Russian civil alphabet. The birth of the civil alphabet

To the question: When was the civil alphabet introduced in Russia and by whom? given by the author Oriy Chernov the best answer is January 25 is the birthday of the civil alphabet, introduced by Peter I instead of the Church Slavonic alphabet in 1708. Civil – meaning “not church, secular.”
The civil alphabet has become a kind of simplification, but not a change to the previous alphabet - the Cyrillic alphabet. The letter “izhe” disappeared from the civil press; The letters “zelo”, “omega”, “ot”, “xi”, “psi”, “uk” were destroyed. “Izhitsa” was abolished, forces (a complex system of diacritic accent marks) and titla were abolished - superscripts that made it possible to omit certain letters “under the title” in frequently occurring words. Lines dotted with powers and titles became illegible, leading to confusion and mistakes. Russia, which was developing close relations with enlightened Europe, could not help but abandon the complex system of numerical notations: “a grain farmer, a neat German” would probably have difficulty calculating what one hundred minus thirty plus twenty is equal to, if it is known that 20 - K, 30 - L, and 100 - R... You'll get confused...
But still, the future final system of the civil font was still quite far away: at the end of January 1710, Peter I approved the new alphabet for the second time, but this version also turned out to be imperfect - for many decades the composition of the alphabet and the style of the letter characters were reworked and changed. Until 1918, the letters “er”, “yat”, “izhitsa”, “and decimal”, “fita” continued to remain in the alphabet - as a rule, unnecessary, the use of which became redundant already at that time. Thus, in the directory “All Petersburg” of 1902, two groups of capital residents with the surname Fedorov were indicated: one group - about four hundred people - was written through modern letter F, others - only eleven - through "fita"...
The memory of these letters - symbols of difficult writing and learning to read and write - remained in proverbs and sayings. To register an Izhitsa is to punish for what has not been learned, to reprimand, and also to flog. On yat - very good, as it should be; he writes a cow through yat - about someone who is illiterate and ignorant. From fita the stomachs have failed, fita and Izhitsa - the whip is approaching the lazy one.
In 1918, a version of the Russian alphabet was approved, which we still use today. The alphabet of 1918, although it turned out to be quite unusual for “literate” people (for example, Lev Uspensky recalled how even in 1925, out of habit, he sometimes wrote his last name with “yat”), it was more convenient and simple compared to the previous one, “ civilian."

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Hello! Here is a selection of topics with answers to your question: When was the civil alphabet introduced in Russia and by whom?

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CIVIL FONT (civil alphabet) of the Russian alphabet
introduced in publications of the civil press in Russia after the reform of the printed Kirillov semi-charter carried out by Peter I in 1708. Formed the basis of the modern Russian font.
As is known, in Russia XVIII V. - the century of encyclopedism and enlightenment - begins with the grandiose reforms of Peter I, covering all directions social activities. The main thing for us is that the reformer tsar not only realized the role, as we say now, of information in the life of society, but also actively contributed to the introduction of book printing as the most important means formation of ideology, development of science, technology, art, education and culture in general. In this regard, two of Peter's initiatives are especially noteworthy. This is, firstly, the separation of church and secular (civil) book publishing and, secondly, the creation of a new civil alphabet. The latter not only democratized the book industry and facilitated the process of learning to read and write, but also contributed to the mass dissemination of books and, therefore, information and knowledge among the Russian people. The introduction of a new civil alphabet also had an important ideological significance: it seems that not religious, but human, secular tasks and values ​​are put in first place. Later, M.V. Lomonosov figuratively defined the role of the civil alphabet, saying that under Peter I even the letters took off their boyar fur coats.
On the basis of the civil font, civil in its content, or secular, book printing is steadily and rapidly developing. The Kirillov seal is transformed from a universal one into an ecclesiastical one not only in form, but also in content. Secular literature takes on its own form of printed expression. This fully applies to bibliography. Until the 18th century its object was primarily a handwritten book. Only in some cases did bibliographic aids reflect the printed book.

Which remained part of the church books and therefore received the name church or Church Slavonic ABC Deciding to simplify the Cyrillic alphabet for secular publications, Peter instructed someone to compile a sample of the G. alphabet and send it to Amsterdam to cast a new font there. In 1707, the word writer Anton Demey, who arrived from Holland, brought with him “newly invented Russian letters of the 8th alphabet with punches, matrices and forms, and two mills on the move with all kinds of controls.” The font introduced by Peter the Great differed from the Slavic one in that it completely excluded letters and the powers and titles are removed. The remaining letters received the outline they have today, with the following exceptions: the letter d at first it looked like latin g, the capital letter has retained its previous form; Latin was introduced instead s; instead - one letter I without any sign at the top; - like Latin m, n; letters ts, f, b And b, and R, sch And s had some differences in outline from the current ones. Three books were printed in this font in Moscow in 1708: “Geometry of Slavic land surveying and modern typographical embossing,” “Applications of how complements are written,” and “Book about methods of creating free flow of rivers.” But, probably, experience convinced that this font is not entirely convenient, and therefore in “The Victorious Fortress for the happy congratulations of the glorious victory over Azov - for a happy entry into Moscow” (op. by engineer Borgsdorff), printed in the same 1708, there are already concessions reminiscent of the previous alphabet: in the book there are Slavic over ï there are dots everywhere - a style that was preserved in our press almost until the beginning of the current century, and then powers (emphasis) were introduced over the words. Further changes followed in 1709. E and I appeared, restored; And it was used in three cases: in a combination of two and (ïi), at the beginning of Russian words and at the end of words. At the same time, z (earth) began to be used in all cases, instead of the canceled s (zelo); d received a modern style; b, c, f, t, p received outlines more suitable to the current ones. For further changes to the G. font, see ABC.

When transforming the Cyrillic alphabet, attention was paid only to the shape of the letters. The transformation of the church alphabet for civil printing was limited almost exclusively to the simplification and rounding of the letterforms, bringing them closer to the Latin ones. letters. But the sound features of the language to which they were applied were completely lost sight of. As a result, our spelling has become predominant historical or etymological character (see Spelling). The cultural significance of the Russian alphabet is extremely great: its introduction was the first step towards the creation of a folk Russian written language. Wed. Pekarsky, “Science and literature in Russia under Peter V.” (Vol. II, pp. 642-652); Bychkov, “Catalogue stored in Imp. publ. bib. ed., printed civil script under Peter V." (SPb., 1867); Dmitriev, “Fonts of the civil press of the times of Peter V.” (“Russian bibliography”, 1881, No. 82); Grot, “Philological Research” (vol. II, ed. 3, St. Petersburg, 1885); “ABC with corrections imp. Petra Vel. and his decree on the introduction into use of the G. font" (St. Petersburg, 1877).

We have been tracing the history of civil Russian spelling since 1708, from the time Peter I issued a decree to print “Geometry” and other civil books in “newly invented Russian letters.”

Peter I personally took part in the development of the new font. The director of the Moscow printing house, Fyodor Polikarpov, said the following about this: “With his tireless diligence, he deigned to invent the abecedalus, or alphabet, which is still in effect in all kinds of civil matters”1.

Starting with V.K. Trediakovsky, they believed that the reason for the invention of the civil alphabet (with a simpler and rounder outline of letters than in the church Cyrillic alphabet) was the desire to liken the Russian script to the Latin one, and only in our time it has been established that the new script was created in Russia by Russian wordsmiths in based on a drawing of a handwritten civil letter late XVII- beginning of the 18th century and Latin antiqua2 font.

After some improvements, Peter I introduced a new civil font already in legislative order. On January 29, 1710, he approved a sample alphabet, writing on it with his own hand: “These are the letters to print historical and manufacturing (technical - V.I.) books. And those that are blackened, should not be used in the books described above.” This historical alphabet with the handwritten notes of Peter I had the title “Image of ancient and new Slavic printed and handwritten letters.” In it, old (church) and new - “civil” letters were given in comparison.

Improving the alphabet, Peter I initially excluded some letters of the church Cyrillic alphabet. The excluded letters included: - “earth” (the letter “zelo” was retained), - “fert” (retained “fita”), - “xi”, - “psi”, - “omega”, - “izhitsa”, and also ligature - "from". However, later, Peter I restored some of these letters, it is believed, under the influence of the clergy. In 1735, according to a decree of the Academy of Sciences, from among the letters restored by Peter I there were again

The letters “xi” and “Izhitsa” were excluded from the alphabet, but in 1758 “Izhitsa” was again restored (it was used in certain borrowed words).

In the alphabet of 1710, the letter e (reverse)1 was additionally introduced (to distinguish it more sharply from the letter “is”) and instead of “yus small” - new form the letter i (iotized a), which, as researchers note2, existed already in the second half of the 17th century. in civil cursive. What was also new was that with the introduction of the civil alphabet, lowercase and uppercase letters were established for the first time in the alphabet, existing together (in the church Cyrillic alphabet there were only capital letters),

And yet the civil script introduced by Peter I did not represent new system letters I just received further development system of Slavic-Russian Cyrillic writing. The new font received the name “civil” because, in contrast to the previous font used to type church books, secular books were typed and printed.

The creation of a civil font by Peter I constituted an era in the development of Russian culture. It was also important that when developing the civil alphabet, accent marks (or strength, as they were called then), and abbreviation marks (titles) were excluded. Instead of letter designations, numbers were introduced Arabic numerals, which made arithmetic operations much easier.

1 Quote based on the book: Katsprzhak E.I. History of writing and books. M., 1955. P. 189.

2 See: Shitsgal A.G. Graphic basis of the Russian civil font. M.; L., 1947. S. 50, 57.

1 1710 is the year the letter e was officially included in the alphabet. The letter e appears in manuscripts very early, and at the beginning of the 18th century. It was already used in book printing (although not always and not everywhere).

2 See: Shitsgal A.G. Russian civil font. M., 1959. P. 81.

Inconvenient old Church Slavonic font Peter replaced his own invention with a Latinized one font, which, with minor changes, we are using now.
In 1710 this civil font was introduced everywhere.

Some letters in these books are close in outline to civilian font.
It was printed in Kirillov's font“Sermons” and “Words” by F. Prokopovich and other associates of Peter I, some textbooks, including the popular primer by F. Prokopovich...

Published using civil font, supplemented by the letters of the Church Slavonic alphabet: ~, e, ", #, w, ^, o, r, q, u, ї.

Peter I in 1708 introduced a new civil font

Peter I in 1708 introduced a new civil font, which replaced the old Kirillov semi-regulation.

The order of ideas and knowledge, a symbol of worldview."1. In 1708, books of non-spiritual content began to be printed in a new, civilian font, similar in letterform to Latin.
New font was established gradually, only by 1710 was final uniformity established font.

In 1708, Peter I introduced a new civil font, which contributed to the appearance of books with non-religious content.

Peter I in 1708 introduced a new civil font, which replaced the old Kirillov semi-regulation.

Peter I introduced a new civil font.

According to the royal decree, corvee was limited to 4 days a week; more than 10 printing houses were created, civil font, V major cities it was ordered to publish weekly...

civil font.

There is a final separation of secular literature from religious literature, which is due to the introduction civil font in 1708, Kirillovsky font was replaced civilian and it was...
Civil font made it possible to simplify the work of a typographic typesetter, made books thinner, smaller in format, and eliminated text overload.

For printing books, a simplified version was introduced in 1703. civil font and Arabic numerals.

In 1708, Peter introduced a new one instead of Church Slavonic civil font.

Peter I in 1708 introduced a new civil font, which replaced the old Kirillov semi-regulation.

Peter I introduced a new one instead of Church Slavonic civil font.

Instead of the outdated Church Slavonic font a more advanced and accessible for study is introduced civil font Russian language, in which books have been published since 1710...
... geography, history, etc.), the assimilation of which was facilitated by the introduction of new, civil font instead of Church Slavonic and new, Arabic designation of numbers instead of letters.

At the beginning of the 18th century. In the life of Russia, radical changes took place, caused by the development of productive forces and prepared by the entire previous course of historical development. The foundations of industry are being created, domestic and foreign trade are developing, a regular national army and navy are being organized, economic and cultural connections Russia with the countries of the West and East. The international authority of the Russian Empire is growing.

Rapid economic and political development was accompanied by rapid growth of national culture, science, and education. Breaking with religious traditions past, the new Russian culture acquired a pronounced secular character. Were open public Schools of different types (both general and special, according to exact knowledge), accessible to persons of different social status. Scientific, cultural and educational institutions were created to promote the development of Russian science and culture, the restructuring of the life of Russian people (Library-Kunstkamera, Academy of Sciences, etc.).

Development was encouraged exact sciences. Russian social thought and journalism, literature and art developed fruitfully. Big cultural significance had the introduction of the January calendar and Arabic numerals.

Publishing in the first quarter of the 18th century. gained wide scope. Until now it has served primarily the needs of the church. Peter I put book printing at the service of the interests of state transformation and the development of a new culture. Peter I personally supervised the printing and publishing business, determined the topics of publications, supervised the translation of books and was the editor of many of them. His name is associated with the creation of a Russian printing house in Amsterdam, the founding of the St. Petersburg printing house, the introduction of civil type, and the creation of the first Russian printed newspaper Vedomosti and much more.

In the development of Russian culture and publishing, the reform of the Russian alphabet, and on its basis, the reform of the press, played a major role.

The press reform was carried out in 1707-1710. The essence of the reform is the replacement of the old Cyrillic alphabet with its complex graphics and system of superscripts, which is difficult to type in typography, with a new civil alphabet, which was based on the handwriting of the late 17th - early 18th centuries, which differed from the usual semi-character only in the roundness of a number of letters - b, c, e, o, r, etc. Letters of this design, close in character to European fonts, were found in some engraved publications of the early 18th century, for example, on the map of the Dvina River (1702).

Such experienced people as the famous figure in the field of book printing I.A. were involved in the creation of the new alphabet. Musin-Pushkin, head of the first Moscow civilian printing house V.A. Kipriyanov, word writer Mikhail Efremov. The drawings of the new font were made by draftsman and draftsman Kuhlenbach. Peter I himself gave instructions on the destruction of superscripts and some letters (“ot”, “psi”, “xi”, etc.), borrowed at one time from Greek writing and which became unnecessary with the development of the Russian language, on changing and improving graphics individual letters.

The new alphabet was easy to learn and easy to type. It democratized reading and contributed to the spread of literacy and education. Subsequently M.V. Lomonosov wrote about her:

“Under Peter the Great, not only the boyars and noblewomen, but also the letters, threw off their wide fur coats and dressed up in summer clothes.”

The final version of the civil alphabet was adopted in 1710. Peter I personally inscribed on a copy of the civil alphabet: “Historical and manufacturing books should be printed in these letters. And those that are underlined should not be used [in] the books described above.”

Since 1708, the Kirillov font has been used mainly for printing church books; For some time they continued to print textbooks, religious books, and the most important publications intended for wide distribution throughout Russia, since civil script penetrated slowly into the provinces. The Cyrillic alphabet was more familiar than the civilian font, this explained the “survivability” of books of the old Cyrillic printing.

The civil font played an important role in the creation of a new type of book. The idea of ​​its development belonged to Peter I. Based on his sketch, under his personal supervision, the military engineer Kulenbach made drawings that were approved by the Tsar and sent to Holland for casting. The new font was created based on the existing business cursive. In its style, it resembled the best Latin Elsevier fonts. The typeface, made in Holland and improved by Russian craftsmen, was finally approved in 1710. The decree on its introduction read: “Print historical and manufactory (technical - T.K.) books in these letters.” The Church Slavonic Cyrillic alphabet was left for liturgical books, although sometimes it continued to be used for the purpose of widespread publication of legislative and political documents, decrees, and statements.

The first book printed in civilian type, “Geometry of Slavic Land Measurement” (March 1708), is a translation of a textbook on geometry widespread in the West (circulation of 200 copies). Following it, the book “Butts, how different compliments are written” was published (April 1708). It was a manual outlining the rules of behavior in society.

Books promoting the dissemination of secular knowledge were printed in a new font. Books and other printed materials that required wide circulation, such as numerous decrees and regulations, often continued to be printed in the old characters. Books on church topics are most fully represented by the traditional gospels, menaions, prologues, books of six days, psalters, and books of hours. The same craftsmen worked on their production as on secular publications. Therefore, the interpenetration of design elements of these two groups of books is often observed, especially in the first years of activity of secular printing houses.

The natural course of development of book publishing at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries was disrupted by radical measures aimed at restructuring society and forming a new secular worldview. Book publishing this year turning point begins to develop in two directions - civil and church. To spread new ideas, a printing press was used, producing hundreds of book titles that were previously known to a very limited circle of people. In the first quarter of the 18th century alone, 650 titles of books on secular subjects were published with a circulation of half a million copies. At the same time, books church seal About eleven titles were published per year, which accounted for only 14 percent of the total volume of book publishing.

The first experience in publishing books of a new type, according to the decision of Peter I, was undertaken in the foreign printing house of J. Tessing (?-1701). In 1698, a printing house was opened in Amsterdam, in which, according to Peter’s decree, it was ordered to publish “land and sea paintings and drawings, and all sorts of printed sheets and persons..., mathematical, architectural and other art books." The activities of the printing house were headed by I. Kopievsky (1615-1714). Under his leadership, several books were published, printed by order of the Russian Tsar. These are “A Brief Introduction to All History” (1699), “A Brief and Useful Guide to Arithmetic” (1699), “A Brief Collection of Leo the Peacemaker” (1700), etc. These books did not meet the assigned tasks, and the printing house collapsed. I. Kopievsky independently continued to publish books for Russia. He published over twenty book titles, the most notable of which are “The Book for Teaching Sea Navigation” (1701), “Symbols and Emblems” (1705), “Guide to Slavic-Russian Grammar” (1706), the first translations of ancient writers. Books were printed in Cyrillic, sometimes in combination with Latin script.

Solving the task set by Peter I so that “Russian subjects could receive a lot of service and profit and learn in all kinds of arts and knowledge,” foreign publishers sought to maintain the Russian traditions of creating books. So, in particular, they use the technique of Russian masters, when the type at the end of the book takes the shape of a triangle, using engraved initials. At the same time, in the design of title pages, the dominance of the European style is observed, namely, strict text without any frills or decorations. In the book "Symbols and Emblems", published by the printing house of Heinrich Weststein in 1705, a list of typos appears for the first time.

Despite the efforts of Dutch printers, books published in Amsterdam did not find a lively demand in Russia and sold slowly for several years. Even the luxurious edition of the Emblemata, richly illustrated with emblems and allegorical pictures, was sold throughout the first quarter of the 18th century.

To make engravings, an Engraving Workshop was opened at the Armory in 1698. Its activities were led by the Dutch master Adrian Schonebeek (1661-1705). He founded an engraving school, among his first students were Alexey Zubov and Pyotr Bunin. Foreign masters also worked here - Bliklant and Devit.

Initially, the workshop engraved and printed coats of arms, stamps on paper, and cartouches for compasses. Soon large sheet engravings began to be created depicting newly built ships of the Russian fleet, views of military battles, and panoramas of cities.

In 1699-1700 Schonebeck performed the first print, “The Siege of Azov in 1696,” representing a wide panorama of the besieged city. He also engraved star maps, technical drawings, and artillery manuals. After the death of A. Schonebeck in 1705, the workshop was headed by Peter Picart (1668/69-1737). Engravers were constantly in search of new subjects. To do this, they went to the active army, followed surveyors, and were present during the construction of fortresses and defensive structures. As a result of their efforts, many conclusions (battles), persons (portraits), triumphal processions and fireworks appeared. The foundations of Russian printmaking were laid in the Engraving Workshop.

In 1705, on the initiative of V.A. Kiprianov, the Civil Printing House was created - the first specialized enterprise in Russia for the production of secular books and engravings. It operated according to the publishing program proposed by the founder. The printing house planned to produce “large and small arithmetics, grammars in different dialects, doctoral and medical ABC books, mathematical teaching, and musical singing.”

The first edition of the printing house was an engraved sheet " New way Arithmetic", which is a brief and popular summary of the textbook "Arithmetic". The main products of this printing house are engravings. During the short period of its existence (1705-1722), more than two dozen of them were produced.

V.A. Kiprianov took an active part in the preparation of his publications, often acting as an author, engraver, and editor. He taught the art of engraving to many masters. The most talented students turned out to be A. Rostovtsev and A. Zubov. With their participation, many were published geographical maps. World atlases were published twice - in 1707 and 1717. In 1713, the first educational atlas “The Whole Earth Circle Table” was engraved. It included five sheets. The most popular was the six-sheet “Bruce calendar” (1709-1715).

In addition to engravings, two books were printed at the Civil Printing House: “Tables of Sines” (1716) and “Tables of Horizontal” (1722). They were intended for navigators, as well as for navigators and students of navigation schools.

The civil printing house was one of the first to establish secular book publishing, and the experience of its activities was taken into account when creating new centers of Peter the Great's book printing.

First of all, the oldest Russian printing house, the Moscow Printing House, underwent reorganization. Reconstruction began in 1708 with the production of civil printing presses and the introduction of a new font, called “civil.” In 1710, the Engraving Workshop was moved here. A type-casting workshop was set up in the printing house, which from now on supplied other printing houses in Moscow and St. Petersburg with new fonts.

Gradually, the number of printing mills increased, and so did the staff. In 1722, it consisted of 175 people: inquiry officers, book readers, engravers, Fryazhsky printers (printers of engravings), banner makers, engravers, blacksmiths, clerical workers, etc. Sometimes hired workers, most often bookbinders, were hired to carry out urgent work. Overall, it was a complex enterprise with a clear division of labor. The Moscow Printing Yard already performed the functions of not only a printing house, but also a publishing house. The first director was appointed the outstanding educator, author and translator F.P. Polikarpov (1670-1731).

Under his leadership, the publication of books on secular subjects was established, primarily civil calendars, which enjoyed nationwide recognition. The general management of book publishing was carried out by the country's spiritual department - the Synod, established in 1721 instead of the Monastic Order.

In 1711, another universal printing house was opened - St. Petersburg. To equip it, by decree of Peter I of October 29, 1710, a printing press, fonts and masters were transferred from the Printing House. At the beginning of 1711, the printing house was already operating in the new capital. It employed 4 typesetters, 2 teredor workers and 2 warrior workers. Subsequently, the staff of the printing house steadily increased, and over the years it turned into the largest printing house in the country. In 1722 there were already 5 printing mills here, which were serviced by over 80 people. In 1714, an Engraving Workshop was opened, equipped with a “figure mill” for the production of illustrations for books, as well as engravings.

In May 1711, the first edition of the St. Petersburg printing house, the Vedomosti newspaper, was published, and a year later the first dated book, “A Brief Image of Processes and Litigations,” was published. Subsequently, the printing house produced educational and general education books, military and naval literature, technical manuals and calendars. The number of books published in this printing house grew from year to year. Thus, in the first twelve years of its existence, the volume of book publishing increased fourfold.

The most significant was the publication of the “Book of Mars,” which was replenished over a number of years (1713-1716) with engravings reflecting the events of the Northern War. The plan for the book was not finally realized, and it remained unfinished.

Moscow and St. Petersburg printing houses exchanged books, reprinted them from each other, for which they borrowed fonts and engraving boards. At the same time, each of these printing houses introduced originality into their books, typesetting techniques, and design and design elements. New book publishing centers have opened in St. Petersburg under various departments. Their activities were specialized in nature, and printed products were intended for the needs government agencies and educational institutions.

In 1718, the Senate printing house was opened. It published mainly legislative materials - decrees, manifestos, reports. The first editions of this printing house that have reached us date back to 1721, although work there began much earlier. Its activities were headed by former typesetter of the Printing House Ivan Nikitin. Under his leadership, the printing house's staff grew steadily and its equipment improved.

Initially, the printing house had only one civil printing mill, then two more printing mills were acquired, which remained after the death of V.A. Kiprianova at the Printing Yard. His son V.V. Cyprian did not publish books, and, according to him, his camps were “thrown apart.” Therefore, he sold them, along with the equipment, to the Senate Printing House.

In 1719, on the initiative of F. Prokopovich (1681-1736), a prominent church figure, a printing house of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery was opened. She published books printed in Cyrillic. Its most famous publication is the primer by F. Prokopovich “The First Teaching to the Youths,” which went through twelve editions in five years from 1720 to 1724. Translations of books were published, for example, the historical works “Pheatron, or the Historical Shame” (1720).

At the beginning of 1721, the printing house of the Maritime Academy was established. Initially, the needs of students were met by Moscow and St. Petersburg printing houses. So, practical guides for navigators, “Tables of Sun Declination” and “Tables of Width Differences” were ordered in Moscow from the Civil Printing House, but by April 1721 they were printed in the Maritime Academy’s own printing house. The main share of its output was literature on maritime subjects. Most often these were translated works by English and Dutch authors.

During the period of Peter the Great's reforms, a centralized book publishing system developed in Russia, the leading place in which was occupied by the Printing House.

For the first time, specialized book publishing centers arose that served the needs of various departments.

Strict regulation and control over the activities of printing houses made it possible, in the shortest possible time, to organize the production of books that met the state objectives and contributed to the formation of a new ideology.

In 1703, the Vedomosti newspaper was created - the first organ of the Russian press, conceived as a mass media. It replaced the handwritten Chimes and became more accessible to a wide range of consumers. In 1703 alone, 39 issues were published. The newspaper contained material from foreign sources and reports from diplomats. Initially, information of a military nature dominated, with military actions against the Swedes being covered in particular detail. Gradually, the pages of the newspaper were filled with messages about the construction of ships, canals, lunar and solar eclipses, and the opening of new factories and manufactories. Beginning in 1719, Vedomosti increasingly reflected events in the country’s internal life. The material was drawn from reports from the field: from the provinces, from various government agencies. Peter I constantly made sure that the newspaper reflected everything “that is needed to communicate to the people.”

In the second decade of the 18th century. Printing houses appear in the new Russian capital - St. Petersburg. The first of them, the St. Petersburg printing house, was founded in 1710. It produced the bulk of civil books, becoming a short time leading printing house in the country. The first dated book published by this printing house in July 1712, “A Brief Description of Processes, or Litigations,” sets out the rules for the trial and investigation.

In 1720, a second printing house opened in St. Petersburg at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery. It published in Cyrillic font the “Sermons” and “Words” of F. Prokopovich and other associates of Peter I, some textbooks, including the popular primer of F. Prokopovich - “The First Teaching of a Youth.”

In 1721, a printing house was established under the Senate, where large quantities Legislative documents were printed - decrees, regulations, charters, as well as manifestos and other literature.

For the needs of students and the printing of orders of the Admiralty College, a printing house was created at the Moscow Academy.

On the pace of development of book printing in the first quarter of the 18th century. The numbers speak: if in 1701 8 book titles were published, then in 1724 - 149. Over 24 years, publishing output increased almost 19 times. Publishing activity reached its highest level in 1720-1722, i.e. at the end of the Northern War.

Subjects and types of publications of the first quarter of the 18th century.

Russian books of the first quarter of the 18th century. were connected with the practical tasks and needs of the state, contributed to the implementation of reforms, and helped to assimilate everything new that was introduced into the life of Russia. Their topics are very diverse and new. Most of all publications were of a political nature, necessary for the government to influence the masses. The propaganda role was played by decrees, regulations and manifestos that reflected the development of Russian legislation. Political publications also include reports on military operations and victories in the Northern War. They were printed on one side of a sheet and posted in crowded places for wide familiarization with them.

In connection with the wide network of general education and special schools that opened in the first quarter of the 18th century, there was a very great need for textbooks, especially for primary education. Among the new primers, two are especially interesting - “The First Teaching of a Youth” by F. Prokopovich and “An Honest Mirror of Youth.” In the first of them, instead of prayers common in old primers, their interpretations were given, which made it much easier for children to learn to read and write. The preface talked about raising children. “An Honest Mirror of Youth” is the first secular textbook. At the beginning of the book, the alphabet, syllables and numbers were given, and at the end - exercises - rules of behavior and good manners. Such books contributed to the restructuring of the worldview and life of the Russian people.

In addition to primers, dictionaries were published, for example, “The trilingual lexicon, that is, the sayings of Slavic, Hellenic-Greek and Latin treasures,” compiled by F.P. Polikarpov. Dictionaries and study guides foreign languages were necessary in international relations, in navigation, in science, therefore great attention was paid to their publication.

Mathematics textbooks became very important: without knowledge of it, industry, military engineering and maritime affairs could not develop. As a rule, they were of an applied nature. A typical example of such a textbook is “Arithmetic,” compiled “for the sake of teaching the wise-loving Russian youths, and of every rank and age of people” by the Russian mathematician, teacher of the Moscow Navigation School L.F. Magnitsky. “Arithmetic” was published in 1703. The content of the book is much broader than its title. It provides initial information on arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry in their practical application to mechanics, geodesy, and navigation. Magnitsky’s “Arithmetic” aroused interest in the sciences and was understandable and accessible to a wide range of readers in the 18th century. Many generations of Russian people studied from this book, which absorbed all modern knowledge in the field of mathematics.

In 1708, “Geometry of Slavic land surveying” was published - the first book of the civil press. On title page it was noted that the book was printed in a new font, “published with new typographical embossing”, the place and date of publication were indicated - “In the reigning great city of Moscow” on March 1, 1708. “Geometry” was of an applied nature - it provided not only theoretical knowledge, but also methods for it practical application in various branches of technology, knowledge in the field of drawing. The book contains many drawings and images of fortresses. The initial circulation of “Geometry” (200 copies) did not satisfy the need, and it was reprinted several times and distributed in handwritten copies.

The wars waged by Russia and the creation of the army and navy created a great need for specialized literature on military engineering, fortification, artillery technology, navigation, shipbuilding, etc.

In 1708 the first printed technical book was published. It was dedicated to hydraulic engineering and was called “The Book of Methods for Creating Free Flow of Rivers,” abbreviated as “The Book of Weeping.” It was a translation of a book by the engineer Buyer, published anonymously in Amsterdam in 1696. Its appearance is associated with the construction waterways communications necessary for the development of industry and trade.

Urban planning in Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, especially the construction of St. Petersburg, increased interest in architecture and construction technology. Connected with this is the publication of a book by the outstanding Italian architect Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, who together with Michelangelo built the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome, "The Rule of the Five Rules of Architecture." The publication contains more than a hundred engravings with explanatory text. The books on architecture are accompanied by an album of engravings entitled “Kunsts of Gardens”. The engravings show garden pavilions, gazebos, trellises, vases, etc.

Due to the development of navigation, the demand for books on astronomy increased. The “Book of the World View, or Opinion on the Heavenly Globes” was published twice. This is the first printed edition, which presented the Copernican system in popular form. The author of the book, Dutch mechanic, physicist and mathematician Christiaan Huygens, described the structure solar system, the structure and movement of the planets, gave an idea of ​​the distances of the universe, and developed the idea of ​​organic life on the planets.

“Geography, or a Brief Description of the Earth’s Circle” was published several times. The book contains additions concerning Russia.

“General Geography” by B. Vareniya, translated from Latin by F. Polikarpov, gives a physical and geographical description of the globe. Separate chapters are devoted to “ship science.” The book uses mathematical and astronomical information.

In terms of the number of publications, humanities literature occupied a prominent place in Peter's time. Of the 50 books on the humanities, 26 are from historical disciplines, 12 from politics, 8 from philology, 1 from jurisprudence, and 1 from library science. Historical works were published especially frequently. This is the “Synopsis” of I. Gisel, “The History... of the Devastation of Jerusalem”, “A Brief Description of the Wars from the Books of the Caesarians”. In the “Introduction to European History” by the German scientist S. Pufendorf, not only does the chronology of events appear, but for the first time an attempt is made to generalize historical facts. The “Book of Mars, or military affairs” can also be classified as historical books. These are separate reports and “journals” about battles in Northern War and engravings. They were collected over a number of years and stitched together only as needed.

“Butts of How to Write Different Compliments” played a big role in changing the Moscow way of life, in which new samples of letters were given. “Butts” taught politeness, respect for the individual, and introduced the “you” address for the first time. The same role was played by the book “Friendly Conversations” by Erasmus of Rotterdam, which contained examples of polite conversation. There are still few works of fiction. Translations of ancient classics were mainly published - Aesop's fables and others.

Prose and poetic greetings for various special days, collections of moralizing stories, war stories, and proverbs were also published. Calendars were published in large numbers every year. They also provided a variety of information from history, astronomy, and medicine. The first “January” calendar was published in Amsterdam at the Tessing printing house. In Moscow, it was printed in civil type in 1708. The circulation of books at this time ranged from 100 to 1200 copies, but alphabet books, church books and government decrees were published in much larger quantities. In total, in the first quarter of the 18th century. 561 books were published, including about 300 civilian books, which have now become a bibliographic rarity.

The first Russian printed newspaper

Throughout the first quarter of the 18th century. The first Russian printed newspaper Vedomosti was published, which replaced the handwritten Chimes.

The first issues of Vedomosti were published on December 16-17, 1702, but printed copies have not survived. On December 27, 1702, the “Journal, or Daily Painting,” which was repaired during the recent siege near the Noteburkh fortress, was published in a thousand copies. September from the 26th in 1702." The first surviving issue is dated January 2, 1703. The beginning of the Russian periodical press is counted from there. “Gazettes” usually consisted of four pages of 1/12 of a sheet; individual issues were published in a larger format with the number of pages up to 22.

Until 1710, Vedomosti was printed in small church font, from February 1 (12), 1710 - in civil font, but the most important issues were also reprinted in the former Cyrillic font for wider distribution. Since 1714, most of the Vedomosti circulation was printed in St. Petersburg.

The circulation of Vedomosti ranged from tens to several thousand copies. The frequency was uncertain. There were also handwritten collections of Vedomosti. The topics of Vedomosti are varied. Vedomosti appeared at a time when Russia was straining all its forces to repel Charles XII. The publication of Vedomosti was supposed to help launch counter-propaganda. Carefully selecting facts, the newspaper, in reports from the theater of military operations, created a broad and eloquent picture of the increase in Russia's military power and the increase in its superiority over the Swedish army.

The newspaper often published materials about the successes of Russian industry and popularized the successes of education. In the first issue that has reached us, we read: “By the command of His Majesty, Moscow schools are multiplying, and 45 people listen to philosophy and have already graduated from dialectics. More than 300 people study at the Sturman Mathematical School and embrace good science.” Vedomosti reported on events in foreign life, covering them from the point of view of Russian state interests. Trade information directly related to the interests of the Russian merchants occupied a large place in the newspaper. The newspaper was edited alternately by F. Polikarpov, M. Avramov and B. Volkov. The court chronicle was kept (since 1720) by the translator of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, Yakov Sinyavich.

The newspaper's circulation did not always sell out, and the remainder, as a rule, was used as material for binding books. The publication of Vedomosti was discontinued by the successors of Peter I after his death.