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2. Philosophy of Kant

"Pre-critical" period. This is a period in the creative activity of Immanuel Kant, from his graduation from the University of Konigsberg until 1770. This name does not mean that during this period Kant does not turn to criticism of any ideas and views. On the contrary, he always strove for a critical assimilation of the most diverse mental material.

He is characterized by a serious attitude towards any authority in science and philosophy, as evidenced by one of his first published works - "Thoughts on the true assessment of living forces", written by him in his student years, in which he poses the question: is it possible to criticize the great scientists, great philosophers? Can we judge what was done by Descartes and Leibniz? And he comes to the conclusion that it is possible if the researcher has arguments worthy of the arguments of the opponent.

Kant proposes to consider a new, previously unknown non-mechanical picture of the world. In 1755, in his work "General Natural History and Theory of the Sky," he tried to solve this problem. All bodies in the Universe are composed of material particles - atoms, which have inherent forces of attraction and repulsion. This idea was used by Kant as the basis of his cosmogonic theory. In its original state, Kant believed. The Universe was a chaos of various material particles scattered in the world space. Under the influence of their inherent attraction force, they move (without an external, divine push!) Towards each other, and "scattered elements with a higher density, due to attraction, gather around them all matter with a lower specific gravity." On the basis of attraction and repulsion, various forms of motion of matter, Kant builds his cosmogonic theory. He believed that his hypothesis of the origin of the Universe and the planets explains literally everything: their origin, and the position of the orbits, and the origin of motions. Recalling the words of Descartes: "Give me matter and movement, and I will build the world!" I will show you how the world should arise from it. "

This cosmogonic hypothesis of Kant had a tremendous impact on the development of both philosophical thought and science. She broke, in the words of F. Engels, "a gap in the old metaphysical thinking", substantiated the doctrine of the relativity of rest and motion, further developing the ideas of Descartes and Galileo; asserted the idea of the constant emergence and destruction of matter, bold for that time. The earth and solar system appeared as developing in time and space.

The materialistic ideas of his cosmogonic theory pushed Kant himself to a critical attitude towards the then dominant formal logic, which did not allow contradictions, while the real world in all its manifestations was full of them. At the same time, even in his "pre-critical period" of activity, Kant was faced with the problem of the possibility of cognition and, above all, scientific cognition. Therefore, I. Kant passes into the 70s. from natural philosophy mainly to questions of the theory of knowledge.

"Critical period". The second half of the philosophical work of I. Kant entered the history of philosophy under the name of the "critical period". Between the "subcritical" and "critical" periods lies the period of preparation of the second. This is the period between 1770 and the publication of the "Critique of Pure Reason" in 1781. In 1770, Kant published his work "On the Form and Principles of the Sensual and Comprehensible World", which became a kind of prologue for his main works of the "critical period": Critics of Pure Reason (1781), Critics of Practical Reason (1788), Critique of Judgment (1790). In the first of these books, Kant outlined the doctrine of knowledge, in the second - ethics, in the third - aesthetics and the doctrine of expediency in nature. The basis of all these works is the doctrine of "things in themselves" and "phenomena."

According to Kant, there is a world of things that is independent of human consciousness (from sensations, thinking); it affects the senses, causing sensations in them. This interpretation of the world indicates that Kant approaches it as a materialist philosopher. But as soon as he proceeds to study the question of the boundaries and possibilities of human cognition, its forms, he declares that the world of essences is the world of "things in themselves", that is, the world, not cognizable by means of reason, but is an object of faith (God , soul, immortality). Thus, "things in themselves", according to Kant, are transcendental, that is, otherworldly, exist outside of time and space. Hence his idealism is called transcendental idealism.

Contemplate living things. Forms of sensuality. Kant divided all knowledge into experienced (pastorioi) and pre-experienced (apriori). The way this knowledge is formed is different: the first is derived inductively, that is, on the basis of generalizations of experience data. Errors and mistakes are possible in it. For example, the proposition - "All swans are white" seemed to be true until they saw a black swan in Australia. And although the nature of much knowledge is based on experience, this does not mean that all knowledge can only be obtained through experience. The fact that the experience never ends means that it does not provide universal knowledge. Kant believes that any universal and necessary knowledge is a priori, that is, pre-experienced and extra-experienced in its principle.

In turn, Kant divides a priori judgments into two types: analytical (when the predicate only explains the subject) and synthetic (when the predicate adds new knowledge about the subject). In short, synthetic judgments always yield new knowledge.

Kant poses the question: how are synthetic a priori judgments (knowledge) possible? This question, he believes, will help him answer the following questions: 1. How is mathematics possible? 2. How is natural science possible? 3. How is metaphysics (philosophy) possible?

The philosopher considers three spheres of knowledge: feelings, reason, reason. Through the sense objects are given to us; through reason they think; the mind is directed towards the mind and is not at all connected with experience.

Living contemplation with the help of feelings has its own forms of existence and cognition - space and time. They do not exist objectively, do not act as objective characteristics of things, but are the ability to perceive objects. Mathematics, according to Kant, is possible because it is based on space and time as a priori forms of our sensibility. The unconditional universality and necessity of truths in mathematics does not apply to the things themselves, it has significance only for our mind.

The forms of reason. The second part of Kant's doctrine of human cognitive abilities is the doctrine of reason. Reason is the ability to think the subject of sensory contemplation. This is knowledge through a concept, the ability to make judgments. Kant declares that in order to understand what the state "I think" means, it is necessary to pose the problem of the unity of the subject and object in cognition, and thus the problem of consciousness and cognition. He writes: "Reason is, generally speaking, the capacity for knowledge." Kant develops a system of categories of reason:

1) quantity: unity, plurality, wholeness; 2) quality: reality, denial, limitation; 3) relations: inherent, independence of existence: 4) modality: possibility - impossibility, existence - non-existence, necessity - chance.

Along with operating with categories, the mind thinks of objects and phenomena as subordinate to three laws: conservation of substance, causality, interaction of substance. Being universal and necessary, these laws do not belong to nature itself, but only to the human mind. For the mind, they are the highest a priori laws of the connection of everything that the mind can think. Human consciousness itself builds an object not in the sense that it generates it, gives it being, but in the sense that it imparts to the object the form under which it can only be cognized - the form of universal and necessary knowledge.

Therefore, according to Kant, it turns out that nature as an object of necessary and universal knowledge is built by consciousness itself: reason dictates laws to nature. Thus. Kant comes to the conclusion that consciousness itself creates the subject of science - general and necessary laws that make it possible to "order" the world of phenomena, introducing into it causality, connection, substantiality, necessity, etc. As we can see, Kant creates a peculiar form of subjective idealism, not only when he asserts that space and time are only forms of living contemplation, and not the objective properties of things, but also when he points to the derivation of all kinds of connections and laws from reason.

Natural science, according to Kant, combines living contemplation with rational activity that permeates experimental knowledge. It turns out that nature is real only in the "empirical sense", as the world of phenomena - phenomena. The concept of "noumenon" is that "is not an object of our sensory contemplation", but is an "intelligible object." This concept was introduced by Kant to emphasize the impossibility of knowing the "thing-in-itself", that the "thing-in-itself" is only an idea of a thing about which we can say neither that it is possible, nor that it is impossible.

The third part of Kant's teaching on human cognitive abilities is about reason and antinomies. It is the study of the abilities of reason that allows us to give an answer to the question of how metaphysics (philosophy) is possible. The subject of metaphysics, like the subject of reason, is God, freedom and the immortality of the soul. They are addressed respectively by theology, cosmology, psychology. However, when trying to give scientific meaningful knowledge about God, soul, freedom, the mind falls into contradictions. These contradictions differ in their logical structure, and especially in content, from ordinary contradictions: there is a "two-sided appearance", that is, not one illusory statement, but two opposite statements, which are related as thesis and antithesis. According to Kant, both thesis and antithesis appear to be equally well argued. If only one of the parties is heard, then the "victory" is awarded to that party. Kant called such contradictions antinomies. Kant examines the following four antinomies:

I antinomy

Thesis / Antithesis

The world has a beginning in time and is limited in space / The world has no beginning in time and boundaries in space; it is infinite in time and space

II antinomy

Every complex substance in the world consists of simple parts, and in general there is only the simple and that which is composed of the simple / No complex thing in the world consists of simple parts, and in general there is nothing simple in the world

III antinomy

Causality according to the laws of nature is not the only causality from which all phenomena in the world can be derived. To explain the phenomena, it is also necessary to admit free causality (causality through freedom) / There is no freedom, everything is done in the world according to the laws of nature

IV antinomy

Belongs to the world, either as a part of it or as its cause / Nowhere is there any absolutely necessary essence - neither in the world, nor outside of it - as its cause

These contradictions are insoluble for Kant. However, Kant refutes all existing "theoretical" proofs of the existence of God: his existence can only be proved by experience. Although one must believe in the existence of God, since this belief is required by "practical reason", that is, our moral consciousness.

Kant's doctrine of antinomies played an enormous role in the history of dialectics. This doctrine posed many philosophical problems before philosophical thought, and above all the problem of contradiction. The question arose about understanding the contradictory unity of the finite and the infinite, the simple and the complex, necessity and freedom, chance and necessity. Antinomies served as a strong impetus for the subsequent dialectical reflections of other representatives of classical German philosophy.

Ethics. Moral law. The Kantian concept of morality received a thorough elaboration in such works as "Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morality" (1785), "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788), "Metaphysics of Morals" (1792). They are adjoined by the works of Kant "On the primordial evil in human nature" (1792), "Religion within the limits of reason alone" (1793).

Understanding the foundations and essence of moral rules Kant considered one of the most important tasks of philosophy. He said: "Two things always fill the soul with new and ever stronger surprise and awe, the more often and longer we think about them - this is the starry sky above me and the moral law in me." According to Kant, man acts necessary in one respect and freely in another: as a phenomenon among other natural phenomena, man is subordinated to necessity, and as a moral being he belongs to the world of intelligible things - noumena. And in this capacity he is free. As a moral being, man is subject only to moral duty.

Kant formulates moral duty in the form of a moral law, or a moral categorical imperative. This law requires that each person act in such a way that the rule of his personal behavior can become the rule of behavior for all. If a person is attracted to actions that coincide with the dictates of the moral law, a sensual inclination, then such behavior, according to Kant, cannot be called moral. An act will be moral only if it is done out of respect for the moral law. The core of morality is "goodwill", which expresses actions performed only in the name of moral duty, and not for the sake of any other goals (for example, out of fear or to look good in the eyes of other people, for the sake of selfish goals, for example, profit etc.). Therefore, the Kantian ethics of moral duty opposed utilitarian ethical concepts, as well as religious and theological ethical teachings.

In the Kantian doctrine of morality, one should distinguish between "maxims" and "law". The first means the subjective principles of the will of a given individual person, and the law is an expression of universality, the principle of expression of will, which is valid for every person. Therefore, Kant calls such a law an imperative, that is, a rule that is characterized by obligation, expressing the obligation of an action. Kant divides imperatives into hypothetical, the implementation of which is associated with the presence of certain conditions, and categorical, which are mandatory under all conditions. As for morality, it should contain only one categorical imperative as its highest law.

Kant considered it necessary to investigate in detail the entire set of human moral duties. In the first place, he puts a person's duty to take care of preserving his life and, accordingly, health. He considers suicide, drunkenness, gluttony to be vices. Further, he names the virtues of truthfulness, honesty, sincerity, conscientiousness, self-dignity, to which he opposed the vices of lies and servility.

Kant attached great importance to conscience as a "moral court". Kant considered love and respect to be the two main duties of people in relation to each other. He interpreted love as benevolence, defining "as pleasure from the happiness of others." He understood happiness as compassion for other people in their misfortunes and as sharing their joys.

Kant condemned all vices in which misanthropy is expressed: ill will, ingratitude, gloating. He considered philanthropy to be the main virtue.

Thus, the philosophy of morality of I. Kant contains a rich palette of virtues, which testifies to the deep humanistic meaning of his ethics. Kant's ethical teaching is of great theoretical and practical importance: it orients a person and society towards the values of moral norms and the inadmissibility of neglecting them for the sake of selfish interests.

Kant was convinced that the inevitable conflict of private property interests can, through the law, be brought to a certain consistency, eliminating the need to resort to force to resolve contradictions. Kant interprets law as a manifestation of practical reason: a person gradually learns to be, if not a morally good person, then at least a good citizen.

It is impossible not to note such a current problem, which is considered in the social philosophy of I. Kant, as the problem of the primacy of morality in relation to politics. Kant opposes the following principles of immoral politics: 1) under favorable conditions, seize foreign territories, then looking for justifications for these seizures; 2) deny your guilt in a crime that you yourself have committed; 3) divide and conquer.

Kant considers publicity to be a necessary means of combating this evil, considering politics from the point of view of its humanistic meaning, eliminating inhumanity from it. Kant argued: "Human rights should be considered sacred, no matter what sacrifices it may cost the dominant power."

From the book Philosophy the author Lavrinenko Vladimir Nikolaevich

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§ 2. "Critical Philosophy" I. Kant Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in the family of a craftsman in Konigsberg. Here Kant studied, taught, became a professor at the university, and subsequently its rector; here he wrote all his works and died here (1804). Kant was not

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On the categories of Kant According to Aristotle and in spite of Kant, space and time must be elevated to the categories of knowledge and action. Making space and time categories of mind, we transform knowledge itself from abstract into concrete, we are not limited to disclosure

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I am Torah

The modern translation of the Torah, which in fact grew into the translation of the Tanakh.
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Manuscript

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Russian language

Interlinear translation of Old and New Testaments and Synodal translation of the Bible with parallel passages and references. Not many functions. Just a text of the Bible in Greek with interlinear translation, click on the words and get the meanings.

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More than 20 versions of the Bible in Russian and other languages.

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JS Framework Sencha Redistributable by GNU.

We press the verse and the layout of all the words of the verse appears, we click on any and get a more detailed interpretation, some even have an audio file to listen to the pronunciation. The site is made on Ajax, so everything happens quickly and pleasantly. The site is without advertising, all space is occupied exclusively for business.

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bzoomwin.info The program has an offline version for Windows. It costs 900 rubles .., all subsequent updates are free. The ability to add modules from Quotes from the Bible. When you purchase the program, you get a free application for Adroid or iPhone.

Bible Projects

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Interlinear translation of the Old and New Testaments into Russian by Vinokurov.
The site is still valid as it was 20 years ago, but it works correctly.
We press the word Russian or Greek and get the translation or the current in a new window.
The Old Testament was translated not from the original, but from the Greek translation of the Septuagint and was also executed by the conscripts.

The ABC of Faith

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Bible Study Online.
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The site of my friend, a talented programmer from Prague.
A large number of Bible translations, including Russian ones.
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By the 3rd century BC. e., after the conquests of Alexander the Great, the archaic world of the ancient Near East found itself face to face with the world of classical antiquity. After this collision, many of the most important images and themes of the Hebrew religion were rethought. At the center of this reinterpretation is the Greek translation of the Bible (Old Testament), the so-called Septua-ginta.

Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor at the Institute of Oriental Cultures and Antiquity of the Russian State University for the Humanities, Head of the Department of Biblical Studies of the General Church Postgraduate and Doctorate Studies of the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1991–2010, he was the project manager for a new translation of the Old Testament into Russian, initiated by the Russian Bible Society.

Abstracts

The translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek is the first transposition of a large literary corpus from one language into another in the history of Europe and the Middle East. This in itself is incredibly interesting - we seem to be present at the very first steps of literary translation, becoming witnesses and researchers of the origin of the translation craft. The categories in which we are accustomed to classify and evaluate translation technology are not applicable here. We are talking, for example, about literal and free translations. But the Septuagint is at the same time very literal - just not like the literalistic translations of the New Age, and very free - just not like the free translations of the New Age. Its authors had a different, different from ours, understanding of the task of the translator.

There are many discrepancies between the canonical text of the Hebrew Bible and its Greek translation. Some of them are connected with the fact that the Hebrew original, which lay before the translators, was different from the text that was later canonized in the Jewish tradition. But in most cases the discrepancies appeared during the translation process. Any translation of a text from language to language is also a translation from one culture to another; the greater the distance between the two cultures, the more noticeable it is. The gap between the world of the Hebrew Bible and the ancient world was huge, which led to reinterpretation of the biblical text and gave rise to new, sometimes unexpected, but very important meanings.

These differences between the Hebrew and Greek Bibles turn out to be much more relevant for Russian culture than for any Western European one. The fact is that the Orthodox tradition, which permeates our entire cultural heritage - icon painting, prayers, liturgical reminiscences in fiction - is based on the texts of the Greek Bible. And the generally accepted synodal translation of the Bible is based on the Hebrew text. As a result, for example, an ordinary person who comes to church is faced with such serious textological problems that, in theory, should only concern narrow specialists in the Septuagint. In Russian culture, exegetical Exegetics- interpretation of biblical texts. decisions made by the Alexandrian Jews more than two thousand years ago became the subject of heated controversy - for example, controversy over the Synodal translation of the Bible.

Interview with a lecturer

- Tell us why you started working on this particular topic?

- From my youth, I was very interested in the connection of our religious tradition with its cultural context, its historical dynamics. I was especially interested in the relationship between the Greek and Hebrew Bibles when I was working on a new translation of the Old Testament into Russian (I supervised the translation of the Old Testament into Russian, which was initiated by the Russian Bible Society; in relation to some books I acted as a - guide, to the rest - as an editor). The questions of choosing one or another textual option arose at every step, and each option had its own story, often unsolved.

- What place does the subject of your study take in the modern world?

- Differences between the Greek Bible and the Hebrew Bible have always been of interest to biblical scholars. But in the last quarter of a century, the study of the Septuagint has experienced a real boom - in English-speaking countries, in Germany, France, Spain, Finland, serious research centers are springing up, translations of the Greek Bible into English, French, German, and Spanish are being published. The fact is that the focus of biblical science has long been the search for the "original text" and the "original meaning"; in this perspective, the later (even two-thousand-year-old, but still the latest!) transcriptions and translations of the Hebrew text were marginal and uninteresting. And somewhere from the end of the last century, the scientific paradigm itself began to change: it became obvious that the history of the Bible is the history of its interpretation and reinterpretation, and each turn of this difficult story has its own meaning and beauty.

- If you had to very quickly fall in love with a stranger in your topic, how would you do it?

- I would simply suggest that he read the Old Testament together, through the eyes of a historian and philologist. It is also amazingly interesting to trace how the biblical texts, which for centuries nourished and shaped our civilization, were understood in different eras. How did the discrepancies arise between the Hebrew and Greek texts of the Bible, how these discrepancies were reflected in subsequent translations and in the controversy around them.

- What is the most interesting thing you learned while working with your material?

- The moment of the meeting, the clash of different cultures is very interesting: you clearly see how differently people perceive the world around them. You compare, for example, two texts and you see an obvious mistake, misunderstanding. You look more closely - and you realize that it could not be otherwise. The world of antiquity is so different from the world of the Ancient Near East that sometimes misunderstanding, or even “understanding exactly the opposite,” was inevitable and natural. I am going to give some examples of this kind - it seems to me very beautiful, sometimes simply bewitching - in my lectures. But now I will not talk about it, so as not to destroy the intrigue.

- If you had the opportunity to tackle a completely different topic now, what would you choose and why?

- I was engaged in many other topics, one way or another related to the Bible. For example, the history of the formation of Old Testament historical narratives - in which, in fact, historical memory is rethought under the influence of theological, literary or religious-political motives. This is also incredibly interesting: the text turns out to be multi-layered, and its everyday, chronological or geographical details appear as a symbolic expression of the theological, for example, or political concepts of the ancient author. That is, biblical texts are not only reinterpreted in later traditions - they themselves arise as a reinterpretation of historical memory.

I devoted almost two decades to translating the Old Testament into Russian. I often want to return to this, I would now translate a lot in a different way, but, most importantly, I would provide my translation with a much more detailed historical and philological commentary. I think I'll come back and accompany.

In general, by my first education, I am a structural linguist, my teachers were Andrei Anatolyevich Zaliznyak and Alexander Evgenievich Kibrik, and sometimes I feel a little sorry that I left linguistics. From what is happening now in this area, I am perhaps especially interested in the cognitive theory of metaphor; By the way, it is also very important for the hermeneutics of religious texts - for understanding the very language of religion, its nature.

Where to find out more

Sergey Averintsev. "Greek" literature "and Middle Eastern" literature "" (collection "Rhetoric and the origins of the European literary tradition", 1996)

Averintsev's classic article can serve as an excellent introduction to the history of the meeting of the cultures of the Ancient East and Hellenism.

Arkady Kovelman. "Hellenism and Jewish Culture" (2007)

This collection was written by a prominent expert on Judaism and the Hellenistic period and will allow you to find out how the collision of two cultures - Hebrew and Hellenistic took place.

Karen H. Jobes, Moisés Silva. Invitation to the Septuagint (2000)

As for books that would acquaint the reader with the problems of the Septuagint proper, the situation is worse. In English, there is a whole range of different "Septuagint introductions" - from those designed for professional philosophers to those intended for the widest audience. There are detailed and modern "introductions to the Septuagint" in French, German, Spanish. There is no such introduction in Russian yet, and I am currently working on it.

Ilya Vevyurko. "The Septuagint: The Ancient Greek Text of the Old Testament in the History of Religious Thought" (2013)

This monograph was published recently. It is not easy to read it: the point is not even so much of the need to know Hebrew and Ancient Greek well, but of the fact that the text of the Septuagint is viewed here from a philosophical-theological perspective, which, in my opinion, is much more difficult to comprehend than a historical-philological an approach.

Emanuel Tov. "Textology of the Old Testament" (3rd ed., 2015)

From this book, you can glean brief information about the Septuagint, its textual history, examples of its relationship with the Hebrew text. Tov is the most famous specialist in the textual criticism of the Hebrew Bible today; his works are always encyclopedically concise and informative. He has studies specially devoted to the Septuagint, but, unfortunately, they have not been translated into Russian.

Exhibition for the lecture

For the lecture, the staff of the Center for Oriental Literature of the RSL and the Research Department of Rare Books of the Russian State Library prepared a mini-exhibition of three rare books from the library's holdings.

The exhibition features the German edition of the Tanach (the Hebrew Bible in the canonical Jewish configuration) of the 16th century; A Psalter, printed in Venice by the Italian typographer Ald Manucius; as well as the first complete edition of the text of the Bible in Greek, prepared in the 16th century also at the printing house of Alda Manutius.

The fixed endpaper bears the name of the owner of the publication, Baron Gunzburg.

The Sacred Way is the complete, agreed-upon text of the Tanach (Hebrew Bible) edited by Elias Gutter. Hamburg, 1587

At the beginning of each book of the Bible, small parchment tabs are glued to the sheets that protrude from the side trim.

Storage number CVL RSL: Ginz 4/1839 (Ginzburg Collection)

The Sacred Way is the complete, agreed-upon text of the Tanach (Hebrew Bible) edited by Elias Gutter. Hamburg, 1587

The book is provided with an extensive Latin editorial introduction with an overview of the basics of the biblical language and grammar tables.

Storage number CVL RSL: Ginz 4/1839 (Ginzburg Collection)

The Sacred Way is the complete, agreed-upon text of the Tanach (Hebrew Bible) edited by Elias Gutter. Hamburg, 1587 Storage number CVL RSL: Ginz 4/1839 (Ginzburg Collection)

The Sacred Way is the complete, agreed-upon text of the Tanach (Hebrew Bible) edited by Elias Gutter. Hamburg, 1587

A separate sheet contains examples of translations of the same verse from Psalm 117 into 30 languages - Aramaic, Arabic, Syriac, Ethiopian, Greek, seven different translations into Latin, several Germanic languages in various Gothic fonts (including such exotic as Vandal), Icelandic , Czech, Polish, Croatian and Russian, which is here called Lingua Moscouitica and is depicted in a very archaic way.

Storage number CVL RSL: Ginz 4/1839 (Ginzburg Collection)

The Sacred Way is the complete, agreed-upon text of the Tanach (Hebrew Bible) edited by Elias Gutter. Hamburg, 1587 Storage number CVL RSL: Ginz 4/1839 (Ginzburg Collection)

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