home » fashionable dresses » Dialectical contradiction. Dialectical opposites

Dialectical contradiction. Dialectical opposites

The concept of “dialectics” had different meanings in philosophy. Translated from Greek, dialectics is the art of arguing and conversation. The concept of “dialectics” was introduced into philosophy by Socrates. For him, dialectics meant the art of arguing to achieve truth.

The modern idea of dialectics comes from Hegel. By dialectic we mean:

The doctrine of the universal connections of existence, the most general laws of development,

Theory, method and methodology of scientific knowledge.

Considering the question of the fundamental properties of being, we should note its internal inconsistency as a source of diversity and development.

Dialectical contradiction is the presence in an object of opposite, mutually exclusive sides, properties that presuppose each other and exist only in mutual connection, in unity. Dialectical contradiction reflects a dual relationship within the whole: the unity of opposites and their “struggle.”

The unity and struggle of opposites is the source of movement, development, and reveals their causes. Hence the inevitable question: how does development differ from movement?

If movement is any change, change in general, then development is a directed, irreversible, natural change. Directionality means that all changes are qualitatively homogeneous and associated with a certain line of movement. Irreversibility means the impossibility of repeating what has been done. And the pattern emphasizes that the changes are based on internal patterns inherent in a given object.

The main lines in development are progress, regression and single-level development.

The movement mechanism is explained quantitatively by qualitative changes.

Quality is a holistic characteristic of the essential properties of an object, allowing the object to be itself. Losing its quality, the object ceases to exist. Quantity is a set of properties indicating size, volume, and degree of manifestation of quality.

The unity of quality and quantity is reflected by the category of measure. A measure is a zone within which a given quality is preserved, although quantitative changes occur. For example, if water is heated, it remains water, although hot or even very hot, i.e. some of its properties

have changed. But a critical boiling point had arrived: the wildly “scurrying” water molecules began to jump to the surface in a thick stream in the form of steam.

The transition from an old quality to a new one is associated with a leap, a break in gradual development. A leap is a process of radical change in a given quality, the destruction of the old and the birth of a new one. In the process of development, as a rule, two main types of jumps take place: “explosion jump” and gradual jump.

The nature of the leap depends on the nature of the developing object, on the conditions of its development, on its inherent internal and external contradictions.

With all the diversity of leaps (since being is diverse), one fundamental point attracts attention: when one quality is replaced by another, the old one can be either completely rejected or partially preserved. According to Hegel, we are dealing with negation. With dialectical negation, the connection between the new and the old is preserved. Thanks to this, development can proceed more successfully. It is especially important to maintain such continuity in society. This means that the value of negation is determined by the measure of its productivity, its role in creating something new.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FOOD OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

Educational Institution “BELARUS STATE AGRICULTURAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY”

Faculty: Entrepreneurship and Management

Department: Pedagogy

Test

Topic: "Philosophy"

Completed by a first year student

group 52-ZEI

Gradebook No. 506020

Bratulin Evgeniy Petrovich

Checked:_________________

TOPIC: The law of dialectical contradiction.

1. The essence of the law and its main categories: identity, difference, opposition, contradiction.

2. Dialectical contradictions are a source of movement and development.

3. The universality and specific nature of contradictions, their diversity and main types.

4. Social contradictions and ways to resolve them.

1. The essence of the law and its main categories: identity,

difference, opposition, contradiction.

Stable, repeating connections between certain phenomena are called laws. Recognition of the universal conformity of things and processes, the presence of stable regularities in them is an indispensable prerequisite for any rational knowledge and purposeful transformation of reality. The discovery of regular connections, dependencies, and patterns of determination of phenomena concentrates the most important processes and results of people’s cognitive activity. "...The concept law is one of the stages of human knowledge unity And communications, interdependence and integrity of the world process." Categorical structures expressing universal connections of being can be considered as a set of the most general patterns of the real world and by this principles of its knowledge and comprehension.

In a certain sense, all forms of knowledge about the universal connections of existence in the context of materialist dialectics can be presented as a complex set of closely interconnected universal laws of natural and social existence, as well as their knowledge. The distinction between dialectical laws, principles, and categorical relationships is very conditional. The patterns that philosophers discover and comprehend are of an extremely general, universal nature. The scope of their action, in contrast to the laws established in special sciences, is unlimited.

In addition, in philosophy the idea itself, the concept of the conformity of all things with laws, is comprehended and developed. Thus, in the ancient Chinese teaching about Tao, in the idea of logos in Heraclitus, the initial formulation of the question of a universal law governing everything that exists was expressed. Later, this very general idea of law, still saturated with mythological and emotional images, not completely separated from naive religious ideas about eternal, unchangeable fate, weakly connected with experimental practice, was replaced by a more developed concept of law, which embodied the essence of the new scientific explanation world developed in the 16th - 17th centuries. True, even at this time the concept of the law of nature was formed not without the influence of the idea of God, which was ancient in its roots, prescribing laws to nature. But gradually the understanding of laws acquired new features: the extraneous, non-scientific components faded into the background, giving way to experimentally observed stable connections between phenomena.

The works of Galileo and Copernicus laid the foundations of mathematical physics, the forerunner and model of which was the physics of Archimedes. This is where it starts modern science. Since that time, it has been constantly increasing the number of open laws, covering the system of objective connections of reality even deeper and more fully. It is in modern times that the idea of the conformity of the world with laws is strengthened in every possible way, it becomes the core of worldview and scientific knowledge. The concept of the law of nature received its mature expression in the 17th century in the works of Descartes and Spinoza. The identification of patterns is recognized as the essence, goal and meaning of scientific knowledge.

Philosophy saw its task in generalizing practical and scientific ideas about laws, developing the most general doctrine of conformity to laws, the determination of phenomena. At the same time, philosophical thought also sought to identify special kinds of patterns that, for one reason or another, fell outside the competence of specific sciences. Starting with Aristotle, who was the first to outline a specifically philosophical approach to the world, most philosophers recognized the focus of philosophy on the fundamental laws, principles of being and its knowledge, the universal foundations of existing, changing causal and other connections. The desire to comprehend the world as a coherent whole constantly led philosophers to understand the most general patterns.

The dialectical-materialist orientation towards generalizing the conclusions of science and practice allows us to formulate philosophical patterns that have a real, moreover, extensive connection with science and embody objective knowledge about the universal connections of phenomena, their dialectical relationships. Such patterns act as an extreme generalization of fairly large groups of more specific laws, as well as a generalized expression of mental schemes of analysis and synthesis in a variety of areas of knowledge and practice. Thus, the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones was a primary philosophical guess discovered quite early. Having gone through various stages of subsequent theoretical development, it received widespread scientific confirmation, but even at the mature stages of scientific knowledge it did not lose its significance as a form of philosophical clarification of the world. It - through the dialectical connection of categories - embodies the ultimate generalization, the synthesis of the corresponding type of connections.

Cognition and philosophical understanding of the dialectical pattern goes through various stages - from a primary, sometimes naive guess to a more mature one, formalized in appropriate concepts (correlation of categories) and experimentally supported idea, then to system-theoretical knowledge and, finally, to methodological principles developed on its basis , cognitive techniques and procedures. Skill, ability, and sometimes even the art of using such techniques are very important in dialectics. Here we cannot limit ourselves to a simple statement of one or another dialectical connection only in the form of knowledge of the result. Dialectical relationships between categories serve as conceptual tools for understanding more and more new subject areas and solving diverse problems.

Materialist dialectics is a theoretical philosophical “image” of the world in the complex web of its connections, interactions, in its change and development. But this is not enough. Dialectics - in addition to this - there is always an “image” of thought - a set of cognitive techniques, methods of such conceptual thinking that is capable of understanding a complex, contradictory, constantly changing reality. In summary, in general, this aspect of dialectics is expressed through a set of cognitive norms, recommendations for dialectical study and interpretation of the world.

Identity and difference.

The logical movement of thought is often based on the assumption that the object (during the discussion about it) remains the same object, retains its stability or identity with itself. The basis of the law of identity (A=A) is the abstraction of identification: abstraction from changes occurring in objects and concentration of attention on its stable characteristics. Such an operation is necessary and justified in reasoning to the extent that changes in the object can be neglected. The metaphysical view of the world, absolutizing one of the sides, proceeds from ideas about the real immutability of objects, thus depriving itself of the possibility of adequately reflecting mobile, changeable existence. With a dialectical view of things, their identity and difference are considered as “pulsating” moments, inextricably linked with each other.

The concept of “change” presupposes some relatively stable object that has different time, in addition to those that are preserved, there are also characteristics that differ from each other.

When they say: “the same” or “different, different” in relation to different objects, we are thereby talking about the same or different objects. We can talk about change only when comparing two or more different states of one object.

In nature and society there are no objects that are not subject to change and remain identical to themselves. Even with significant stability of many structures, constant changes occur, removing their “abstract identity” with themselves. Thus, geology studies constantly occurring surface and internal processes: mechanical changes (weathering, pressure changes, soil uplift, earthquakes, etc.), thermal (volcanic), chemical (under the influence of water, acids, binding substances) changes.

“Abstract identity” is impossible to discover in reality. A plant, a cell, an animal, Engels explained, at every moment of their life are identical with themselves and, nevertheless, differ from themselves. There is constant assimilation and excretion of substances, respiration, formation and death of cells, etc. Due to the accumulation of molecular and other changes that make up life, observable changes occur in the form of life phases: embryonic life, puberty, the process of reproduction, old age, death. As dialectics developed, it was realized more and more clearly: the feature of changing things is only relative stability. Metaphysical consideration of objects as identical to themselves is an absolutization of relative stability, an underestimation of changes.

Identity and difference are dialectically linked characteristics of any changing object. Identity with oneself already from the very beginning has as its necessary complement difference - the difference between a given object and everything else. In addition, constantly occurring changes in something constantly modify the object, making its identity with itself relative and incomplete. That is why it is legitimate to say that the object is the same and not the same. Beyond the dialectical combination of opposing features - stability and variability, identity and difference - it turns out to be impossible to understand change. It is characteristic that the absolutization of variability (remember Cratylus), in fact, also leads to the fact that it becomes impossible to judge change and understand it (“And you cannot enter the same flow once”). The flow seems to be “glued together”; its phases, moments, internal differentiation become indistinguishable, which means that it is, as it were, equated with peace and immutability.

The history of philosophy shows that dialectical ideas arose on the basis of observing the relationship of opposites. From the very beginning, philosophers tried to solve the world's riddles of the connection between the opposite sides of things, processes and phenomena of reality. Historically and theoretically, it is quite reasonable to consider the law of dialectical contradiction to be the main essential feature of dialectics.

This law has another name - the law of unity and struggle of opposites. This second name contains all the categories through which the content and form of the law are revealed - opposites, struggle, unity. And the first name expresses the very essence of the law. Here the dialectical contradiction is not just a law, but a fundamental principle, the deployment of which reveals the essence of materialist dialectics as such. This law-principle represents development as consequence of the struggle opposite sides characterizing objects, processes, phenomena and systems of the world. The law is of fundamental importance because it reveals source development, causes, impulses of movement and self-motion of objects of reality. As a law of development, it is universal and absolute, because in every structure, system of being there is a source of their existence. This law permeates all objects and phenomena of the world, is included in the content of other laws of dialectics, therefore it can be considered determining changes in the entire internal field of interacting systems, revealing the “end-to-end” center line development, nature and pace of change. Thanks to this law, all changes occurring in the world can be considered as forms self-propulsion, which put an end to all ideas about the first shock.

This law has a long and rich history. Its origins go back to Eastern philosophy and astrology. Chinese and Indian sages used the interaction of opposites to explain the world of things and ideas. Many theoretical positions were expressed by ancient scholars.

nals and philosophers. The corresponding statements of Heraclitus have already been cited above, indicating an understanding of development through fight extremes, through their connection and harmony which is also based on opposites. Heraclitus asserts that “struggle is the father of everything and the king over everything,” “struggle is universal, and everything is born through struggle and out of necessity.” 34 He expresses deep thoughts about identity opposites, about the “hidden harmony” that characterizes the entire universe. Whole and non-whole, convergent and divergent represent unity, and it turns out “from everything there is one, and from one everything.” 35 The concept of the convergence of extremes is called polarism.

Polarism in a slightly modified form is used in the philosophy and science of modern and modern times. Thus, according to F. Schelling, “every natural body is understood as a product of the activity of a dynamic principle (force), the interaction of oppositely directed forces (positive and negative charge of electricity, positive and negative poles of a magnet, etc.” 36 This is the philosopher’s view of interaction opposing forces as a determining factor of any body of nature is associated with the discoveries of A. Galvani, A. Volta, A. Lavoisier - in a word, corresponded to the level of natural science of that time and was directed against the then widespread principle of mechanism.

Throughout the history of philosophy, the collision of opposite principles or their harmony was considered as natural properties of nature. Hegel created the doctrine of dialectical contradiction as a logical principle, the most important in his entire logical system. In The Science of Logic he writes: “Contradiction is what actually moves the world, and it is ridiculous to say that contradiction cannot be thought.” The only correct thing about this statement is that the matter cannot end with a contradiction and that it (the contradiction) resolves itself through itself. But the removed contradiction is not an abstract identity, for the latter itself is only one side of the opposition. The immediate result of the opposition posited as a contradiction is base, which contains both identity and difference as sublated and reduced only to ideal moments.

37 This fragment sets out, in essence, Hegel’s entire concept of dialectical contradiction. First of all, the thinker’s reasoning is directed against skeptics and agnostics (Pyrrho, Sextus Empiricus, I. Kant), against the sophists (Parmenides, Zeno of Elea), who drew incorrect conclusions from reflection on their knowledge. the main idea here is that Hegel considers the principle of contradiction not as subjective reflections “above”, but as ontological a law that states that contradiction resolves itself through itself, i.e. through development.

What does " does contradiction sublate itself through itself? This means that it represents natural a process that has within itself the source of its own transformation. What is sublated is always something mediated by the process of development.

“The sublated contradiction is not an abstract identity,” Hegel further says. That is, it shouldn't be one-sided a definition devoid of substantive integrity. Abstract identity is an empty statement without foundation. The philosopher believes that the condition for dialectical contradiction should be a basis that contains both identity and difference.

Materialist dialectics adopted many ideas from Hegel's concept of law. The main difference between the materialistic understanding of the law is that the idealistic understanding of development itself has been removed. For Hegel, development covers only the world of concepts, and the “removal” of the contradiction occurs thanks to the idealistically understood ontological development of the concept itself. According to the materialistic interpretation of the law, the source of formation is not the Absolute Spirit, but the material world of nature, objects and systems of material reality contain this source.

The characteristics of dialectical contradiction presuppose interaction opposite sides of an object or process, mutually excluding and at the same time suggesting each other, interconnected, interdependent, determining the existence of the contradiction itself. There are many opposites that do not refer to the same subject or consider-

in different ways. Such opposites are not sides of a dialectical contradiction. They only act as dialectical when their interrelation and interaction are mediated substrate and development. Hegel also emphasized the idea of the mediated, only he called it as a mediator base(meaning some kind of ideal integrity, quality, for example) and development(the concepts themselves). Materialist ontology is based on the principle of self-development of matter.

Opposite sides perform different functions in objects, since they themselves have a different nature. And since They. different, then they have special dynamics and direction. Being different, but connected and being properties of a single substance, the opposite sides cannot be “indifferent” to each other and are always in a state struggle.“Struggle” as a term of law correlates with “variability”, “movement”, and therefore has an absolute character. At the same time, opposites are properties of a certain integrity, system, quality and are in unity. Since quality has finitude, temporality of existence, the unity of opposites is relative, since it is always violated aggregate movement. The struggle of opposites acts as a source of development of objects and systems, but also as the basis within whose boundaries they exist, i.e. determines their very existence.

The law of dialectical contradiction permeates the entire internal dynamic structure of the system, expresses both its integrity and self-development. “The coexistence of two mutually contradictory sides,” notes K. Marx, “their struggle and their merging into a new category constitute the essence of the dialectical movement. Anyone who sets himself the task of eliminating the bad side immediately puts an end to the dialectical movement.” 38 K. Marx, naturally, has in mind the desire to remove the “bad” side of the main contradiction that characterizes the system, and not individual features that are insignificant for the system as a whole, which is possible in principle. This particular one

Marx's remark is directed against Proudhon's understanding of the dialectic of contradiction, who meant by the bad side exploitation, which was an essential property of capitalism, with its private property. However, Marx in the Economic Manuscripts of 1844 traces a long process of self-negation of private property, its transformation into property devoid of exploitation - this is another question concerning the development of a certain social system and requiring specific analysis.

A similar example can be given with a rough interpretation of the concept of the biochemical origin of life proposed by A.I. Oparin and J. Haldane. Astronomer Heil thought the concept was ridiculous. This is the same as saying that a hurricane blowing through the local landfill can lead to the assembly of a Boeing 747. Or a monkey, randomly drumming a stick on a typewriter keyboard, accidentally types out Shakespeare's Sonnet 66. Heil here demonstrated a complete lack of ability to seriously interpret scientific concepts that are justified not only by special scientific facts, but also by using good methodology. Proponents of the modern concept of the abiogenic origin of life do not at all mean the transformation of non-living into living from today to tomorrow, but are exploring a long process of enormous multi-qualitative changes, analyzed on the basis of a whole complex of sciences, taking into account alternative points of view, the confrontation of their specific methods and foundations.

Dialectical contradictions are in the very essence of things and have objective character, i.e. exist outside and independently of people's consciousness. This does not mean that they cannot be known and used in practical activities. They are wearing general character, because they are characteristic of all forms of moving matter. Their action covers both material and spiritual processes. There is not a single object that would not be included in some system and would not experience the action of the law of dialectical contradiction. This law is valid throughout

the existence of quality as a certain systemic integrity, i.e. reveals its dynamic content. Movement is of different qualities and represents the interaction of many multidirectional processes. Manifesting in a certain object or phenomenon on on a single basis, these multidirectional processes begin to demonstrate the bifurcation of this basis. And the deeper the contradiction that needs to be resolved, the deeper the “crack” of bifurcated quality.

So, the structure of the dialectical contradiction is as follows:

objects and phenomena of the material world have opposite sides or properties. The relationship between these parties is a contradiction, which denotes mutual exclusion, mutual connection and dependence of these parties. Contradiction is characterized by unity and struggle. Struggle characterizes variability and is therefore absolute. Unity is relative, just as a finite object, a finite system, a finite quality are relative.

The main function of dialectical contradiction is to act source, specific movement, which we call development. This function lasts as long as there are borders final quality, and determines the content of the process.

The structure of the contradiction is changing. Opposites do not represent some abstract linear relationship. These are groups of properties, some of which coincide and are identical. Other groups express differences. Thus, the relationship of opposites is characterized identity and difference. The interaction and interpenetration of opposite sides changes the relationship between identity and difference, revealing steps development of contradiction. This confirms the idea that the interaction of opposites is mediated by the development of the object itself. Thus, Z.M. Orudzhev, considering the issue of the development of the contradiction, writes:

“It is indisputable that the less developed the subject, the less developed the system of intermediate links. Changing the system of intermediate links (their quantitative increase and qualitative, structural complexity) is, in my opinion, very important law of development" 39

The logic of development, due to the specifics of the developing subject and the nature of the process itself, has different rates of change. Controversy has time to mature. This is an objective process, and the resolution of the contradiction is also determined by the specifics of its maturation and development. The resolution of the contradiction is the final phase in the struggle of opposites. The essence of this phase is the “removal” of their concrete unity. The form of “withdrawal” is not necessarily extremely aggravated, although such a possibility objectively exists. In the process of resolving a contradiction, the quality of the system or its properties changes, but in the process of ongoing development the contradiction itself is never destroyed.

Types of contradictions. At one time, G. Hegel, criticizing various schools and directions of philosophy, which, in his opinion, incorrectly interpreted the nature of contradictions, pointed out that they were often concerned with external contradictions that lay on the surface of being and were not actually related to dialectics. However, external contradictions can also be observed in the dialectical vision of the world. These are contradictions that relate to different but interacting objects - for example, man and nature. Internal contradictions are characteristic of one subject, one system, and they are the source of its development. This does not mean that external and internal contradictions are not connected and that their functions in the development of the subject cannot change. In open nonequilibrium systems there are always many contradictions at work, which are very conditionally classified into external and internal. Internal contradictions are caused by the entire set of external ones, which often determine the structure of internal ones, as well as, by the way, the “split of the whole” (system integrity) at a stage that is essential for the system.

Since dialectical contradiction is significant, valid as the law of development of a given system, it acts not only as its source, but also as its main content. In this case, it can be considered main contradiction. It forms the basis for the existence of the system

theme and determines its development throughout the entire period of its existence. Minor contradictions characterize individual properties and aspects of the process, without having a direct impact on the very essence of the system, although they, of course, influence the overall picture of development.

Development of dialectical contradiction, revealing the dynamics of certain qualitative systems, highlighting steps its maturation and movement towards resolution, determines the release main and non-main"stage" contradictions. The main contradiction is the one that arises and comes to the fore at a separate stage of the development of the system and begins to determine its entire contradictory structure. The resolution of this (main) contradiction has a significant impact on the resolution of other contradictions and the development of the system as a whole. The non-main contradiction here acts as a dependent one, subordinate to the process determined at the moment by the main contradiction.

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

Theory of philosophy/E.F. Zvezdkina

Z Theory of Philosophy E F Zvezdkina et al M Philol ovo WORD Published in Eksmo p.. Theory of Philosophy.. CHAPTER I..

If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:

What will we do with the received material:

If this material was useful to you, you can save it to your page on social networks:

All topics in this section:

Philosophy is a form of social consciousness
“The whole world is a homeland for a high spirit” - these words belong to the great thinker Ancient Greece, materialist, author of the atomistic doctrine Democritus. Philosophy is figuratively and accurately presented here

From philosophy to theoretical doctrine
Philosophy is a concentrated expression of human wisdom, the significance of which does not disappear over time, but only increases, since the ideas belonging to outstanding thinkers are then

Philosophy as self-awareness
Above it was said that philosophy could only be born as a theoretical form of consciousness. And as a form of consciousness, she first of all singled out the world, nature as the object of her understanding

The problem of the scientific nature of philosophical knowledge
The European tradition of philosophy has been marked from its beginning by deep connections with science. Ancient Greek philosophy in general was a body of scientific knowledge. Western philosophy, unlike

How is a metaphysics of being possible?
The meaning of this question is that the presented key categories - being and metaphysics - are characterized by a maximum volume that human thought is practically unable to

The language of ontological vision of the world
The language of the ontological vision of the world is a set (system) of categories through which being can be philosophically described. Using our chosen principle of unity of historical and

Genesis and its alternative
The specificity of philosophical understanding of reality with the help of universal categories involves the use of the phenomenon of correlation of concepts. In this sense, the alternative to being is non-existence

Matter
Substance presupposes a view of being in the aspect of the unity of the diversity of all phenomena and processes of the world. Teachings that build a picture of the world on the basis of one substance are called monistic. IN

Movement
Movement is a category denoting the most important attribute of matter - variability. Being a way of existence of matter, movement bears all its fundamental characteristics - objectivity

Space and time
Space and time are philosophical categories denoting the universal forms of existence of matter. They are objective, are necessary properties that characterize the material world as indestructible

Unity of the world and self-organization of matter
Natural science, therefore, fully confirms the idea of the unity of matter, movement and space-time, i.e. substantial unity of the world. We can say that the philosophical and physical pictures of m

Reflection and information
The essence of reflection as a property of matter “lies in the ability of any thing to produce changes, traces that are in accordance (or similarity) with the thing affecting it. P

Concept of law. General ideas about determinism
For correct knowledge of the world and its successful practical transformation, it is important to fundamentally resolve the question of the nature of the world - what is it like, is it subject to objective laws or is it represented?

Causality and law
The essence of causation is the production of a cause and an effect. In the process of this production, a transfer of matter and motion occurs from the phenomenon-cause to the phenomenon-effect, p

Necessity and chance
Necessity and chance are “correlative philosophical categories that reflect Various types connections in the objective world and its knowledge. Necessity is a reflection primarily of internal, oral

Freedom and Necessity
The concept of “freedom”, taken by itself, is a very vague and polysemantic abstraction. Its content, as well as other philosophical categories, is revealed primarily in the analysis

Development as a universal pattern
Development is one of the fundamental categories of philosophy, expressing objects, phenomena and processes from a certain perspective. Due to the objectivity and universality of its objects, the specification of form and content

The law of the transition of quantity to quality
This law occupies an important place in the dialectic system, as it provides an explanation of the mechanism of any transformation. According to this law, fundamental changes do not occur on their own, but due to

Law of dialectical synthesis
Another name for this law is the law of negation of negation. It specifies the basic principles of dialectics - the principle of universal connection and the principle of development. In it, development appears as a struggle

Law of Negation of Negation
The double negative expressing this law is interpreted in different ways. True, no one objects that this is a process formula representing a “chain” of negations. However, this “chain” is rich in content, it

General concept of a person
Man in the system of philosophical worldviews. The topic “man” is so vast that the entire complex of scientific knowledge that has “collapsed” on its development cannot be recognized in any way.

Anthroposociogenesis
A general idea of the emergence of Homo sapiens based on labor activity. Expediency of work is the main sign of Homo sapiens. Basic provisions of the TR

Natural and social in man
Anthroposociogenesis is a process in which biological and social laws operated. By the time the emergence of Homo sapiens is stated, the relationship between these patterns

Biological and sociologizing approaches to man
Man as a biosocial being is a unity in which social qualities are leading and determining. The emergence of the social not only reveals the genetic connection of the biological

Man as a unity of individual and social
The problem of the relationship between the biological and the social arose at the very beginning of anthroposociogenesis. The definition of human nature, the identification of the source, the basis of his human qualities depended on its decision.

Man as a unity of ideal and material
Thus, alienation is a break in the originally given connection between the individual and the social, as well as the awareness of this break. But in its initial givenness this connection was not realized at all.

The evolution of ideas about consciousness
Consciousness is one of the basic concepts of philosophy, denoting the generic difference between man and animal. Ideas about consciousness have undergone a long evolution. In the early stages of development of phylo

Concept of consciousness
Like most philosophical categories, it is defined through its relationship with other categories that have universality and point to opposing properties and connections of the objective world.

The structure of consciousness and forms of its manifestation
Informational and evaluative aspects of consciousness. Consciousness includes two sides: information-reflective and emotional-evaluative. Information-reflective side

Consciousness as self-awareness
Self-awareness, like consciousness, is the highest form of reflection of reality, which arose as a property of the brain on the basis of human social practice. The vast majority of researchers

Consciousness and unconsciousness
The term "unconscious" is used to refer to the layer of the psyche that is not represented by consciousness. Perhaps the first of the philosophers to turn Special attention on the phenomenon of the unconscious, was G. Leibn

Self-awareness and reflection
“Reflection” is a frequently used term, in a broad sense almost coinciding with the term “self-awareness”. The difference is that the concept of self-awareness is used to refer to

Features of the philosophy of knowledge
Successful Study individual aspects of the process of cognition and individual elements of knowledge is impossible without studying the patterns of development of cognition as a whole. In turn, properties and patterns

The problem of the world's cognition
Epistemology cannot claim to solve its problems without giving an answer to the main question - about the fundamental knowability of the world. Already in antiquity, as soon as epistemological questions arose (Sophie

Subject and object of knowledge
The subject and object of cognition are the main elements of the structure cognitive process.The subject means an individual or a community of individuals who have a certain level of knowledge and exercise

Sensory and logical cognition
Historically human cognition was preceded by the mental activity of animals, which was the simplest cognition in the broad sense of the word, as it is characterized by I. P. Pavlov: “We must consider

Relative independence of logical cognition in relation to sensory reflection
In genetic terms, logical cognition is the negation of sensory reflection. According to Hegel’s fair remark: “...Thinking is essentially the negation of what is immediately given

Relative independence of logical cognition in relation to practice
It became possible to consider the relative independence of logical cognition in relation to practice only after the category of practice was introduced into epistemology. Metaphysical matter

Practice is the determining factor in logical knowledge. The nature of concepts
The actual basis of knowledge was shown and consistently introduced into the theory of knowledge by K. Marx and F. Engels. They directly linked the development of consciousness with labor activity, while the leading role

Creativity, conscious and unconscious, intuition
Creativity is a characteristic of the cognitive process in terms of its non-standard conditions, means and productivity of solving emerging problems. The main sign of creativity is birth

Truth and its criteria
Definition. The problem of truth is fundamental in the theory of knowledge and one of the main ones in human life in general, for if a person navigates life without paying attention to

Logical and historical
Before presentation short essay history of science, we will determine the approach in which this can be done. The history of science, like any history, has accumulated so much extremely important information during its “lifetime” that

Ancient science
Ancient science (from the 6th century BC) functions within the framework of natural philosophy. Along with general philosophical problems (the diversity and unity of the world, its foundations, the relationship between the ideal and the material), research

Scientific revolution of the 17th century. Problems of method, structure of scientific knowledge. Scientific picture of the world
The scientific revolution of the 17th century occupies a special place in the history of science. This revolution began with N. Copernicus (in 1543 his work “On the Reversal of the Heavenly Circles” was published, where new views were outlined

Dialectization of natural science
During the XVIII-XIX centuries. There is a need to understand the relationship between various physical properties and processes, as well as their evolution. Thus, M.V. Lomonosov, and then A. Lavoisier formulated about

Revolution and crisis in physics at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Methodological interpretation
IN late XIX- at the beginning of the 20th century, discoveries were made that gave rise to a real crisis in theoretical natural science and its methodology. The next scientific revolution took place. Worldview

Scientific affairs in the mirror of Western philosophy of science
The discoveries and principles listed above, which constitute the features of the new scientific picture of the world, did not resolve, if not deepen, the ideological and methodological crisis of science and philosophy. Philosophical Kli

Philosophical foundations of epistemology
The philosophical foundations of scientific knowledge include, first of all, the basic universal principles that unite ontology, epistemology and methodology. This is the principle of objectivity, universal connection, development

Methodology and methods. General concept
A brief historical outline of the development of science and scientific knowledge allows us to conclude that science has always been focused on identifying the objective laws of reality with

General logical methods of cognition
The main general logical methods of cognition include induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis. Induction (lat. inductio - guidance) is a logical form of thinking, cat

Theoretical level of scientific knowledge
As mentioned above, the theoretical level of science is qualitatively different from the empirical level. First of all, there is no direct interaction between the researcher and real-world objects.

Nature in natural sciences and humanities
The concept of “nature” In the first part of the book, the word “nature” was used often, but not as a separate specific term, but replacing the concepts of “objective reality”, “matter”

Nature as an object of natural sciences and humanities
The philosophical approach to solving these problems is deeply historical. As history testifies, the phenomenon of natural nature as a specific object of cognition and action, different from reality

Contradiction in Hegel's dialectic

Contradiction was considered in Hegel's teaching as the driving principle of all development and as the central point of his entire philosophy. He contrasted Aristotle's formal logic with his own dialectical logic. Having criticized the point of view that contradictions are a logical error and are characteristic only of limited thinking, he showed their supposedly universal and objective nature: “There is no object in which it would be impossible to find a contradiction, that is, opposite definitions, since a non-contradictory object is a pure abstraction of the mind, forcibly retaining one of the two certainties and trying to obscure and eliminate the consciousness of the other certainty contained in the first.”

Dialectical contradiction, in his opinion, is the source of development. Hegel called contradiction the root of all movement and vitality. Something, he emphasized, moves, has impulse and activity, “only because... it has a contradiction in itself.” Although he himself was not consistent and came to the conclusion about the need for reconciliation, neutralization of the contradiction, which meant, according to Marx, his capitulation to reality.

Contradiction in dialectical materialism

In the philosophy of dialectical materialism under dialectical contradiction the presence in an object of opposite, mutually exclusive sides, properties, moments, tendencies, which, at the same time, presuppose each other and, as part of a given object, exist only in mutual connection, in unity.

Dialectical opposition- this is the side of the contradiction. Dialectical contradiction reflects a dual relationship within the whole: the unity of opposites and their “struggle.”

Opposites can only come into conflict insofar as they are connected, forming a whole in which one moment is as necessary as the other. The development of the objective world is a bifurcation of the one into opposites, a “struggle” between them and the resolution of contradictions. At the same time, the unity of opposites, expressing the stability of the object, turns out to be relative, transitory, while the struggle of opposites is absolute, which serves as an expression of the infinity of the development process.

Dialectical contradiction, clash, struggle of opposites is the most general and deepest driving force development.

Types of dialectical contradictions

The nature of the contradiction depends on the specifics of the opposing sides, as well as on the conditions in which their struggle unfolds.

The following contradictions are distinguished:

Domestic contradictions are the interaction of opposite sides within a given object, for example, within a given species of animal (intraspecific struggle). The process of development of an object is characterized not only by the development of internal contradictions, but also by its constant interaction with external conditions, with Wednesday.
External contradictions are the interaction of opposites relating to different objects, for example, between society and nature, the organism and the environment, etc.
Antagonistic contradictions are the interaction between irreconcilably hostile social groups and forces. The term “antagonism” is common in biology and medicine: antagonism of poisons, drugs, microbes, antagonism of muscles, teeth, etc. Mathematicians consider antagonism as such an opposition of interests (meaning game theory), in which the gain of one side is equal to the loss of the other, that is, equality in magnitude and opposite in sign. In its pure form, antagonism rarely appears - in situations of market competition, war, revolution, sports competitions, etc.

Illustrations of dialectical contradictions

Contradictions can be traced in nature and society. From the moment of the emergence of any object until its transformation into another object, specific contradictions operate in it: attraction and repulsion in the form of approaching and removing masses, positive and negative electrical charges, chemical combination and decomposition, assimilation and dissimilation in organisms, excitation and inhibition nervous process, social cooperation and struggle.

In intraspecific and interspecific relations, contradictions appear in the form of competitive struggle between individuals of the same species, if they are limited in living conditions, and especially in the form of interspecific struggle. The result of contradictions between an organism and the environment, including other organisms, and the form of resolution of the contradiction is natural selection.

In social phenomena, completely different types of contradictions and forms of their resolution arise: between society and nature, production and the needs of people, between different parties, between states, between the old and the new in all their manifestations. Social contradictions can be either antagonistic or non-antagonistic in nature.

The objective inconsistency of being and thinking finds its expression in the inconsistency of the process of human cognition of reality. The mere fact of stating contradictions in science represents the identification and formulation of a problem, which is of great importance for the development of knowledge.

Criticism of dialectical contradiction

K. Popper

A reasoned criticism of dialectics of the Hegelian type is given by K. Popper in the article “What is dialectics?” According to K. Popper, dialecticians make the wrong conclusion that there is no need to avoid contradictions. He accuses supporters of dialectics of attacking the law of elimination of contradiction in formal logic, which states that two contradictory statements cannot be true at the same time. He proves that from the assumption of two contradictory statements, any statement can be deduced.

Reconciliation with contradiction, K. Popper believes, necessarily leads us to abandon criticism, because criticism, in essence, comes down to identifying contradictions in theory. The vague assertion of dialecticians that contradictions are inevitable and that it is not even desirable to get rid of them leads to a dangerous misconception, since the so-called fruitfulness of contradictions is simply the result of our decision not to put up with them (following the law of elimination of contradictions). It is dangerous, since the opinion that contradictions should not be eliminated or cannot be eliminated necessarily leads to the end of both science and criticism, that is, to the end of rationality.

K. Popper notes that in dialectics logical terms are used incorrectly, and the concept of “contradiction” has a certain logical meaning that is different from the dialectical one. Less misleading would be the terms "conflict", "counter-tendency" or "counter-interest".

Equilibrium theory of A. A. Bogdanov

In his three-volume work “Tectology,” published in the twenties of the last century, Bogdanov offers an alternative theory. He explains the processes of development of nature and society on the basis of the principle of equilibrium, borrowed from natural science. All developing objects of nature and society are, according to Bogdanov, integral formations, or systems, consisting of many elements.

Bogdanov considers the equilibrium state of a system not as once and for all given, but as a “dynamic” or “moving” equilibrium. It acts as a constant interaction of a progressively developing system with the environment, leading over time to its imbalance and subsequent instability (crisis), another structural restructuring that creates a new stability and a new state of equilibrium at a higher stage of its further development. The “law of equilibrium” formulated by Le Chatelier for physical and chemical objects, according to Bogdanov, is universal in nature and is an “expression of the structural stability” of developing systems at any level of organization of matter. Their structure appears as a result of the struggle and interaction of opposites (multidirectional elements), and the “moving equilibrium” as a whole is a constant adaptation to the changing external environment through inevitable structural rearrangements and the replacement of one equilibrium and stable state by another.

A characteristic feature of Bogdanov's theory of equilibrium is the assertion that opposites must balance, balance each other, and only in this way can a stable state of the system be achieved.

In developing systems, two opposing trends operate simultaneously: 1. Increased stability due to integration processes, the desire for balance; 2. A decrease in stability caused by the emergence of “systemic contradictions.”

These contradictions, at a certain level of their development, can lead to crises. Cases of this kind are countless in experience, writes Bogdanov, they are the main material for Goethe’s poetic formula:

The reasonable has become absurd,
And good turned into evil.

“Sooner or later, systemic contradictions intensify to the point that they outweigh the organizational connection (of the system); then a crisis must come, leading either to its transformation or to disintegration, collapse.”

“From systemic contradictions arises an organizational task, the more urgent, the stronger their development, the task of resolving or eliminating them. Life solves it either in a negative way - the system itself is destroyed, for example, the organism dies, or in a positive way - by transforming the system, freeing it from contradictions.”

A more harmonious or “harmonious” combination of system elements contains fewer “contradictions”. This means higher organization.

In Bogdanov’s tectology, “for the first time, the basic provisions of the systems approach and the theory of self-organization of systems were formulated. Not only has it not lost its relevance, but actually acts as a forerunner and theoretical basis the current Concept of Sustainable Development, but also serves as an important information source for its further deepening and improvement.”

Synergetics

The focus of synergetics is the identification of the laws of evolution and self-organization in systems of a very different nature: physical, chemical, biological, social. Synergetics has an open tendency towards universalization and directly borders on philosophy, the subject of which is the universal properties and laws of being.

According to supporters of synergetics, the source of development is not dialectical contradiction, but chance, irreversibility and instability. The fundamental principle of self-organization is the emergence of a new order and complication of systems through fluctuations (random deviations) of the states of their elements and subsystems. Such fluctuations are usually neutralized in all equilibrium systems due to negative feedback, ensuring the preservation of the structure and close to equilibrium state of the system. But in more complex open systems, due to the influx of energy from the outside and increased disequilibrium, deviations increase over time, accumulate, cause the effect of collective behavior of elements and subsystems and, ultimately, lead to the “losing” of the previous order and, through a relatively short-term chaotic state of the system, lead to either the destruction of the previous structure, or to the emergence of a new order. Since fluctuations are random in nature, the appearance of any innovations in the world is due to the action of a sum of random factors. The ancient philosophers Epicurus (341-270 BC) and Lucretius Carus (99-45 BC) spoke about this.

Another reason for development is “attraction”. When studying the processes of self-organization, the fact was recorded that among the possible branches of the evolution of the system, not all are probable, “that nature is not indifferent, that it has “attractions” in relation to certain states,” - in this regard, synergetics calls final states these systems are “attractors” (lat. attractio - attraction). An attractor is defined as a state towards which a system gravitates.

“The results of synergetics seem to return us to the ideas of the ancients about the potential and the unmanifested. In particular, they are close to Plato’s ideas about certain prototypes and perfect forms in the world of ideas, to which the things of the visible, always imperfect world strive to become like. Or to Aristotle’s ideas about entelechy, about a certain internal energy inherent in matter, forcing it to acquire a certain form.”

Philosophy of sustainable development

Employees of the UNESCO International Department of Environmental Ethics at the East Siberian State Technological University are working on creating a philosophy of sustainable development. The philosophy of sustainable development is the philosophy of dialectical realism. According to the head of the department V.V. Mantatov, the most general pattern of sustainable development is the bifurcation of the whole into opposites and the dynamic balance between them. “Sustainable development takes place where opposites do not reach antagonism, where self-organization of the system, “resolvability” of the situation takes place; This dialectic of sustainable development is most adequately expressed by the concept of harmony (in the Heraclitean interpretation). Harmony, according to Heraclitus, is an internal connection, a hidden coherence, that is, a balance resulting from the “convergence” of the unrelenting “divergence” of opposing forces.” “The process of development proceeds - at least - in two opposite ways: variability and stability, chaos and order, involution and evolution. In this unity and mutual transition of opposite moments of development, the concept of sustainable development emphasizes evolution, consistency and direction of change. The process of such development is characterized by order and security, survival and preservation of structures, as opposed to chaos and catastrophism. In a word, sustainable development is a creative evolution of a system in which no transformations within the system, no external disturbing factors can bring it out of a state of dynamic equilibrium.”

Literature

K. Popper. What is dialectics? (Questions of Philosophy. - 1995. - No. 1. - P. 118-138.)
V. N. Sadovsky. Karl Popper, Hegelian dialectics and formal logic (Questions of Philosophy. - 1995. - No. 1. - P. 139-148.)
V. A. Smirnov. K. Popper is right: dialectical logic is impossible
A. I. Brodsky. The Mystery of Dialectical Logic
Dialectical contradiction. M., 1979. - 341 p.
Spirkin A.G. Philosophy: Textbook. - 2nd ed. M.: Gardariki, 2002. - 736 p.

Notes

The works of Galileo and Copernicus laid the foundations of mathematical physics, the forerunner and model of which was the physics of Archimedes. This is where modern science originates. Since that time, it has been constantly increasing the number of open laws, covering the system of objective connections of reality even deeper and more fully. It is in modern times that the idea of the conformity of the world with laws is strengthened in every possible way, it becomes the core of worldview and scientific knowledge. The concept of the law of nature received its mature expression in the 17th century in the works of Descartes and Spinoza. The identification of patterns is recognized as the essence, goal and meaning of scientific knowledge.

Philosophy saw its task in generalizing practical and scientific ideas about laws, developing the most general doctrine of conformity to laws, the determination of phenomena. At the same time, philosophical thought also sought to identify special kinds of patterns that, for one reason or another, fell outside the competence of specific sciences. Starting with Aristotle, who was the first to outline a specifically philosophical approach to the world, most philosophers recognized the focus of philosophy on the fundamental laws, principles of being and its knowledge, the universal foundations of active, changing causal and other connections. The desire to comprehend the world as a coherent whole constantly led philosophers to understand the most general patterns.

Identity and difference.

The concept of “change” presupposes some relatively stable object, which at different times, in addition to those that persist, also has different characteristics.

Identity and difference are dialectically linked characteristics of any changing object. Identity with oneself already from the very beginning has as its necessary complement difference - the difference between a given object and everything else. In addition, constantly occurring changes in something constantly modify the object, making its identity with itself relative and incomplete. That is why it is legitimate to say that the object is the same and not the same. Beyond the dialectical combination of opposing features- stability and variability, identity and difference - it turns out to be impossible to understand change. It is characteristic that the absolutization of variability (remember Cratylus), in fact, also leads to the fact that it becomes impossible to judge change and understand it (“And you cannot enter the same flow once”). The flow seems to be “glued together”; its phases, moments, internal differentiation become indistinguishable, which means that it is, as it were, equated with peace and immutability.

Opposite.

A generalization of everyday life observations, experimental facts obtained in various sciences, as well as socio-historical practice, showed that the phenomena of reality are inherently polar in nature, that opposites can be found in any of them. In mathematics - plus and minus, exponentiation and root extraction, differentiation and integration; in physics - positive and negative charges; in mechanics - attraction and repulsion, action and reaction; in chemistry - analysis and synthesis chemical substances, association and dissociation; in biology - assimilation and dissimilation, heredity and variability, life and death, health and illness; in higher physiology nervous activity- excitation and inhibition - this is a quick list of opposites discovered by science. The discovery of contradictory, mutually exclusive, opposing tendencies in a wide variety of phenomena and processes was of fundamental importance for the formation of a dialectical-materialist worldview, for understanding the processes of change and development.

Opposite properties are those properties of objects (phenomena, processes) that occupy “ultimate”, extreme places on a certain scale. Examples of opposites: top - bottom, right - left, dry - wet, hot - cold, etc. Under dialectical opposites are understood as such aspects, tendencies of one or another integral, changing object (phenomenon, process), which are simultaneously mutually exclusive and mutually presuppose each other.

Dialectical opposites are inherent unity, interconnection: they complement each other, interpenetrate, and interact with each other in a complex way. The relationship between dialectical opposites is always dynamic character. They are capable of transforming into one another, changing places, etc. Their mutual change leads sooner or later to a change in the very object of which they are parties. And as a result of the destruction of their connection, they cease to be opposites in relation to each other. Thus, it makes no sense to talk about dialectical opposites separately, outside of their contradictory unity within the framework of some whole.

For example, an atom is the unity of its two necessary components: a positively charged nucleus and a negatively charged electron (if we talk about the simplest structure of an atom, that is, a hydrogen atom). It is obvious that their unity and interconnection determine the integrity of the atom. When it is destroyed, both the atomic nucleus and the electron turn into objects that exist in a different way, in some other connections. Accordingly, they cease to be opposites - sides of the contradictory unity of the atom.

Contradiction.

Contradiction literally means a sharp discrepancy in speech or statements about a certain subject. In the course of reasoning (narration, witness testimony, mathematical proof, theoretical conclusion), pairs of contradictory judgments may appear, one of which is a negation of the other. For example, some witnesses claim that the accused was at the crime scene at the time of the murder, while others claim that he was not. Both of these statements cannot be true. The simultaneous statement of both (A and not-A) is regarded in logic as necessarily false. According to Aristotle, a self-contradictory thought cannot be true, since contradictions are impossible in cognizable existence.

The prohibition of contradiction has been considered one of the principles of logical reasoning since antiquity. According to this principle, a sentence and its negation cannot be true at the same time. Such contradictions, which have long attracted the attention of logicians, are considered violations of the rules of reasoning. Their appearance is a signal of a logical error in reasoning, a falsely accepted premise, or, perhaps, a deliberate lie and inability to “make ends meet.” The derivation of a contradiction is allowed only for auxiliary purposes, in particular in proofs by contradiction in mathematics.

And yet, in the development of not only philosophical, political, legal, ethical, but also scientific thought, situations arise when it is necessary to say “yes and no”, “is and is not” or allow other expressions that logic regards as obviously false and violating its laws. Moreover, such situations do not arise due to errors of reasoning, but necessarily follow from the entire previous development of this area of knowledge.

The fact that the real process of development of scientific knowledge is associated with the stages of overcoming emerging contradictions is evidenced by numerous facts from the history of mathematics, physics and other sciences. “For a true theorist,” said M. Planck, “nothing can be more interesting than a fact that is in direct contradiction with the generally accepted theory: after all, here, in fact, his work begins.” A critical revision of the principles of mathematics in general and its individual branches has always coincided with periods of identifying and resolving contradictions.

At a certain stage of development of this field of knowledge, scientists are faced with contradictions, which can only be resolved by subsequent progress of science. Thus, in biology, since ancient times, the idea of the immutability of species has dominated, which received complete expression in the 18th century in the teachings of C. Linnaeus. Meanwhile, transformed forms of animals and plants were discovered in the fossil record, and these facts came into conflict with the fundamental idea. A conclusion breaking with previous ideas was proposed by Charles Darwin: species change as a result of natural selection. This led to the solution of the main contradiction (antinomy) of the biology of that time. However, the resolution of one antinomy-problem raised a new one: F. Jenkis pointed out to Charles Darwin that his natural selection would inevitably lead to a complete stop of evolution, since with successive series of crossings, a mixture of hereditary characteristics occurs, leading to their “dissolution” in the offspring. A new antinomy arose, the solution of which was proposed by G. Mendel, who pointed out the discreteness of hereditary characteristics. Detection of contradictions allows one to grope for those cognitive situations that reveal prospects for the development of key ideas of science.

The development of science in the 20th century also testifies to the antinomy of knowledge. The study of the microworld necessitated the recognition of its wave-particle duality, which was mainly due to the limited applicability of macroscopic concepts to microobjects. N. Bohr formulated the principle of complementarity in this regard. It turned out that we have no right to attribute either wave or corpuscular properties to “physical reality” - they arise only in the course of macroscopic observation and description. The new cognitive situation indicates the need for further development of the physics of the microworld - the construction of a theory of elementary particles with the study of new concepts. A similar situation has developed in cosmology (the antinomy of the finite and the infinite) and a number of other sciences.

Detection of antinomies and their resolution- characteristic dialectical thinking. And since such antinomies are fixed in the form of contradictory statements (A and non-A), prohibited by formal logic, this is sometimes seen as the antagonism of dialectics and formal logic. But then dialectics would turn out to be something opposed not only to common human understanding, but also to science.

The above example convinces us that logic and dialectics act together, in harmony, at all stages of rational knowledge. What about logical contradictions? In the process of dialectical development of knowledge, they do not act as knowledge-result (in this case, dialectics would be deprived of logical correctness). Antinomy(and aporia, paradox, dilemma)- an acute form of posing a problem that requires its solution. Such logical contradictions in the development of scientific knowledge act as “his motor power, its source, its motive...” Formal and logical contradictions serve as a signal that the system of concepts adopted at this stage of development is not applicable to describe certain phenomena. Antinomies-problems signal the incompleteness or limited applicability of the existing conceptual apparatus of a particular science and serve as an internal incentive for its further improvement.

The antinomies themselves that arise in knowledge cannot be identified with dialectical contradictions. Dialectics is not a method of piling up contradictions. Without observing the rules of logic, dialectics would turn into sophistry, and formal logical thinking without observing dialectics turns into metaphysics. The matter of dialectics - identification and resolution of contradictions. The resolution of antinomies-problems is associated with deep qualitative transformations in the structure of scientific knowledge, access to a fundamentally new, deeper understanding of phenomena that characterizes scientific revolutions. Thus, antinomies-problems are critical “points” of the stage of cognition. They are moments of the dialectical movement of knowledge as a whole, the process of identifying and resolving ever new contradictions.

The resolution of antinomies-problems is subject to a general rhythm, discovered in antiquity in situations of creative dialogue. Hegel at one time presented this rhythm in the triad scheme: “thesis - antithesis - synthesis,” giving it the name “negation of negation.”

2.Dialectical contradictions are a source of movement and development.

The modern idea of dialectics comes from Hegel. By dialectic we mean:

The doctrine of the universal connections of existence, the most general laws of development,

Theory, method and methodology of scientific knowledge.

Considering the question of the fundamental properties of being, we should note its internal inconsistency as a source of diversity and development.

The unity and struggle of opposites is the source of movement, development, and reveals their causes. Hence the inevitable question: how does development differ from movement?

The main lines in development are progress, regression and single-level development.

The movement mechanism is explained quantitatively by qualitative changes.

Quality is a holistic characteristic of the essential properties of an object, allowing the object to be itself. Losing its quality, the object ceases to exist. Quantity is a set of properties indicating the size, volume, and degree of manifestation of quality.

have changed. But a critical boiling point had arrived: the wildly “scurrying” water molecules began to jump to the surface in a thick stream in the form of steam.

The nature of the leap depends on the nature of the developing object, on the conditions of its development, on its inherent internal and external contradictions.

3 The universality and specific nature of contradictions, their

diversity and main types.

From time immemorial, the attention of the mind has been attracted as inconsistency characterizes the dialectical essence of the interaction of the elements of being, worldview and methodology of cognition and action. The contradictory nature of existence is better understood when we know what contradiction is. A contradiction is a certain type of interaction between different and opposing sides, properties, tendencies within a particular system or between systems, a process of collision of opposing aspirations and forces.

There are no absolutely identical things: they are different within themselves and among themselves.

Dialectical opposites are simultaneously mutually exclusive and mutually presupposing sides, tendencies of one or another integral, changing object (phenomenon, process). The formula of “Unity and struggle” of opposites expresses the intense interaction of “polar” properties, statements of movement, development.

“A plant, an animal, every cell, at every moment of its life, is identical with itself and yet differs from itself due to the assimilation and excretion of substances, due to the knowledge, formation and death of cells, due to the process of circulation that occurs - in a word, due to the sum of continuous molecular changes which make up life and the general results of which appear firsthand, in the form of life phases: embryonic life, youth, puberty, the process of reproduction, old age, death."

Using the law of unity and struggle of opposites of the universal and in general any object in particular, we can regard them as a combination of two hypothetical principles - male and female. A man and a woman do not at all demonstrate the presence of extreme opposites; on the contrary, a person from any point of view - anatomical, psychological, philosophical - is a moving result of two principles. Even if we recall the myth of Mercury, the two Earths are intertwined in incomprehensible patterns, and only when Apollo throws the golden rod do they form a harmonious figure around him.

Any orientation, desire determines the masculine in a man, the feminine in a woman.

Movement from left to right, up, from center to periphery is masculine.

From right to left, down, from the periphery - female.

There are at least two conclusions from this:

1) any “left” already implies “right”;

2) any “up” makes sense if the “down” is known.

All directions are legitimate (by law) when there is a center.

Contradiction - expresses internal source any development, movement. The knowledge of internal (essential) and external (formal) contradiction distinguishes dialectics from metaphysics. “Dialectics is the study of contradiction in the very essence of objects”, “Dialectical contradiction is the unity of mutually exclusive (mutually conditioning each other), i.e. interacting opposites.”

“The unity of identity and difference is the dialectical form of contradiction.”

Opposites are characterized as interdependent and interacting sides of a dialectical contradiction. Opposites, according to Hegel, “have against themselves” not just another, but “their own other.” The dialectic of contradiction reflects the dual relationship within the whole:

1. Unity of opposites.

2.Their struggle.

Types (types) of contradictions:

a) internal and external. Internal contradictions are contradictions between elements of a structure; and external ones are the contradictions of various systems and phenomena. Society and nature, organism and environment.

b) Main and non-main, main and non-main. Example: Mutual transformations of a neutron, proton, electron, meson in the nucleus of an atom are a process of continuous emergence and resolution of contradictions, but this will not lead to a change in the atom - the polarity of the nucleus, the electron shells remain.

In materialist dialectics, negation is considered as a necessary moment of development, a condition for a qualitative change in things.

Negation means the transformation of one object into another with the simultaneous transition of the first to the position of a subordinate and transformed element within the second, which is called sublation.

Dialectical negation involves a triune process:

1) destruction (destruction, overcoming, elimination) of the former;

2) cumulation (accumulation, summation) - (partial preservation, obstruction, translation);

3) construction (formation, creation of something new).

The negation of the negation presupposes cyclicality, relative repetition, and continuity.

Examples of dialectical negation in the history of Russia:

1. The transition from pagan faith to Orthodox - the Baptism of Rus' is a turn to the West by denying the East.

2. The Tatar-Mongol yoke - the transition from the feudal West to the Asian East.

3. Petrine reforms - the orientation of Russia from East to West.

4. Revolution of 1917 - the time vector is again directed from West to East.

5. Perestroika is underway - signs of the idealization of the West.

The law of quantitative and qualitative changes has categories:

1. Quality is a set of properties that indicate what a thing is, what it is.

1. Quantity is a set of properties that characterize the size of a thing, its dimensions.

2. Quality is such a certainty of an object (phenomenon, process) that characterizes it as a given object, possessing a set of properties inherent to it and belonging to the class of objects of the same type with it.

2. Quantity - a characteristic according to the degree of development or intensity of their inherent properties, expressed in quantities and numbers.

Each individual thing has a countless number of properties, the unity of which means its quality.

4. Social contradictions and ways to resolve them.

Social contradictions represent certain relationships in society. In this test we will look at social contradictions in society since the birth of the feudal-dependent system.

The phases of development of social struggle were associated with the main stages of the formation of a feudal-dependent population. And the agreements of the Kyiv princes with Byzantium in the 10th century, and the Most Ancient Russian Truth of the early 11th century. they talk about clashes between “servants” and their owners. The struggle of the servants with their masters did not result in an uprising - the most common form of resistance was escape. The Most Ancient Truth also provides for cases when a slave hits a free person.

The protest of the population was caused by the “possession” of the land carried out by the Kyiv princes and the conversion of previously free community members into dependent peasants - tributaries. In 945 there was an uprising of the Drevlyans against the Kyiv prince Igor. The reason for the uprising was Igor’s collection of increased tribute from them. Obviously, there was some kind of unwritten law that determined the norm of duties in favor of the Kyiv princes. The Drevlyans considered it illegal to exceed it and began to fight to fix the duty by custom. Igor was killed. The suppression of the uprising in the Drevlyansky land was carried out by his wife Olga.

At this time, social inequality had already arisen in the Drevlyansky land. There was a process of separating out the feudalizing nobility - " best husbands", "deliberate men", "elders" who dominated ordinary "people" - community members. Political power belonged to this nobility. In connection with the emergence of class society and statehood, the Drevlyans arose their own "cities" - estates, centers of power of the "best men ".
However, the degree of feudalization in the Drevlyansky land was still weak, and tribal relations, on the contrary, were very noticeable. Therefore, the local Drevlyan nobility managed to lead the uprising under the slogan of fighting for their “good” princes. The suppression of the uprising in the Drevlyansky land resulted in the restoration of its tributary relations to to the Kyiv princes.
One of the forms of social protest against feudalization was armed attacks by peasants on representatives of the ruling class - “robberies.” The chronicle contains a story about the measures taken by Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich in 996 in order to eradicate this phenomenon. When “robberies multiplied,” Vladimir, on the advice of the bishops, decided to execute the robbers, and then, on the instructions of the same bishops, established viras (monetary fines) as punishment for “robbery.”

The murder of feudal lords (ognishchans) during the “robberies” is also mentioned in the Brief Edition of Russian Pravda. IN Lengthy edition of the monument, the punishment for robbery is “flow and plunder”, i.e. expulsion of the criminal from the community with confiscation of all property.

Intensification of robberies at the end of the 10th and 11th centuries. was generated by growing inequality among peasants and the separation of “outcasts” from the community - people deprived of the means of production and forced into feudal dependence.

Popular unrest also arose in connection with the internecine struggle of the princes for the creation single state. In 1015, the “citizens” of Novgorod rebelled: they killed a squad of Varangians - mercenaries called by the Novgorod prince Yaroslav against his father Vladimir Svyatoslavich of Kyiv. One might think that the Novgorod smerds also took part in the movement of the townspeople: the chronicler mentions them as part of Yaroslav’s troops.

After at the end of the 10th century. In Rus', Christianity was adopted as the official state religion, and the Orthodox Church became a feudal organization, anti-feudal movements began to act under a religious guise, taking the form of protests against Christianity, for the old pagan faith. Thus, the uprising in Suzdal land during the famine of 1024. led by the Magi. The rebels began to beat up the local nobility (“old children”), suspecting that she was hiding food supplies. It was probably a rogue movement. It stopped only after bread was brought from Volga Bulgaria to Suzdal land. Yaroslav himself arrived in Suzdal and there dealt with the wise men, imprisoning some and executing others.

Social contradictions in Ancient Rus' intensified in the second half of the 11th century and in beginning of XII V. Firstly, at this time there were uprisings of the smerds, caused not by the encroachment of the land and the imposition of tribute on the community members, but by the establishment of the dependence of some of the smerds directly on the prince as the land owner. Secondly, at the same time there was a rise in the movements of the townspeople, and sometimes urban uprisings merged with the movements of the peasantry. Thirdly, peasant unrest was caused by the emergence of such severe forms of feudal dependence as procurement.

The aggravation of class contradictions is evidenced by the Yaroslavich Truth, created, apparently, in the early 70s of the 11th century. This code deals with the actions of smerds enslaved by patrimonial princes. There have been cases of arson and damage to princely berms (trees with beehives), violations of land property rights (plowing up the boundaries of arable land and destroying boundary markers). The monument speaks of the removal of livestock from the barn and field, the robbery of a cage (storeroom) with bread, and the theft of poultry from “overweights” (traps that were set in the forest). This does not mean isolated cases of theft, but robberies involving a dozen or two dozen people.

True, the articles of the law are formulated in such a way that it is not always possible to say whose property is being violated. The owners could also be peasants, between whom land disputes sometimes arose. However, in a number of cases the princely domain is directly mentioned. Therefore, it is quite legitimate to conclude that many of the offenses listed in the decrees of Yaroslav’s sons were forms of protest by the rural lower classes against social inequality, which worsened under the conditions of the emergence of the feudal mode of production.

Yaroslavich's truth establishes an increased fine for the murder of people close to the princely court, and places responsibility for this crime on the entire peasant community. Anyone who kills a fireman while he is protecting princely property may be immediately put to death. Prince Izyaslav, whose senior groom was killed by residents of the city of Dorogobuzh, issued a special decree that protected the lives of princely grooms with an increased fine. Pravda Yaroslavich introduces an extensive scale of fines for the murder of other representatives of the princely patrimonial administration.

The first major movement of townspeople took place in Kyiv in 1068. Apparently, it also had echoes among the rural population in the vicinity of Kyiv. The Kiev-Pechersk Patericon tells how one night the Pechersk Monastery was attacked by “robbers” who were going to kill the brethren and seize church property. Probably, this was not a simple robbery: the “robbers” wanted, by destroying the monks, to get rid of their neighborhood and prevent the growth of the monastery as a feudal organization. There was a whole group of people who had a representative - an “elder”. They gathered in the forest, but somewhere in the neighboring village they had their own “homes”. It can be seen that the Paterik describes the actions of the Smerd peasants, who were afraid that the expansion of the monastery would lead to the loss of their lands and freedom. M. N. Tikhomirov rightly attributed this speech to 1068 - 1069. - time close to the uprising in Kyiv.

In the same Patericon one can find information about other acts of struggle between peasants and feudal lords, dating back approximately to the turn of the 60s and 70s of the 11th century. One day, bound “robbers” were brought to Theodosius, who intended to commit theft in one of the monastery villages. The abbot allegedly took pity on the captured people, ordered them to be released and released, advising them to “offend anyone and do harm to anyone.”

There is another colorful story about how landowners captured “robbers” who encroached on their property at the scene of a crime. The robbers were tied up and taken to the city to the judge. When they were being led past some monastery village, one of them began to threaten that someday he and his comrades would appear there: “he wants to commit robbery and capture all the former…”. There were some responses to the Kiev uprising of 1068 among the slaves. Judging by the Novgorod Chronicle, the Novgorod bishop Stefan, who arrived in Kyiv, “strangled his slaves.”

Under 1071, the chronicle describes the largest peasant movement of the end of the 11th century. - performance of smerds in Rostov land and Beloozero. According to the chronicle, society here consisted of simple “people” (peasants) and “ the best people"who had large reserves of bread, honey, fish, and furs. Such an accumulation of wealth in the hands of the local nobility caused a protest among the ordinary mass of community members, who took special sharp forms during hunger. Excitement began among the smerds. The Magi - natives of Yaroslavl - sought to direct the movement along the line of struggle against Christianity, for the old, pagan faith. Moving along the Volga, the rebels took property from the “best people.” The Magi, trying to give a pagan touch to the social performance of the smerds, pointed to women as the keepers of supplies: superstitions were widespread among the people regarding “evil wives” who cause hunger.

The nature of the peasantry's unrest was complicated by its relationship with the princely authorities. A number of peasants - smerds - belonged to the prince's tributaries. At Beloozero, where up to 300 people came, at that time the warrior Yan Vyshatich was collecting tribute from the smerds. He demanded the extradition of the Magi, since they are his and his prince’s smerds, and therefore, living on land developed as state property by Svyatoslav of Chernigov, they are subject to the latter’s jurisdiction, and therefore to Yan as his representative. The Smerds, however, insisted on direct jurisdiction of the prince and refused to hand over the Magi. Armed, Yan and his squad marched against the Smerds. There was a collision in the forest. The Smerdas were unable to defeat the squad and disappeared. Later, frightened by Yan’s threat that he would not stop collecting tribute from the population for a whole year if they did not listen to him, the Smerds handed the Magi into the hands of the tributary. He ordered that the relatives of the murdered women exercise the right of blood feud and kill the wise men, which was done.
Very little information has been preserved about the movement in Kyiv in 1113. Sources speak of “rebellion”, “golk”, “sedition, in reality and in people”. The frightened Kiev aristocracy called on Vladimir Monomakh to reign in Kyiv from Pereyaslavl, who, through some concessions to the social lower classes, managed to suppress the uprising.

List of used literature.

1. Introduction to philosophy. Textbook for higher educational institutions. Political publication 2. Moscow. 1990

2. V.P. Kokhanovsky - Philosophy. Higher education. Rostov-on-Don, “Phoenix”, 2003

3. Hegel. Lectures on the history of philosophy // Op. M., 1932-1935. T.9 – 11.

4. Frolov I.T., Arab-Ogly E.A., Philosophy. Textbook for universities. Moscow. 1997

Tutoring

Need help studying a topic?

Our specialists will advise or provide tutoring services on topics that interest you.
Submit your application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

Views