Moscow, but itself had already weakened (from the late 50s, fragmentation began in the Horde) and was unable to provide active support to its proteges. In addition, the very appeal to the Horde compromised the princes. On the other hand, the Moscow princes already enjoy significant authority and support from other Russian lands.

It was at this moment that the policy of the Moscow princes towards the Horde changed. If earlier the Moscow princes were somehow forced to maintain peaceful relations with the Horde, now they are leading an all-Russian campaign against the Mongol-Tatars. This began in 1374 at the congress of princes in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky.

Having united his allies, Prince Dmitry won his first major victory over the Mongol-Tatars - in 1380 on the Kulikovo Field. And although after some time it will be necessary to resume paying tribute to the Horde, the prestige of the Moscow princes increases significantly.

In 1389, Dmitry Donskoy, drawing up his will, transferred the Vladimir Grand Duke's throne to his eldest son as the “patrimony” of the Moscow princes, without mentioning the label. Thus, the territory of the Vladimir and Moscow principalities merged.

Vasily I (1389-1425) continued his father's policies. In 1392, he bought a label for the Nizhny Novgorod principality, and then annexed Murom, Tarusa and Gorodets to Moscow. The annexation of these lands made it possible to create an all-Russian border defense system. But the attempt to annex the Dvina land ended in failure.

After the death of Vasily I, the ten-year-old son of Vasily I, Vasily, and the younger brother of Vasily I, Yuri Dmitrievich, became contenders for the grand-ducal throne.

According to the will of Dmitry Donskoy, after the death of Vasily, the Grand Duke's throne was supposed to pass to Yuri, but it was not stipulated that this order would continue after the birth of Vasily's son. The guardian of young Vasily was the father of Vasily I’s wife, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas, so Yuri recognized his nephew as the “eldest brother” and the Grand Duke. But in 1430 Vytautas died, and Yuri opposed Vasily. In 1433 and 1434 he captured Moscow, but could not stay there. After the death of Yuri (June 5, 1434), the fight was continued by his sons: Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. In 1445, the Kazan Khan Ulu-Mukhammed captured Vasily II, and Shemyak seized power. Soon, however, Vasily returned, promising a ransom to the khan. In February 1446, Shemyaka again seized power in Moscow. The arrested Vasily II was blinded and sent into exile in Uglich. In September, Vasily swore that he would not strive for the Grand Duke's throne and became an appanage prince in Vologda.

But Shemyak aroused discontent among Muscovites: the Moscow boyars were pushed aside by Shemyakin’s entourage; when the independence of the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality was restored, the estates seized or purchased by Moscow boyars were returned to local feudal lords; collection of funds continued to pay the ransom to the Kazan Khan. Vasily the Dark was supported not only by the boyars close to him, but also by the Tver Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich (this union was sealed by the betrothal of Vasily II's six-year-old son Ivan and the four-year-old Tver princess Marya).

At the end of 1446 Shemyaka was expelled from Moscow, but the feudal war continued until his death (1453).

In 1456, Vasily the Dark defeated the Novgorod troops and in Yazhelbitsy concluded an agreement with Novgorod, according to which the power of the prince was strengthened in Novgorod (he, and not the veche, was now the highest court). Novgorod lost the right to foreign relations; paid a large indemnity and pledged not to provide support to Moscow’s opponents. The cities of Bezhetsky Verkh, Volok Lamsky, and Vologda were assigned to Moscow.

Feudal War of the Second QuarterXVV.

After the death of Vasily the Dark, his son Ivan III (1462-1505) becomes the Grand Duke. Under him, the Yaroslavl (1463-1468) and Rostov (1474) principalities lost their independence.

The struggle between Moscow and Novgorod.

But the main task remained the fight against Novgorod.

After the defeat of the Novgorodians on the Shelon River, inflicted by the troops of Ivan III (July 14, 1471), and the execution of Dmitry Boretsky, there was a further reduction in the independence of Novgorod - the Grand Duke acquired control over the judicial activities of the Novgorod authorities.

November 23, 1475 Ivan III enters Novgorod for “trial.” As a result, many boyars were arrested, some of them were sent to Moscow.

In 1477, some of Moscow's supporters were killed at a veche in Novgorod. As a result, a new campaign against Novgorod was undertaken. In January 1478, the Novgorod authorities capitulated. The veche was cancelled, the veche bell was taken to Moscow. Instead of mayors and thousanders, Moscow governors began to govern the city. The confiscation of boyar lands began.

In 1480, after standing on the Ugra River, the yoke of the Mongol-Tatars was finally overthrown.

In September 1485, Tver was annexed. On September 8, Moscow troops approached Tver. On the night of September 11-12, Mikhail Borisovich fled to Lithuania. On September 15, Ivan III and his son Ivan solemnly entered Tver.

Completion of land consolidation. Formation of statehood.

The annexation of Tver meant the creation of a single state. It was from this moment that Ivan III titled himself the sovereign of all Rus'.

In 1489 the Vyatka land was annexed.

After the death in 1490 of the son of Ivan III from the Tver princess Maria Borisovna, Ivan was left with a six-year-old grandson, Dmitry Ivanovich; on the other hand, from his marriage with the niece of the Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleologus 1, he had a ten-year-old son, Vasily.

At the end of the 90s. A struggle for power unfolds between these two contenders for the throne, with Ivan III himself first supporting his grandson (crowned in 1498), then his son (crowned in 1502).

In October 1505, Ivan III died and Vasily III (1505-1533) became Grand Duke. Under him, Pskov was annexed in 1510, and Ryazan in 1521. In 1514, Smolensk, conquered from Lithuania, was included in the Moscow lands.

In addition, the size of appanages and the rights of appanage princes were being reduced: escheated appanages were to go to the Grand Duke, and the court in the Moscow villages of appanage princes was to be carried out by the viceroy of the Grand Duke. The brothers of the Grand Duke were forbidden to mint their own coins, trade in Moscow, and even enter Moscow unnecessarily.

After twenty years of fruitless marriage with Solomonia Saburova, in 1526 Vasily divorced her (Solomonia was forcibly tonsured a nun) and

marries Elena Glinskaya. From this marriage, in August 1530, Elena gave birth to a son, Ivan, and later, Yuri.

In December 1533, Vasily III died.

Social and political structure new state.

So, by the first quarter of the 16th century. the process of creating a centralized state is almost complete, although many remnants of feudal fragmentation will still persist for quite a long time.

The state is formed in the form monarchy with strong Grand Ducal power. The Grand Duke already systematically used the title “sovereign” (from 1485 Ivan III began to be called the sovereign of all Russia), and the features of an autocrat appeared in his power.

The advisory body under the Grand Duke was the Boyar Duma. The Duma included about 24 people (Duma officials - boyars and okolnichy). In the 16th century Duma boyars will begin to favor princes (which actually lowered the status of princes and deprived them of the remnants of independence).

The organization of public administration was based on the principles of the inseparability of judicial and administrative powers. Functional management bodies have only just begun to take shape.

Until the middle of the 16th century. Two national departments emerged and operated: the Palace and the Treasury.

The palace, headed by the dvorsky (butler), was in charge of the personal lands of the Grand Duke. Subordinate to him were “servants under the court” (good boyars), who managed the “paths” - individual branches of the princely economy (stables, stewards, chashniki, hunters, falconers, etc.). Over time, the functions of the butlers became broader: they considered litigation about land ownership, judged the population of some counties, were in charge of collecting taxes, etc. As new lands were annexed to Moscow, local “palaces” were created to manage them (Dmitrovsky, Nizhny Novgorod, Novgorod, Ryazan, Tverskoy, Uglitsky).

Another department - the Treasury - was in charge not only of financial affairs, but also of the state archive and state seal. Since 1467, the positions of state clerk and clerks in charge of office work appeared.

With the increase in the functions of public administration, the need arose to create special institutions that would manage military, foreign, judicial and other affairs. Inside the Grand Palace and the Treasury, special departments began to form - “tables” managed by clerks. Later they developed into orders. The first mention of orders dates back to 1512. Some historians believe that they arose somewhat earlier and by the time of the death of Vasily III there were already about 20 orders. According to others, the order system began to take shape only in the middle of the 16th century.

There was no clear division of functions in the state apparatus. There was no clear administrative-territorial division. The country was divided into

counties, and those, in turn, into camps and volosts. The districts were governed by governors, and the camps and volosts were governed by volostels. These positions were given, as a rule, for previous military service and there was no strict order in these appointments.

Speaking about the structure of local government, historians express almost opposite points of view on a number of issues. For example, some argue that “feeding” was given for a limited time, others - that it was a lifelong hold. Some believe that the “breadwinner’s income” (part of the taxes collected) and the “judgment” (court fees) were remuneration for judicial-administrative activities, while others believe that this remuneration was not for the performance of administrative and judicial duties, but for previous service in troops, etc.

In order to centralize and unify the procedure for judicial and administrative activities throughout the state, in 1497 the Code of Laws 1 was drawn up, which established uniform norms of tax liability and the procedure for conducting investigations and trials. In addition, in the Code of Laws in general outline the competence of individual officials was determined.

The strengthening of centralized power also contributed to changes social structure of society.

If at the beginning of the formation of a centralized state there was a complex system of feudal vassalage, and the immune rights of feudal lords developed, then gradually the independence of individual landowners is reduced. The Grand Duke becomes not just the head of the hierarchy - he is considered “father in place.” The number of appanage princes has been reduced, and their rights have been significantly curtailed. Princely land holdings are approaching patrimonial ones. The “conquest of the princes” begins; “departure” is prohibited.

The independence of the boyars is significantly limited. In the 15th century The boyars lost the right of free passage. Now they were obliged to serve not the appanage princes, but the Grand Duke of Moscow, and they swore allegiance to him in this. He, in turn, had the right to take away the boyar estates, impose disgraces, and deprive them of property and life.

In the 15th century a layer of “service princes” also appears, who went into the service of the Moscow prince (from the Lithuanian). Gradually, the number of service people increases significantly. They became the force on which the central government relies in the fight against local separatism. Receiving

land on the terms of service in favor of the Grand Duke, service people - landowners - were more interested in stable grand-ducal power than all other social groups.

Local land ownership was given to service people under certain conditions (administrative control or military service) for a certain period. The main difference was that the estates were forbidden to be sold or given away, they were not inherited and formally belonged to the Grand Duke.

Another large category of feudal lords are church lords. Large church landholdings are attracting increasing attention from the grand ducal authorities, who are seeking to find a way to take away the church’s lands. A confrontation is brewing between church and state. It is expressed in the support of “heresies” by the secular authorities and active intervention in the struggle of non-possessors and Josephites.

As for the feudal-dependent population, the position of its various categories is gradually getting closer - in the 14th century. a single term appeared for everyone - “peasants”.

According to the degree of involvement in feudal dependence, peasants can be divided into black moss(the feudal lord in relation to them, according to most historians, was the state) and privately owned: a) living in the estate of a prince or boyar or on church and monastery lands; b) belonging to the Grand Duke personally.

Article 57 of the Code of Law of 1497 limited the right of a peasant to transfer from one feudal lord to another a week before and a week after the autumn St. George's Day (November 26); for care, the peasant had to pay “elderly”: a ruble in the steppe and half a ruble in forest areas (a quarter of this amount for each year lived). Some historians believe that the “elderly” was payment for the use of real estate (house) on land owned by the feudal lord. Others believe that this was a kind of compensation for the loss of an employee.

The social structure of the urban population was determined both by the existing mode of production in general and by the specific occupation of the townspeople. In the structure of cities, “white” settlements began to form, the population of which was in personal feudal dependence on secular or spiritual feudal lords and did not pay city taxes. Personally, the free population, who paid the tax, lived on the black lands (black hundreds 1). The top of the urban population were merchants and urban feudal lords.