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The significance and main directions of introducing new equipment and technology at the enterprise. Abstract: Pattern of development of technology and technological process

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………3

Chapter 1. Patterns of technology development …………………………………… 4

Chapter 2. Structure of technical systems……………………………………. 9

Chapter 3. Pattern of development of the technological process……………11

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………14

List of sources used……………………………………..15

Introduction

Technology is a set of means and objects of labor created by man to increase the efficiency of his activities in various fields (production, research, military, household, medical, educational equipment, etc.). Technology is closely related to it - a set of methods for manufacturing and using technology, connecting means and objects of labor. Technical progress as a process of improving equipment and technology based on labor experience, the use of richer natural resources (for example, iron instead of stone), socio-demographic factors (for example, specialization in the manufacture of certain tools) took place at all stages of the development of society.

Scientific and technological progress is the process of improving the material base, production products based on the creation and assimilation of the results of scientific research and development in order to better meet social needs, save working time and comprehensive development of the personality of workers. Scientific and technological progress is the basis of scientific and production progress, including the improvement of production as a whole, including the worker as the main productive force, forms and methods of management, and the economic mechanism.

In modern conditions, science is fully becoming direct productive force. This means that the object of its application is the production process as a whole, and not just technology. Scientific achievements materialize not only in engineering and technology, but also in the knowledge and skills of people.

1. Pattern of technology development

Mechanization and automation, acceleration of the movement of actuators lead to a reduction in the gaps between working strokes and ensure an increase in the productivity of human labor. But at the same time, the essence of the working stroke, and therefore the technological process itself, does not change. The absence of changes in the essence of the technological process when improving auxiliary moves allows us to define this development path as evolutionary. A characteristic feature of this development path can be considered the sufficient clarity of measures for its implementation, since in each specific case it is possible to outline ways to improve specific auxiliary moves, and the implementation of the assigned tasks is quite predictable. Such a process development scheme is reminiscent of the implementation of a large number of rationalization proposals, which, although they improve the process, cannot be considered inventions. The process is rationalistic in nature.

A completely different principle of development of technological processes is implemented when improving the working stroke. With this direction of development, a variety of technical solutions are possible, using advances various areas knowledge, implementing new and non-traditional technologies, introducing known technological solutions in new conditions, combining a variety of processing principles. We are talking specifically about a radical, revolutionary change in the essence of the labor movement, and not about its intensification.

Unpredictability of results when improving technological processes in this way, the presence of unconventional technical solutions allow us to speak about the heuristic nature of the implementation of this type of decisions.

We can formulate the following basic properties of technical solutions implemented during the development of technological processes along an evolutionary or revolutionary path.

A group of technical solutions of an evolutionary type is characterized by the following properties:

1. The introduction of mechanization and automation is necessarily associated with an increase in the worker’s equipment and, consequently, with an increase in past labor per unit of product.

2. The introduction of evolutionary technical solutions reduces the amount of living labor expended per unit of product and in most cases causes an increase in its productivity.

3. The effectiveness of technical solutions of an evolutionary type decreases as labor productivity increases.

The decrease in efficiency is due to the fact that as complexity increases technological equipment its modernization requires even greater complexity and, consequently, greater costs.

A group of revolutionary technical solutions is characterized by the following properties:

1. Revolutionary technical solutions are always more effective than evolutionary solutions of the same purpose.

2. A reduction in total labor costs during revolutionary decisions can be achieved as a result of a reduction in both living and past labor per unit of product.

It should be clarified that the greater efficiency of solutions of a revolutionary type in relation to technical solutions of an evolutionary type is a certain absolute property of all solutions of this type. Since the implementation of revolutionary solutions requires additional research, a change in technology and main technological equipment, and other costs, their implementation becomes real only if the specified property is realized, otherwise development will follow an evolutionary path.

Before giving a final description of the various ways of development of technological processes, it is necessary to consider options for the combination and dynamics of living and past labor in the technological process.

As already noted, the development of a technological process is precisely the change that results in an increase in the productivity of labor spent within the process to create products. Therefore, in order to identify options for the development of technological processes, it is necessary to know the possible nature of changes in the absolute values of living and past labor in a unit of production with an increase in labor productivity.

An increase in labor productivity is possible only with a decrease in the amount of living labor as the technological process develops. Technically, a development option is possible as a result of a decrease in total labor with an increase in living labor and a decrease in past labor. The nature of such decisions does not coincide with the general direction of technology development and consistent development cannot follow this path.

All possible options for changing the ratio of living and past labor, causing an increase in labor productivity, are divided into two groups.

In one group, the increase in the productivity of total labor is due to an increase in past labor with a decrease in living labor. In this case, the productivity of total labor grows only until a certain ratio of living and past labor is reached, and after reaching this ratio it stops, i.e. development is limited.

With an increase in the productivity of total labor due to a decrease in past labor and a simultaneous decrease in living labor, the development is unlimited, since the growth of total labor productivity does not stop.

The previously noted properties of technical solutions of evolutionary and revolutionary development paths make it possible to evaluate the options for the dynamics of living and past labor and determine the corresponding types of these solutions.

An increase in labor productivity, which occurs with a decrease in both past and living labor, cannot be realized by evolutionary technical solutions, because they assume an increase in past labor. It is obvious that this variant of dynamics can only be realized with a revolutionary path of development of technological processes.

The increase in labor productivity, which appears with an increase in past labor and a decrease in living labor, is realized exclusively through the evolutionary path of development of technological processes. In addition to these boundary cases, there are possible options for alternating the use of technical solutions of evolutionary and revolutionary types as the technological process develops. In this case, with the predominance of evolutionary solutions, an increase in total costs will appear, and with the predominance of revolutionary solutions, a steady decrease in the costs of total labor will be realized, i.e. access to unlimited development of the technological process.

As a result of the above, we can conclude that all variants of the dynamics of living and past labor, according to the nature of changes in total labor and the type of their technical support, can be divided into three groups:

1) provided by technical solutions of an evolutionary type;

2) provided with revolutionary technical solutions;

3) provided by technical solutions of evolutionary and revolutionary types, the use of which is carried out alternately.

The physical meaning of the dynamics options that arise from the nature of the technological process, as well as the essence of the technical support for these options, make it possible to determine objective ways of technical development of technological processes.

The technical development of a technological process, in which these two development paths are alternately implemented, can lead to limited development if the evolutionary path predominates, and to unlimited development if revolutionary technical solutions predominate.

Thus, the whole variety of technical solutions, scientific discoveries and technologies can provide only two ways of developing technological processes - evolutionary and revolutionary.

2. Structure of technical systems

Social production is characterized by a set of technologies used by industries. The industry, in turn, can be considered as a set of homogeneous technologies with different intensities of their application. Just as industries form into national economy closely related blocks (complexes), technologies are combined into more or less large systems. Such systems are connected from the inside by flows of means of production, which for some technologies are products (waste) of production, and for others they serve as resources.

A system is a collection formed from a finite set of elements between which certain relationships exist. An element can simultaneously be a system of smaller elements. The system can be divided into subsystems of varying complexity.

Classification of technological systems:

four hierarchical levels of technological systems: technological process, production unit, enterprise, industry;

three levels of automation: mechanized systems, automated and automatic;

three levels of specialization: special technological system, i.e. a system designed for the manufacture or repair of a product of one name and standard size; specialized, i.e. intended for the manufacture or repair of a group of products; a universal system that ensures the manufacture of products with various design and technological features.

As technological connections develop and change, the organizational structure of the system for managing them also changes. For example, the original workshop is modified into a manufactory with sequential technological processes. With the further development of production, the role of the original workshop is already played by sections ( parallel connection) with homogeneous equipment. From this we can draw the following conclusions:

1) organizational management structures are a reflection of the structures of technological systems;

2) technological connections are primary relative to organizational ones;

3) technological processes and their systems are built according to their own laws, the organization and management of production are designed to ensure their functioning and development.

Consequently, knowing the objective patterns of development of technological systems, it is possible to create an optimal control system for them.

So, the listed levels of management (vertical connections) are formed on the basis of alternating sequential and parallel connections of technological structures and reflect their dialectical unity and contradiction. As the management level is formed in accordance with one or another type of technological connections, connections of another type are weakened and broken. The structure of the management system is formed by technological connections that are strongest at a given level. The management system must change along with changes in technological connections, and management itself must make fullest use of the internal laws of scientific and technical development of technological systems. Underestimation of the relationship between technological and organizational structures entails significant disruptions in production activities.

The possibility of increasing the level of technology of a system due to technological equipment arises only as a consequence of an increase in the level of technology of system elements. 2. Technical and economic indicators of technological processes The level of technology of any production has a decisive influence on its economic indicators, therefore the choice of the optimal variant of the technological process must...

This is the understanding of technology by its most prominent researchers. Let us next consider the patterns of its development. 2. Development of technology. Patterns of development of technology and technical progress Analysis of technology cannot be limited to considering it only in statics. Throughout the history of human society, technology has constantly developed and improved. This development has now become...

It is advisable to call such elements technical systems (TS), since, unlike technical objects, they do not have a direct social function. Modern trends in the development of technologyModern technology and modern society Directly referring to individual technical achievements, it is difficult and practically impossible to show qualitative changes in technology in general. ...

Form, reflected in formula (10.9) and summarized in the corresponding columns of the drawing. , (10.9) where, TAi – technological tolerance. 11. Layout of the mechanical section The “spindle” part (Fig. 1.1) is an assembly unit of a 4-spindle combined head, which in turn is included in the assembly unit of an automatic line for processing...

1. Production structure of the enterprise

The production structure of an enterprise is understood as the composition of the sections, workshops and services that form it, and the forms of their interrelation in the process of production.

The production structure characterizes the division of labor between divisions of the enterprise and their cooperation. It has a significant impact on the technical and economic indicators of production, on the structure of enterprise management, the organization of operational and accounting.

The production structure of the enterprise is dynamic. As equipment and technology of production, management, organization of production and labor improve, the production structure also improves.

Improving the production structure creates conditions for the intensification of production, the effective use of labor, material and financial resources, improving product quality.

In contrast to the production structure, the general structure of the enterprise includes various general plant services and facilities, including those related to cultural and welfare services for the enterprise’s employees (housing and communal services, canteens, hospitals, clinics, kindergartens, etc.).

Elements of production structure

The main elements of the production structure of the enterprise are workplaces, sections and workshops.

The primary link in the spatial organization of production is workplace.

A workplace is an organizationally indivisible (in given specific conditions) link of the production process, served by one or more workers, designed to perform a specific production or service operation (or group of them), equipped with appropriate equipment and organizational and technical means.

The workplace can be simple or complex. A simple workplace is typical for discrete type production, where one worker is busy using specific equipment. A simple workplace can be single- or multi-machine. In the case of the use of complex equipment and in industries using hardware processes, the workplace becomes complex, since it is served by a group of people (team) with a certain delimitation of functions when performing the process. The importance of complex jobs increases with the increasing level of mechanization and automation of production.

The workplace can be stationary and mobile. A stationary workplace is located on a fixed production area equipped with appropriate equipment, and objects of labor are supplied to the workplace. The mobile workplace moves with the appropriate equipment as objects of labor are processed.

Depending on the characteristics of the work performed, workplaces are divided into specialized and universal.

The level of organization of workplaces, the reasonable determination of their number and specialization, the coordination of their work over time, and the rationality of location on the production area significantly depend final results work of the enterprise. It is at the workplace that the direct interaction of material, technological and labor factors of production takes place. At the workplace level, the main drivers of productivity growth are used.

A site is a production unit that unites a number of workplaces, grouped according to certain characteristics, carrying out part of the overall production process for the manufacture of products or servicing the production process.

At the production site, in addition to the main and auxiliary workers, there is a manager - a site foreman.

Production areas specialize in detail and technology. In the first case, jobs are interconnected by a partial production process for the manufacture of a certain part of the finished product; in the second - to perform identical operations.

Areas connected to each other by permanent technological connections are united into workshops.

The workshop is the most complex system included in the production structure, which includes production areas and a number of functional organs as subsystems. Complex relationships arise in the workshop: it is characterized by a rather complex structure and organization with developed internal and external relationships.

The workshop is the main structural unit of a large enterprise. It is endowed with a certain production and economic independence, is an organizationally, technically and administratively separate production unit and performs the production functions assigned to it. Each workshop receives from the plant management a single planned task that regulates the volume of work performed, quality indicators and maximum costs for the planned volume of work.

Workshop specialization

The workshops of an enterprise can be organized according to technological, subject and mixed types.

With the technological type of structure, the workshop specializes in performing homogeneous technological operations (for example, in a textile enterprise - spinning, weaving, finishing shops; in a machine building - stamping, foundry, thermal, assembly).

Technological specialization leads to more complex relationships between sections and workshops and to frequent equipment changeovers. The arrangement of equipment in groups performing homogeneous work leads to counter transportation of objects of labor, increases the length of transportation, the time spent on readjusting equipment, and the duration production cycle, volume of work in progress, working capital, significantly complicates accounting. At the same time, the technological specialization of workshops also has certain positive aspects: it ensures high equipment utilization and is characterized by the relative simplicity of managing production involved in the implementation of one technological process. The construction of workshops according to a technological principle is typical for enterprises producing a variety of products.

In the object type, workshops specialize in the manufacture of a specific product or part of it (unit, unit), using various technological processes.

Such a structure creates the possibility of organizing subject-closed workshops in which various technological processes are carried out. Such workshops have a complete production cycle.

Subject specialization has significant advantages over technological specialization. Deeper specialization of jobs makes it possible to use high-performance equipment, increases productivity and improves product quality. The closed construction of the production process within the workshop reduces the cost of time and money for transportation, and leads to a reduction in the duration of the production cycle. All this simplifies management, production planning and accounting, and leads to an increase in technical and economic performance indicators. Assigning the production cycle of a specific product to a workshop increases the responsibility of the workshop team for the quality and timing of work. However, with an insignificant production volume and labor intensity of manufactured products, subject specialization may turn out to be ineffective, as it leads to incomplete utilization of equipment and production space.

It should be borne in mind that even in conditions of a significant scale of production and a stable range of output, subject specialization of workshops does not completely replace technological specialization. The peculiarities of the technological process lead to the fact that procurement shops (for example, foundry, stamping) are built according to technological specialization.

Along with the technological and subject structures on industrial enterprises The mixed (subject-technological) type of production structure has become widespread. This type of structure is often found in light industries (such as shoe and clothing industry), in mechanical engineering and a number of other industries.

The mixed type of production structure has a number of advantages: it provides a reduction in the volume of intra-shop transportation, a reduction in the duration of the production cycle for manufacturing products, improved working conditions, a high level of equipment utilization, an increase in labor productivity, and a reduction in production costs.

Improving the production structure should follow the path of expanding subject and mixed specialization, organizing sections and workshops with high equipment load, and centralizing auxiliary departments of the enterprise.

Functional divisions of the enterprise

Industrial enterprises can be organized with a full or incomplete production cycle. Enterprises with a full production cycle have all the necessary workshops and services for the manufacture of a complex product, while enterprises with an incomplete production cycle do not have some workshops related to certain stages of production. Thus, machine-building plants may not have their own foundries and forges, but receive castings and forgings through cooperation from specialized enterprises.

All workshops and farms of an industrial enterprise can be divided into workshops of main production, auxiliary workshops and service farms. Individual enterprises may have auxiliary and side workshops.

The main production workshops include workshops that manufacture the main products of the enterprise. The main shops are divided into procurement (forging, foundry), processing (mechanical, thermal, woodworking) and assembly (product kitting).

The main tasks of the main production are to ensure the movement of the product during its manufacturing process and to organize a rational technical and technological process.

The task of the auxiliary shops is the production of tooling for the production shops of the enterprise, the production of spare parts for plant equipment and energy resources. The most important of these shops are tool, repair, and energy shops. The number of auxiliary workshops and their sizes depend on the scale of production and the composition of the main workshops.

As a rule, auxiliary workshops include workshops that extract and process auxiliary materials, for example, a container shop that produces containers for packaging products.

Side workshops are workshops in which products are made from production waste or used auxiliary materials are recovered for production needs (for example, a workshop for the recovery of waste and cleaning materials).

The purpose of service farms is to provide all parts of the enterprise with various types of services; instrumental, repair, energy, transport, warehouse, etc. An important place in the production structure of the enterprise is occupied by supply services and preparation of new products and advanced technologies. The latter includes an experimental workshop, various laboratories for testing new materials, finished products, and technological processes.

The production process maintenance system aims to ensure its uninterrupted and efficient functioning.

With the increasing focus of enterprises on the needs of the consumer, the composition of service departments has expanded significantly, studying the demand for products, assembling finished products, providing supervision and control over the use of products, and carrying out installation, adjustment and warranty repair of products at the consumer. Service departments have the necessary stock of parts, components and assemblies that allow them to repair sold products.

Social infrastructure units also play an important role in the enterprise, which are designed to ensure social services workers, primarily the implementation of measures to improve labor protection, safety precautions, medical care, organization of recreation, sports, consumer services, etc.

In Fig. Figure 1 shows the production structure of a machine-building enterprise.

Factors influencing production structure

Analysis, assessment and justification of directions for improving the structures of enterprises should be carried out taking into account the factors and conditions of their formation.

Factors influencing the formation of the production structure of an enterprise can be divided into several groups.

General structural (national economic) factors determine the complexity and completeness of the enterprise structure. These include: the composition of economic sectors, the relationship between them, the degree of their differentiation, expected productivity growth rates, foreign trade relations, etc. Industry factors include: the breadth of industry specialization, the level of development of industry science and design work, the peculiarities of the organization of supply and sales in the industry, the provision of the industry with services from other industries.

Regional factors determine the security of an enterprise various communications: gas and water pipelines, transport highways, communications facilities, etc.

General structural, sectoral and regional factors together form the external environment for the functioning of enterprises. These factors must be taken into account when forming the structure of the enterprise.

A significant number of factors influencing the production structure and infrastructure are internal to the enterprise. Among them are usually:

Features of buildings, structures, equipment used, land, raw materials and supplies;

Nature of products and methods of their manufacture;

Volume of production and its labor intensity;

The degree of development of specialization and cooperation;

Capacity and features of transport organization;

Optimal sizes of units to ensure their management with the greatest efficiency;

Specifics of the recruited workforce;

Degree of development information systems etc.

With the transition of enterprises to market conditions, the importance of factors ensuring the commercial efficiency of the production and economic activities of the enterprise, the rhythm of production, and cost reduction increases.

2. Types of industrial production

Type of production is a classification category of production, distinguished on the basis of breadth of product range, regularity, stability of product output, type of equipment used, personnel qualifications, labor intensity of operations and duration of the production cycle. Typically, a distinction is made between single, serial and mass production.

Single production

Unit production is characterized by a wide range of products and a small volume of production of identical products. Patterns either do not repeat or are repeated irregularly. Jobs do not have deep specialization. Unit production is characterized by the presence of significant work in progress, the lack of assignment of operations to workstations, the use of unique equipment, frequent changeover of equipment, highly qualified workers, a significant proportion of manual operations, the overall high labor intensity of products and a long production cycle, and the high cost of manufactured products. A diverse range of products makes unit production more mobile and adaptable to fluctuations in demand for finished products.

Unit production is typical for machine tool building, shipbuilding, the production of large hydraulic turbines, rolling mills and other unique equipment.

Mass production

Serial production is characterized by the production of a limited range of products. Batches (series) of products are repeated at certain intervals. Depending on the size of the series, small-scale, medium-scale and large-scale production are distinguished.

In serial production, it is possible to specialize individual workplaces to perform similar technological operations. The level of production costs is reduced due to the specialization of jobs, the widespread use of semi-skilled workers, the efficient use of equipment and production space, and a reduction in wage costs compared to single production.

Batch production products are standard products, for example, machines of an established type, usually produced in larger quantities (metal-cutting machines, pumps, compressors, equipment for the chemical and food industries).

Mass production

Mass production is characterized by the production of certain types of products in large quantities in highly specialized workstations over an extended period. Mechanization and automation of mass production can significantly reduce the share of manual labor. Mass production is characterized by a constant range of manufactured products, specialization of jobs to perform one permanently assigned operation, the use of special equipment, low labor intensity and duration of the production process, high automation and mechanization.

The cost of mass-produced products is minimal compared to single and mass-produced products. This type of production is economically feasible with a sufficiently large volume of output. A necessary condition for mass production is the presence of a stable and significant demand for the product. In conditions of economic crisis, mass production becomes the most vulnerable.

Characteristics of types of production are presented in table. 1.

3. Organization of the production process

The production process is a collection of individual labor processes aimed at transforming raw materials into finished products. The content of the production process has a decisive impact on the construction of the enterprise and its production units. The production process is the basis of any enterprise.

The main factors of the production process that determine the nature of production are means of labor (machines, equipment, buildings, structures, etc.), objects of labor (raw materials, materials, semi-finished products) and labor as the purposeful activity of people. The direct interaction of these three main factors forms the content of the production process.

Principles of lean organization

The principles of rational organization of the production process can be divided into two categories: general, independent of the specific content of the production process, and specific, characteristic of a particular process.

General principles are principles that must be followed in the construction of any production process in time and space. These include the following:

The principle of specialization, meaning the division of labor between individual divisions of the enterprise and workplaces and their cooperation in the production process;

The principle of parallelism, which provides for the simultaneous implementation of individual parts of the production process associated with the manufacture of a specific product; the principle of proportionality, which assumes relatively equal productivity per unit of time of interconnected divisions of the enterprise;

the principle of direct flow, ensuring the shortest path for the movement of objects of labor from the launch of raw materials or semi-finished products to the receipt of finished products;

The principle of continuity, which provides for the maximum reduction of breaks between operations;

The principle of rhythm, which means that the entire production process and its constituent partial processes for the production of a given quantity of products must be strictly repeated at equal intervals of time;

The principle of technical equipment, focused on mechanization and automation of the production process, the elimination of manual, monotonous, heavy labor harmful to human health.

The production process includes a number of technological, information, transport, auxiliary, service and other processes.

Production processes consist of main and auxiliary operations. The main ones include operations that are directly related to changing the shapes, sizes and internal structure of processed objects, and assembly operations. Auxiliary operations are the operations of the production process for quality and quantity control, and the movement of processed items.

The set of basic operations is usually called a technological process. It forms a major part of the production process. The nature of the technological process to the greatest extent determines the organizational conditions of production - the construction of production units, the nature and location of warehouses and storerooms, the direction and length of transport routes.

An operation is a part of the production process, performed at one or more workplaces, by one or more workers (team) and characterized by a set of sequential actions on a specific subject of labor.

The main parameters of the production process are the tempo and tact of the operation. The tempo of an operation is the number of objects launched into an operation (or released from it) per unit of time. The tempo of an operation (sop) is determined by the ratio of a single launch (release) of an operation (sop) to its cycle (top):

where t is the duration of the operation; k is the number of jobs to perform the operation.

The operation cycle is the time during which an item of labor or batch is released from the operation:

Classification of production processes

Various branches of industrial production, as well as enterprises of the same industry, differ significantly from each other in the nature of the products created, the means of production used and the technological processes used. These differences give rise to an exceptional variety of production processes occurring in enterprises. The most important factors that determine the specifics of production processes in industrial production are: the composition of the finished product, the nature of the impact on objects of labor (technological process), the degree of continuity of the process, the importance of various types of processes in the organization of production, the type of production. The finished product influences the production process by its design (complexity and size of the molds), as well as the required accuracy of the components, physical and chemical properties.

From the point of view of production organization great importance also has the number of components of the manufactured product. On this basis, all production processes are divided into processes for the production of simple and complex products. The production process for the manufacture of a complex product is formed as a result of a combination of a number of parallel processes for the production of simple products and is called synthetic. Processes as a result of which several types of finished products are obtained from one type of raw material are called analytical. The more complex the product and the more diverse the methods for its production, the more complex the organization of the production process.

The predominance of one or another type of production process at an enterprise has a great influence on its production structure. Thus, in synthetic processes there is an extensive system of procurement workshops, in each of which the initial processing of raw materials and materials occurs. Then the process moves to a narrower circle of processing workshops and ends with one production workshop. In this case, the work on logistics, external and intra-factory cooperation, and management of procurement production is very labor-intensive.

During the analytical process, one procurement shop transfers its semi-finished products to several processing and production shops specializing in the manufacture of various types of products. In this case, the company produces significant number various types of products, has large and extensive sales connections, such enterprises usually have developed by-products,

According to the nature of the impact on objects of labor, production processes are divided into mechanical, physical, chemical, etc. According to the degree of continuity - continuous (there are no breaks between various operations) and discrete (with technological breaks).

According to the stage of production of the finished product, procurement, processing and finishing production processes are distinguished.

According to the degree of technical equipment, there are manual, partially and complex-mechanized ones.

4. Production cycle

The production cycle is one of the most important technical and economic indicators, which is the starting point for calculating many indicators of the production and economic activity of an enterprise. On its basis, for example, the timing of launching a product into production is established, taking into account the timing of its release, the capacity of production units is calculated, the volume of work in progress is determined, and other production planning calculations are carried out.

The production cycle of a product (batch) is the calendar period during which it is in production from the launch of raw materials and semi-finished products into main production until the receipt of the finished product (batch).

Loop structure

The structure of the production cycle includes the time for performing main, auxiliary operations and breaks in the manufacture of products (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Structure of the production cycle

The time for performing the main operations of processing products constitutes the technological cycle and determines the time during which direct or indirect human influence on the subject of labor occurs.

Breaks can be divided into two groups: 1) breaks associated with the operating mode established at the enterprise - non-working days and shifts, between shifts and lunch breaks, intra-shift regulated breaks for rest of workers, etc.; 2) breaks due to organizational and technical reasons - waiting for a workplace to become free, waiting for components and parts to be assembled, inequality of production rhythms in adjacent ones, i.e. dependent on each other, jobs, lack of energy, materials or vehicles, etc.;

When calculating the duration of the production cycle, only those time costs are taken into account that are not covered by the time of technological operations (for example, time spent on control, transportation of products). Breaks caused by organizational and technical problems (untimely provision of the workplace with materials, tools, violation of labor discipline, etc.) are not taken into account when calculating the planned duration of the production cycle.

When calculating the duration of the production cycle, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the movement of the subject of labor through the operations existing in the enterprise. Typically one of three types is used; serial, parallel, parallel-serial.

With sequential movement, processing of a batch of items of labor of the same name at each subsequent operation begins only when the entire batch has been processed at the previous operation.

Let us assume that it is necessary to process a batch consisting of three products (n = 3), while the number of processing operations (t = 4), the time standards for operations are, min: t1 = 10, t2 = 40, t3 = 20, t4= 10.

For this case, cycle duration, min;

TC (last) = 3(10 + 40 + 20 + 10) = 240.

Since a number of operations can be performed not at one, but at several workplaces, the duration of the production cycle with sequential movement in the general case has the form:

where Ci is the number of jobs.

With parallel movement, the transfer of objects of labor to the subsequent operation is carried out individually or in a transport batch immediately after processing in the previous operation:

where p is the size of the transport lot, pcs; tmax – execution time of the longest operation, min; Сmax – number of jobs in the longest operation. For the example discussed above; p =1.

With parallel motion, the production cycle time is significantly reduced.

With a parallel-sequential type of movement, objects of labor are transferred to the subsequent operation as they are processed in the previous one individually or in a transport batch, while the execution time of adjacent operations is partially combined in such a way that a batch of products is processed at each operation without interruptions.

The duration of the production cycle can be defined as the difference between the cycle duration for a sequential type of movement and the total time savings compared to the sequential type of movement, due to the partial overlap of the execution time of each pair of adjacent operations:

For our example: p = 1.

TC(par-last)= 240 = 160 min.

Cycle duration

The duration of the production cycle is influenced by many factors: technological, organizational and economic. Technological processes, their complexity and diversity, technical equipment determine the processing time of parts and the duration of assembly processes. Organizational factors of the movement of objects of labor during processing are associated with the organization of jobs, the work itself and its payment. Organizational conditions have an even greater influence on the duration of auxiliary operations, service processes and breaks.

Economic factors determine the level of mechanization and equipment of processes (and, consequently, their duration), standards for work in progress.

The faster the production process takes place (the shorter the duration of the production cycle), which is one of the elements of the circulation of working capital, the greater will be the speed of their turnover, the greater the number of revolutions they make during the year.

As a result, monetary resources are released that can be used to expand production at a given enterprise.

For the same reason, there is a reduction (absolute or relative) in the volume of work in progress. And this means the release of working capital in their material form, i.e. in the form of specific material resources.

The production capacity of an enterprise or workshop directly depends on the duration of the production cycle. Production capacity refers to the maximum possible output of products in the planning period. And therefore it is clear that the less time is spent on the production of one product, the greater their number can be produced in the same period of time.

Labor productivity, with a reduction in the duration of the production cycle, increases as a result of an increase in the volume of production due to an increase in production capacity, which leads to a decrease in the share of labor of auxiliary workers in a unit of production, as well as the share of labor of specialists and office workers.

The cost of production when the production cycle is shortened is reduced due to the reduction in the cost of a unit of production of the share of general plant and workshop expenses with an increase in production capacity.

Thus, reducing the duration of the production cycle is one of the most important sources of intensification and increase in production efficiency in industrial enterprises.

The reserve for reducing the duration of the production cycle is the improvement of equipment and technology, the use of continuous and combined technological processes, deepening specialization and cooperation, the introduction of methods of scientific organization of labor and workplace maintenance, and the introduction of robotics.

5. The concept of organizational management structure

The functions of managing the activities of an enterprise are implemented by divisions of the management apparatus and individual employees, who at the same time enter into economic, organizational, social, psychological and other relationships with each other. The organizational relations that develop between departments and employees of the enterprise's management apparatus determine its organizational structure.

The organizational structure of enterprise management is understood as the composition (list) of departments, services and divisions in the management apparatus, their systematic organization, the nature of subordination and accountability to each other and to the highest management body of the company, as well as a set of coordination and information links, the procedure for distributing management functions at various levels and divisions of the management hierarchy.

The basis for building an organizational structure for enterprise management is the organizational structure of production.

Variety of functional connections and possible ways their distribution between departments and employees is determined by diversity possible types organizational structures of production management. All these types come down mainly to four types of organizational structures: linear, functional, divisional and adaptive.

6. Linear management structure

The essence of a linear (hierarchical) management structure is that control influences on an object can be transmitted only by one dominant person - the manager, who receives official information only from his directly subordinate persons and makes decisions on all issues related to the part of the object he manages. , and is responsible for its work to a superior manager (Fig. 3).

This type of organizational management structure is used in the context of the functioning of small enterprises with simple production in the absence of extensive cooperative connections with suppliers, consumers, scientific and design organizations etc. Currently, such a structure is used in the management system of production sites, individual small workshops, as well as small firms one native and uncomplicated technology.

Rice. 3. Linear management structure: R – manager; L – line management bodies (line managers); I - performers

Advantages and disadvantages

The advantages of the linear structure are due to its ease of use. All responsibilities and powers are clearly distributed here, and therefore conditions are created for an operational decision-making process, to maintain the necessary discipline in the team.

Among the disadvantages of the linear structure of an organization, rigidity, inflexibility, and inability to further growth and development of the enterprise are usually noted. The linear structure is focused on a large amount of information transmitted from one management level to another, limiting the initiative of employees at lower management levels. She presents high requirements to the qualifications of managers and their competence on all issues of production and management of subordinates.

The increase in the scale of production and its complexity is accompanied by a deepening division of labor and differentiation of the functions of the production system. At the same time, the growth in the volume of management work is accompanied by a deepening of the functional division of managerial labor and the separation and specialization of management units. This creates a functional type of management structure.

7. Functional management structure

Features and Applications

The functional structure (Fig. 4) has developed as an inevitable result of the increasing complexity of the management process. The peculiarity of the functional structure is that although unity of command is maintained, special divisions are formed for individual management functions, whose employees have knowledge and skills in this area of management.

In principle, the creation of a functional structure comes down to grouping personnel according to the broad tasks that they perform. The specific characteristics and features of the activities of a particular division (block) correspond to the most important areas of activity of the entire enterprise.

The traditional functional blocks of an enterprise are the departments of production, marketing, and finance. These are the broad areas of activity, or functions, that every enterprise has to ensure that its goals are achieved.

Rice. 4. Functional management structure: R – manager; F – functional management bodies (functional managers); I – performers

If the size of the entire organization or a given department is large, then the main functional departments can, in turn, be subdivided into smaller functional units. They are called secondary, or derivatives. The main idea here is to maximize the benefits of specialization and avoid overloading management. In this case, it is necessary to exercise certain caution so that such a department (or division) does not put its own goals above the general goals of the entire enterprise.

In practice, a linear-functional, or headquarters, structure is usually used, which provides for the creation of functional units at the main links of the linear structure (Fig. 5). The main role of these units is to prepare draft decisions, which come into force after approval by the relevant line managers.

Rice. 5. Linear-functional management structure: R–manager; F – functional management bodies (functional managers); L – linear controls; I – performers

Along with line managers (directors, heads of branches and workshops), there are heads of functional departments (planning, technical, financial departments, accounting) who prepare draft plans and reports, which turn into official documents after signing by line managers.

This system has two varieties: a shop management structure, characterized by the creation of functional units under the shop manager for the most important production functions, and a shopless management structure, used in small enterprises and characterized by division not into workshops, but into sections.

The main advantage of this structure is that, while maintaining the focus of the linear structure, it makes it possible to specialize the performance of individual functions and thereby increase the competence of management as a whole.

Advantages and disadvantages

The advantages of a functional structure include the fact that it stimulates business and professional specialization, reduces duplication of effort and consumption of material resources in functional areas, and improves coordination of activities.

At the same time, the specialization of functional departments is often an obstacle to the successful operation of an enterprise, since it complicates the coordination of management influences.

Functional departments may be more interested in achieving the goals and objectives of their departments than the overall goals of the entire organization. This increases the likelihood of conflicts between functional departments. In addition, in a large enterprise, the chain of command from the manager to the direct executor becomes too long.

Experience shows that it is advisable to use a functional structure at those enterprises that produce a relatively limited range of products, operate in stable external conditions and require the solution of standard management tasks to ensure their functioning. Examples of this kind can be enterprises operating in the metallurgical, rubber industries, and in industries producing raw materials.

The functional structure is not suitable for enterprises with a wide or frequently changing range of products, as well as for enterprises operating on a wide international scale, simultaneously in several markets in countries with different socio-economic systems and legislation.

For enterprises of this type, divisional structures are more suitable.

8. Divisional management structure

Features and Applications

The first developments of the concept and the beginning of the introduction of divisional management structures date back to the 20s, and the peak of their industrial use occurred in the 60s–70s.

The need for new approaches to organizing management was caused by a sharp increase in the size of enterprises, the diversification of their activities and the complication of technological processes in a dynamically changing external environment. The first to begin restructuring the structure according to this model were largest organizations, which, within the framework of their giant enterprises (corporations), began to create production departments, giving them a certain independence in carrying out operational activities. At the same time, the administration reserved the right to strict control on general corporate issues of development strategy, research and development, investments, etc. Therefore, this type of structure is often characterized as a combination of centralized coordination with decentralized control (decentralization while maintaining coordination and control).

The key figures in the management of organizations with a divisional structure are not the heads of functional departments, but managers (managers) heading production departments.

The structuring of an organization into departments is usually carried out according to one of three criteria: by products produced or services provided (product specialization), by orientation towards the consumer (consumer specialization), by territories served (regional specialization).

Organizing divisions along product lines (Figure 6) is one of the first forms of divisional structure, and today most of the largest consumer goods manufacturers with diversified products use a product organization structure.

When using a divisional-product management structure, departments are created for the main products. Management of the production and marketing of any product (service) is transferred to one person who is responsible for this type of product. The heads of support services report to him.

Rice. 6. Product management structure

Some businesses produce a wide range of products or services that meet the needs of several large consumer groups or markets. Each group or market has clearly defined, or specific, needs. If two or more of these elements become particularly important to an enterprise, it may use a customer-oriented organizational structure in which all its departments are grouped around specific customer groups.

Rice. 7. Customer-focused organizational structure

This type of organizational structure is used in quite specific areas, for example, in the field of education, where recently, along with traditional general education programs, special departments have emerged for adult education, advanced training, etc. An example of the active use of consumer-oriented organizational structure is commercial banks. The main groups of consumers using their services are individual clients (private individuals), pension funds, trust firms, and international financial organizations. Customer-centric organizational structures are equally characteristic of trade forms trading wholesale and retail.

If the activities of the enterprise cover large geographical areas, especially on an international scale, then an organizational structure along a territorial principle may be appropriate, i.e. at the location of its divisions (Fig. 8). A regional structure makes it easier to resolve problems related to local laws, customs and consumer needs. This approach simplifies the connection between the enterprise and its customers, as well as communication between its divisions.

Rice. 8. Regional organizational structure

A well-known example of regional organizational structures is the sales divisions of large enterprises. Among them you can often find units whose activities cover very large geographical areas, which in turn are divided into smaller units, divided into even smaller blocks.

Advantages and disadvantages

Different types of divisional structure have the same goal - to ensure a more effective response of the enterprise to a particular environmental factor.

The product structure makes it easy to handle the development of new products based on competition, technology improvement, or customer needs. The regional structure allows for more effective consideration of local legislation, socio-economic systems and markets as market areas expand geographically. As for the consumer-oriented structure, it makes it possible to most effectively take into account the needs of those consumers on whom the enterprise most depends. Thus, the choice of divisional structure should be based on which of these factors is most important in terms of ensuring the implementation of the enterprise's strategic plans and achieving its goals.

The divisional structure significantly speeds up the enterprise's response to changes occurring in the external environment. As a result of expanding the boundaries of operational and economic independence, departments are considered as profit centers that actively use the freedom given to them to increase operational efficiency.

At the same time, divisional management structures have led to an increase in hierarchy, i.e. vertical management. They demanded the formation of intermediate levels of management to coordinate the work of departments, groups, etc. The duplication of management functions at different levels ultimately led to an increase in the costs of maintaining the management apparatus.

9. Adaptive management structures

Features and Applications

Adaptive, or organic, management structures ensure a quick response of the enterprise to changes in the external environment and facilitate the introduction of new production technologies. These structures are focused on the accelerated implementation of complex programs and projects and can be used at enterprises, in associations, at the level of industries and markets. Typically, there are two types of adaptive structures: project and matrix.

The project structure is formed when an organization develops projects, which are understood as any processes of targeted changes in the system, for example, modernization of production, development of new products or technologies, construction of facilities, etc. Project management includes defining its goals, forming a structure, planning and organizing work, and coordinating the actions of performers.

One of the forms of project management is the formation of a special unit - a project team working on a temporary basis. It usually includes the necessary specialists, including management. The project manager is vested with so-called project powers. These include responsibility for project planning, for the state of the schedule and progress of work, for the expenditure of allocated resources, including for material incentives for workers. In this regard, great importance is attached to the manager’s ability to formulate a project management concept, distribute tasks among team members, clearly define priorities and resources, and take a constructive approach to conflict resolution. Upon completion of the project, the structure disintegrates, and employees move to a new project structure or return to their permanent position (in the case of contract work, they quit). This structure has great flexibility, but if there are several targeted programs or projects, it leads to fragmentation of resources and significantly complicates the maintenance and development of the production and scientific and technical potential of the organization as a whole. At the same time, the project manager is required not only to manage all stages of the project life cycle, but also to take into account the project’s place in the network of projects of this organization.

In order to facilitate coordination tasks, organizations create headquarters management bodies consisting of project managers or use so-called matrix structures.

The matrix structure (Fig. 9) is a lattice organization built on the principle of double subordination of performers: on the one hand, to the immediate head of the functional service, which provides personnel and technical assistance to the project manager, on the other, to the project (target program) manager, who is endowed with the necessary authority to carry out the management process in accordance with planned deadlines, resources and quality. With such an organization, the project manager interacts with two groups of subordinates: with permanent members of the project team and with other employees of functional departments who report to him temporarily and on a limited range of issues. At the same time, their subordination to the immediate heads of divisions, departments, and services remains.

Rice. 9. Matrix management structure

The project manager's authority can range from complete authority over all details of the project to simple clerical authority. The project manager controls the work of all departments on this project, the heads of functional departments control the work of their department (and its subdivisions) on all projects.

The matrix structure is an attempt to take advantage of both the functional and project principles of organizational structure and, if possible, avoid their disadvantages.

Advantages and disadvantages

The matrix management structure allows for a certain flexibility that is never present in functional structures, since in them all employees are assigned to certain functional departments. In matrix structures, staff can be flexibly redistributed depending on the specific needs of each project. The matrix organization provides greater opportunity for coordination of work, which is typical for divisional structures. This is achieved by creating the position of project manager, who coordinates all communications between project participants working in different functional departments.

Among the disadvantages of a matrix organization, the complexity and sometimes incomprehensibility of its structure is usually emphasized; the imposition of vertical and horizontal powers undermines the principle of unity of command, which often leads to conflicts and difficulties in decision making. When using a matrix structure, there is a stronger dependence of success on personal relationships between employees than in traditional structures.

Despite all these difficulties, the matrix organization is used in many industries, especially in knowledge-intensive industries (for example, in the production of electronic equipment), as well as in some non-production organizations.

10. Principles for constructing an organizational management structure

The versatility of the content of management structures predetermines the multiplicity of principles for their formation. First of all, the structure must reflect the goals and objectives of the organization, and, therefore, be subordinate to production and change along with the changes occurring in it. It should reflect the functional division of labor and the scope of authority of management employees; the latter are determined by policies, procedures, rules and job descriptions and expand, as a rule, towards higher levels of management. An example is standard diagram enterprise management (Fig. 10).

The powers of a manager at any level are limited not only internal factors, but also by environmental factors, the level of culture and value orientations of society, the traditions and norms accepted in it. In other words, the management structure must correspond to the socio-cultural environment, and when constructing it, it is necessary to take into account the conditions in which it will operate. In practice, this means that attempts to blindly copy management structures that operate successfully in other organizations are doomed to failure if the operating conditions are different. It is also important to implement the principle of correspondence between functions and powers, on the one hand, and qualifications and level of culture, on the other.

Any restructuring of the management structure must be assessed, first of all,

Rice. 10. Schematic diagram of the structure of the enterprise management apparatus

in terms of achieving its goals. In a normally developing (non-crisis) economy, reorganization is most often aimed at increasing the efficiency of the organization by improving the management system, while the main factors for improvement are the growth of labor productivity, acceleration of technical development, cooperation in adoption and implementation management decisions etc. During a crisis period, changes in management structures are aimed at creating conditions for the survival of the organization through more rational use resources, cost reduction and more flexible adaptation to environmental requirements.

In general, a rational organizational structure of enterprise management must meet the following requirements:

Have functional suitability, guarantee reliability and provide management at all levels;

Be prompt, keep up with the progress of the production process;

Have a minimum number of management levels and rational connections between management bodies;

Be economical, minimize costs for performing management functions.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………3

Chapter 1. Patterns of technology development …………………………………… 4

Chapter 2. Structure of technical systems……………………………………. 9

Chapter 3. Pattern of development of the technological process……………11

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………14

List of sources used……………………………………..15

Introduction

Technique - a set of means and objects of labor created by man to increase the efficiency of his activities in various fields (production, research, military, household, medical, educational equipment, etc.). Closely related to her technology - a set of methods for manufacturing and using equipment, connecting means and objects of labor. Technical progress as a process of improving equipment and technology based on labor experience, the use of richer natural resources (for example, iron instead of stone), socio-demographic factors (for example, specialization in the manufacture of certain tools) took place at all stages of the development of society.

Scientific and technical progress - the process of improving the material base, production products based on the creation and development of scientific research and development results in order to better meet social needs, save working time and comprehensive development of the personality of workers. NTP is the basis scientific and production progress, including the improvement of production as a whole, including the worker as the main productive force, forms and methods of management, and economic mechanism.

In modern conditions, science is fully becoming a direct productive force. This means that the object of its application is the production process as a whole, and not just technology. Scientific achievements materialize not only in engineering and technology, but also in the knowledge and skills of people.

1. Pattern of technology development

A completely different principle of development of technological processes is implemented when improving the working stroke. With this direction of development, a wide variety of technical solutions are possible, using achievements in various fields of knowledge, implementing new and non-traditional technologies, introducing known technological solutions in new conditions, combining a variety of processing principles. We are talking specifically about a radical, revolutionary change in the essence of the labor movement, and not about its intensification.

The unpredictability of results when improving technological processes in this way and the presence of unconventional technical solutions allow us to speak about the heuristic nature of the implementation of this type of solutions.

We can formulate the following basic properties of technical solutions implemented during the development of technological processes along an evolutionary or revolutionary path.

Technical Solutions Group evolutionary type characterized by the following properties:

1. The introduction of mechanization and automation is necessarily associated with an increase in the worker’s equipment and, consequently, with an increase in past labor per unit of product.

2. The introduction of evolutionary technical solutions reduces the amount of living labor expended per unit of product and in most cases causes an increase in its productivity.

3. The effectiveness of technical solutions of an evolutionary type decreases as labor productivity increases.

The decrease in efficiency is due to the fact that as technological equipment becomes more complex, its modernization requires even greater complexity, and therefore greater costs.

Technical Solutions Group revolutionary type characterized by the following properties:

1. Revolutionary technical solutions are always more effective than evolutionary solutions of the same purpose.

2. A reduction in total labor costs during revolutionary decisions can be achieved as a result of a reduction in both living and past labor per unit of product.

All possible options for changing the ratio of living and past labor, causing an increase in labor productivity, are divided into two groups.

1) provided by technical solutions of an evolutionary type;

2) provided with revolutionary technical solutions;

3) provided by technical solutions of evolutionary and revolutionary types, the use of which is carried out alternately.

Thus, the whole variety of technical solutions, scientific discoveries and technologies can provide only two ways of developing technological processes - evolutionary and revolutionary.

2. Structure of technical systems

Social production is characterized by a set of technologies used by industries. The industry, in turn, can be considered as a set of homogeneous technologies with different intensities of their application. Just as industries form closely related blocks (complexes) in the national economy, technologies are combined into more or less large systems. Such systems are connected from the inside by flows of means of production, which for some technologies are products (waste) of production, and for others they serve as resources.

System is a collection formed from a finite set of elements between which certain relationships exist. An element can simultaneously be a system of smaller elements. The system can be divided into subsystems of varying complexity.

Classification of technological systems:

four hierarchical levels of technological systems: technological process, production unit, enterprise, industry;

three levels of automation: mechanized systems, automated and automatic;

As technological connections develop and change, the organizational structure of the system for managing them also changes. For example, the original workshop is modified into a manufactory with sequential technological processes. With the further development of production, the role of the original workshop is already played by sections (parallel connection) with homogeneous equipment. From here you can do the following conclusions:

1) organizational management structures are a reflection of the structures of technological systems;

2) technological connections are primary relative to organizational ones;

3) technological processes and their systems are built according to their own laws, the organization and management of production are designed to ensure their functioning and development.

Consequently, knowing the objective patterns of development of technological systems, it is possible to create an optimal control system for them.

3. Pattern of technological process development

Within the framework of a simple technological process, there is a clear relationship between the heuristic development of this process and the growth of its level of technology. On the one hand, progressive changes or replacement of the working course of a technological process cause an increase in the level of technology; on the other hand, an increase in the level of technology is possible only with the development of the technological process along a heuristic path.

If a system of technological processes consists of several simple processes, then such a dependence will no longer exist due to the fact that an increase in the level of technology of systems occurs not only as a result of changes in working moves, but also as a result of changes in the proportions of technological processes that make up the system. Therefore, in order to determine the boundary between the heuristic and rationalistic paths of development and identify the features of evolutionary and revolutionary development, the proportions of the system components are optimized and an economic analysis is carried out.

Any system of technological processes can be quantitatively assessed by the maximum of its productivity at constant levels of component technology. An increase in the level of technology that provides increased productivity is the result of some rationalization of the system's technological processes. In this case, there is no qualitative change in the workflow of the technological process; the technology levels of the system components are unchanged. Due to objective reasons of a technological nature or reasons related to limited financial, raw material, and labor resources, individual components of the system may not correspond to the degree of rationalistic development that ensures optimal system performance. Further development of the technological system by optimizing proportions becomes possible only through the realization of the potential capabilities of this technological process, as a result of which the maximum (potential) level of technology in this system will be achieved under constant conditions of its components. This level of technology is the upper limit. Its achievement will mean that a subsequent increase in the level of technology of this system can only be obtained as a result of radical restructuring of its working moves, i.e. in heuristic development.

The potential level of the system is denoted by U. An increase in the value of Y is considered a sign of the heuristic development of technological process systems and shows not only an increase in the real production system, but also opening up opportunities for increasing labor productivity and optimizing the structure of the system components with the help of investments aimed at their rationalistic development. A necessary and sufficient condition for the heuristic development of a technological system is an increase in the level of technology of at least one of the components of the technological processes included in the system.

Increasing the technology level of a technological process system as a result of increasing the technology level of its components is a complex process. The potential level of the system changes in proportion to the increase in the level of technology of the technological process and its specific gravity in general production. The increase in the real level of technology of a system also depends on the degree of rationalistic development of its components and tends to slow down in the case when the heuristic development is not sufficiently supported by the rationalistic development of the components. The most effective will be to increase the level of technology in technological processes, which, firstly, are characterized by the largest share in the total productivity of the system and, secondly, are well developed in rationalistic terms, but have relatively low level technologies. Systems of technological processes are heterogeneous in their perception of evolutionary and revolutionary paths of development. Therefore, it is possible, based on the identified patterns, to determine the conditions for the development of system components.

In the case where minor rationalization of the technological process at the level of individual enterprises is meant, we can limit ourselves to maximizing the efficiency of direct costs. When it comes to global changes in the production technology of any product (or group of products), the issues of proportional and optimal development of all components of the technology system become of greatest importance.

The heuristic development of a technological system (complex, industry, sub-industry) can be carried out through the appropriately organized rationalistic development of its elements. However, the level of technology, due to the growth of technological equipment, can grow no more than to the weighted average level of technology of the elements of the technological system. It is obvious that the very possibility of increasing the level of technology of a system due to technological equipment arises only as a consequence of an increase in the level of technology of the elements of the system.

Conclusion

In modern economics, much attention is paid to the study of technological changes. Many works have been published devoted to the study of various innovative processes, shifts in the sectoral structure of the economy, changes in certain economic proportions occurring under the influence of scientific and technical progress, etc. At the same time, despite the relatively good knowledge of many particular problems, individual phenomena and processes associated with scientific and technological progress, a number of deep interrelations and dependencies that determine the structure of technical and economic development remain unexplored, without an understanding of which individual developments of particular problems do not add up to a holistic view of scientific and technological progress. The lack of knowledge of the general laws of scientific and technological progress is manifested, in particular, in the remaining gap between the macro and micro levels of economic analysis. On the one hand, in studies of individual innovation processes, the macroeconomic aspect is usually limited to the analysis of the impact of a particular innovation on macroeconomic indicators or the study of general innovative activity in the economy (the frequency of occurrence of innovations and inventions, the speed of their practical development and dissemination, and other average values). On the other hand, the study of structural changes focuses, as a rule, on considering changes in sectoral and inter-sectoral proportions, in the relationships between the first and second divisions of social production, parts of national income allocated to consumption and accumulation, and other macroeconomic parameters. As for the relationship between certain structural changes and the spread of corresponding innovations, at best such a relationship is only stated, and in many works it is not mentioned at all. Without a clear understanding of the mechanism for integrating individual innovations into holistic areas of scientific and technical progress, structural changes in the economy not only cannot be properly described, but also explained with the necessary completeness to manage technical and economic development.

List of sources used

1. Anchishkin A.I. Science. Technique. Economy. - M.: Economics, 1986. - 215 p.

2. Vasilyeva I. N. Economic fundamentals technological development. - M.: Banks and Exchanges, 1995. - 165 p.

3. Glazyev S. Yu. Economic theory of technical development. M.: Nauka, 1990. - 241 p.

4. Organizational and economic problems of scientific and technical progress / Ed. Byalkovskaya V.S. - M.: Higher School, 1990. - 298 p.

5. Blyakhman L. S. Economics, management organization and scientific and technical progress planning. M.: Higher School, 1991. 228 p.

6. Dvortsin M . D. Fundamentals of theories of scientific and technical development of production. M.: Publishing house. MINCH them. G.V. Plekhanov, 1988. - 251 p.

Vasilyeva I. N. Economic foundations of technological development. M., 1995

Society as a form of human life

Society- is isolated from nature, but closely connected with it part of the material world , which includes everything forms and methods of human interaction .

1) in a broad sense- this is all of humanity in its past, present, future

2) in the narrow sense is a period in the history of a nation ( primitive society, feudal society)

This is a group of people who have united for joint activities (sports society "Dynamo")

Interaction between society and nature

Human influence on nature is contradictory:

The influence of nature on humans (examples from the OGE)	Human influence on nature (examples from the OGE)
Negative	Positive
1. The river that overflowed in the spring flooded several settlements. Rescuers evacuated local residents and livestock. 2. destruction of a coastal recreation area by a powerful typhoon 3. planting shrubs on the sides of roads 4. development of ancient centers of agriculture in the valleys of the Indus and Ganges rivers 5. loss of crops as a result of drought 6. liquidation of the consequences of a hurricane	1. pollution of the oceans 2. deforestation for the construction of residential buildings 3. production of accessories from genuine leather 4. pollution of the sea and coastline caused by an oil tanker accident	1. soil restoration after liquidation of a waste dump 2. organization nature reserve 3. closure of a factory that pollutes the river 4. legislative prohibition of collecting lilies of the valley in the forest 5. prohibition of hunting rare animals

· As technology and technology improve, the economic impact of society on nature increases

· The relationship between nature and society forms the basis of the unity of the material world

· Overpopulation of the modern world increases the severity of environmental problems

· Pollution by society natural environment relates to environmental issues

· Natural conditions determine the economy and life of people

· Nature influences the economic activities of society

· The impact of society on the natural environment is contradictory

Natural conditions influence cultural creativity, traditions and customs of people

· Natural resources are limited

· In modern society, attention to environmental issues is increasing

· Destruction of the natural environment leads to a deterioration in people's health and a decrease in their quality of life.

Global problems of humanity is a set of socio-natural problems, the solution of which determines the social progress of mankind and the preservation of civilization.

· Global problems threaten the existence of humanity

· Arose in the second half of the 20th century.

· To overcome global problems it is necessary to unite the efforts of all countries of the world

Types of global problems of humanity: