Russia in the period of capitalism. Populist organizations

"Land and Freedom" (1876--1879)

In 1876, the surviving participants in the “walking among the people” formed a new secret organization, which in 1878 took the name “Land and Freedom.” Its program provided for the implementation of a socialist revolution by overthrowing the autocracy, transferring all land to the peasants and introducing “secular self-government” in the countryside and cities. The organization was headed by G.V. Plekhanov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.M. Kravchinsky, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner et al.

A second “going to the people” was carried out - with the aim of long-term agitation among the peasants. The landowners were also involved in agitation of workers and soldiers and helped organize several strikes. In 1876, with the participation of “Land and Freedom”, the first political demonstration in Russia was held in St. Petersburg on the square in front of the Kazan Cathedral. G.V. spoke to the audience. Plekhanov, who called to fight for land and freedom for peasants and workers. The police dispersed the demonstration, many of its participants were injured. Those arrested were sentenced to hard labor or exile. G.V. Plekhanov managed to escape from the police.

In 1878 V.I. Zasulich made an attempt on the life of the St. Petersburg boss F.F. Trepova and wounded him. However, the mood of society and the circumstances of the case were such that the jury acquitted her, and F.F. Trepov was forced to resign.

Some populists again returned to the idea of ​​the need for a terrorist struggle. They were prompted to do this by both government repression and a thirst for activism. Disputes over tactical and programmatic issues led to a split in Land and Freedom.

“LAND AND FREEDOM” of the 1870s, a secret revolutionary society in Russia, one of the largest populist organizations. Founded in St. Petersburg at the beginning of 1876 as the “Northern Revolutionary Populist Group”, then called the “Society of Populists”, from the end of 1878 - “Land and Freedom” (in memory of the “Land and Freedom” of the 1860s). Prominent figures of “Land and Freedom” since the foundation of the organization were O. V. Aptekman, A. A. Kvyatkovsky, D. A. Lizogub, A. D. Mikhailov, M. A. Natanson, O. A. Natanson (née Shleisner ), A. D. Oboleshev, G. V. Plekhanov and others. Later S. M. Kravchinsky, D. A. Klements, N. A. Morozov, S. L. Perovskaya, L. A. Tikhomirov joined it, M. F. Frolenko (many were previously members of the Tchaikovsky circle). The group of V. N. Figner collaborated with “Land and Freedom”. Members of “Land and Freedom” for the first time called themselves “populists”.

The formation of “Land and Freedom” was preceded by a discussion by the populists of the unsuccessful experience of “going to the people” in 1873-75. As a result, the foundations of the “Land and Freedom” program were determined (finally adopted in May 1878), which reflected many of the theoretical and tactical provisions put forward by M. A. Bakunin. The members of “Land and Freedom” proclaimed the establishment of “anarchy and collectivism” as their ultimate goal. Pushing the achievement of this goal into the distant future, the landowners in the near future believed in implementing measures based, in their opinion, on the “fundamental character traits of the Russian people”: an equal distribution of all land among the peasants, the establishment of “full secular self-government,” promoting the division of the country “into parts according to local desires,” proclamation of freedom of religion. These tasks were summarized in the slogan “Land and Freedom!” Members of the society were convinced that the implementation of their program was possible only through a “violent coup”; they emphasized the need for its rapid organization in view of the development of capitalism, which, as the landowners believed, was supposed to cause the destruction of the community (the landowners considered it as the basis of the socialist path of development of Russia) and distort the “people's worldview.” To prepare for the revolution, members of “Land and Freedom” considered it necessary: ​​to intensify what they believed was already existing discontent among the people, including through the organization of permanent “settlements and hangouts” of revolutionaries in the countryside; to attract religious sects and “bands of robbers” to one’s side, to organize riots, demonstrations, strikes, and to conduct propaganda in the army - officer circles; to carry out “the systematic extermination of the most harmful or prominent persons from the government and in general people who maintain this or that order that we hate.”

The landowners began to create “settlements” (mainly in the Volga region, where there was a large Old Believer population and, as the landowners believed, the traditions of mass popular movements 18th century), settling in villages as paramedics, teachers, clerks, etc. The organization established the publication and distribution of the newspapers “Land and Freedom” (1878-79) and “Listok “Land and Freedom”” (1879), brochures, leaflets, appeals; conducted propaganda and agitation among workers and students. “Land and Freedom” organized in St. Petersburg in 1876 the first political demonstration in the history of Russia with the participation of workers (it was held under the slogans “Land and Freedom!”, “Long live social revolution!"). In 1878-79, many landowners actively participated in student unrest and several strikes in St. Petersburg.

The terrorist activities of “Land and Freedom” were expressed in the murder of S. M. Kravchinsky, the chief of gendarmes and the main head of the 3rd department, N. V. Mezentsov, and G. D. Goldenberg, the Kharkov governor-general, Prince D. N. Kropotkin, as well as failed attempts by L. F. Mirsky on the new chief of gendarmes and the main chief of the 3rd department A. R. Drenteln and A. K. Solovyov on Emperor Alexander II. In 1877-79, landowners killed police agents N.A. Sharashkin, A.G. Nikonov and N.V. Reinshtein, adjutant to the head of the Kyiv provincial gendarme department, Baron G. E. Geiking. The landowners viewed their terrorist acts as revenge or a means of self-defense and accompanied them with the widespread distribution of proclamations and letters to government officials, in which the attacks were motivated and sometimes announced. Thanks to the efforts of the actual leader of the organization, A.D. Mikhailov, who strictly monitored compliance with the requirements of secrecy, most of the members of “Land and Freedom” managed to avoid arrest (in 1880, the only major trial of members of “Land and Freedom” took place, in which out of 11 defendants, 7 sentenced to various terms of hard labor, 4 to exile in Siberia). In January 1879, N.V. Kletochnikov, who joined “Land and Freedom,” joined the Third Department and supplied the Land Volya members with information about the plans and actions of the political police.

The propaganda of the landowners did not find a response among the peasants and caused disappointment among many “settlers”. In connection with this, as well as in connection with the growth of government repression, the belief in the need for a political struggle against the autocracy in order to achieve democratic freedoms, without which the propaganda of socialist ideas was impossible, began to spread among the landowners. From the beginning of 1878, a group of “politicians” was formed within “Land and Freedom” and by the spring of 1879, supporters of the systematic use of terrorist methods (A. I. Zhelyabov, A. A. Kvyatkovsky, A. D. Mikhailov, N. A. Morozov , L.A. Tikhomirov, etc.), which took the name “Executive Committee of the Social Revolutionary Party”. She began to form the terrorist group "Freedom or Death". Supporters of the previous tactics began to be called “villagers” (O. V. Aptekman, G. V. Plekhanov, M. R. Popov, etc.). Disagreements between the two groups led to the split of Land and Freedom in mid-1879 into two independent organizations - Black Redistribution and Narodnaya Volya.

Source: Revolutionary journalism of the seventies. Rostov n/d., 1907; Archive of “Land and Freedom” and “Narodnaya Volya”. M., 1932; Revolutionary populism 70s XIX century M., 1965. T. 2; Revolutionary radicalism in Russia: the nineteenth century. Documentary publication. M., 1997.

Lit.: Aptekman O.V. Society “Land and Freedom” of the 70s. 2nd ed. P., 1924; Levin Sh. M. Social movement in Russia in the 60-70s of the 19th century. M., 1958; Tkachenko P. S. Revolutionary populist organization “Land and Freedom” (1876-1879). M., 1961; Tvardovskaya V. A. Socialist thought of Russia at the turn of the 1870-1880s. M., 1969; Troitsky N. A. Crusaders of socialism. Saratov, 2002.

populist organization of the 1870s, founded in St. Petersburg in 1876 (name since 1878). Leaders: M. A. Nathanson, A. D. Mikhailov, G. V. Plekhanov and others. Branches in Kyiv, Odessa, Kharkov, etc. The program provided for the nationalization of land, the replacement of the state with a federation of communities through a peasant revolution. Members of "Z. and V." they created settlements among the “people,” conducted propaganda among workers and intelligentsia, and published the newspaper “Land and Freedom” (1878-79). Disagreements between supporters and opponents of the political struggle led to a split (1879) between the Z. and V. to "People's Will" and "Black Redistribution".

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"LAND AND WILL"

1 . secret revolutionary society in Russia in the beginning. 60s 19th century The appearance and activities of "Z. and V." associated with the situation of the first revolution. situation, with the rise of the mass movement and democratic struggle. intelligentsia, with the expectation of a widespread cross. uprising, which was predicted by the revolutionaries for 1863 (with the end of the deadline set for the entry into force of the Regulations on February 19, 1861). Education and first practical steps "Z. and V." relate approximately to con. 1861, but the idea of ​​the organization arose somewhat earlier. "Z. and V." had in mind the unification on a federal basis of already existing circles and those newly emerging with her participation in both capitals and in the localities, the creation of a common governing organization. Important role at the base of "W. and V." belonged to the brothers N.A. and A.A. Serno-Solovyevich, A.A. Sleptsov, N.N. Obruchev, S.S. Rymarenko, V.S. Kurochkin and others. The teacher and inspirer of the group of organizers "Z. and V." was N.G. Chernyshevsky. The leaders of the organization were simultaneously connected with the editorial office of Kolokol in London, and N.P. Ogarev took a particularly active part in defining and implementing the tasks of the secret society. Subsequently Ch. foreign representative of "Z. and V." officially considered A.I. Herzen. With "Z. and V." M.A. Bakunin was also closely associated. All R. 1862 Chernyshevsky, N.A. Serno-Solovyevich, Rymarenko were arrested, A.A. Serno-Solovyevich was forced to emigrate. Later, among the leaders of "Z. and V." N. I. Utin, P. V. Pushtorsky and others were located. At the end of the summer - beginning of the autumn of 1862, the center "Z. and V." finally took shape under the name. "Russian Central People's Committee" and then, apparently, the name was adopted for the society. “Land and Freedom” (academician M.V. Nechkina believes that this name was adopted by the society since the end of 1861). The center is located in St. Petersburg. k-ta - acted also local office"Z. and V." Committees and groups "Z. and V." existed, in addition, in Moscow, Kazan, N. Novgorod, Perm, in Ukraine and in certain other places. In con. 1862 to "W. and V." Russian joined military-revolutionary organization that arose in the Kingdom of Poland under the leadership. A. A. Potebni (see Committee of Russian Officers in Poland). The landowners turned around quite a lot. illegal publishing activities addressed to the people, the army, and the “educated classes”: they issued a number of proclamations (printed partly in Russia in underground printing houses, partly abroad), two issues of the leaflet “Freedom”, began to print a magazine. "Land and Freedom". The landowners also carried out oral propaganda in various societies. layers, using, among other things, Sunday schools, open societies. institutions. At the beginning of their activities, the landowners recognized as a common platform the article-appeal by Ogarev, “What do the people need?”, published even before the founding of the society (in mid-1861) in Kolokol. The article put forward demands to assign to the peasants all the land that was in their use (with an addition if there were insufficient plots) without burdening them with any land. specialist. payments, reducing the army by half (later in the land Volga documents the demand was put forward to replace the “recruitment” with a people’s militia), freeing the people from bureaucracy and establishing a genuine cross. self-government, the introduction of district and gubernia. self-government and a general state endowed with broad rights. adv. representative offices. The article "What do the people need?" called for gathering strength in order to unitely and firmly “defend the worldly land, the people’s will and human truth against the king and nobles.” Then at the center of the agitation and propaganda activities of "Z. and V." the slogan of the classless “Zemsky Sobor” or “ People's Assembly ", convened after the revolutionary overthrow of the autocracy. "Everyone's right to land and an elected and federal government" - this is how the basic content of the land volition program was explained by Herzen and Ogarev at the beginning of 1863 (at this time, the Council "Z. and c."). There is reason to believe that "Z. and V." in 1862-63 was inclined to the need to declare, after the coup, all lands as state property with their transfer for use for a period of time to village communities. In 1863, in the activities of "Z. and v." issues related to the uprising in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus took an important place. Shortly before the January uprising of 1863 in Poland, the center "Z. and V." in St. Petersburg, and earlier Herzen, Bakunin, Ogarev, Potebnya abroad, held negotiations with representatives of the Polish national liberation movement, establishing friendly and allied relations with them. During the uprising of "Z. and V." has repeatedly stated that advanced Russian people "have nothing in common with the tsar and his bloodthirsty government" and want the liberation of Poland from the yoke that oppresses the Russian people. They are ideologically connected with "Z. and "Bell" revolutionary elements among the Russian military in Poland took the side of the rebels. During 1863, the revolutionary situation in Russia had virtually exhausted itself. The general peasant (or military-peasant) uprising, on which they were guided revolutionaries, did not happen. The Polish uprising was suppressed. Reactionary and chauvinistic sentiments sharply intensified in the privileged society. The revolutionary-democratic intelligentsia suffered heavy losses in the unequal struggle with the government; many landowners were arrested, some fled abroad. Under these conditions, the revolutionary work of “Z. and V." began to fade. By the spring of 1864, "Z. and c." self-destructed. "Z. and V." went down in history as the largest revolutionary association in Russia in the 60s, around which the most active democratic elements gradually rallied to prepare a revolutionary onslaught against the autocracy. The activities of "Z. and "contributed to the formation of the socio-political positions of the advanced part of the intelligentsia, which expressed the vital interests of the peasant masses of Russia. "Z. and "strengthened the friendship and cooperation of the democratic forces of Russia and Poland. Example "Z. and in." 60s had a significant influence on the subsequent liberation movement in Russia. Historiography "Z. and in." consists of separate articles and reviews in general essays of the Russian revolutionary movement (see below). There is no special monograph covering the history of the organization as a whole. Comments by M. K. Lemke on " Complete collected works" by A. I. Herzen (1919-25), which essentially contains a detailed and valuable outline of the history of “West and East,” were widely used later by historians. Behind last years study of "Z. and V." has made significant progress (although there is still a lot of uncertainty and debate in its history). Ch. the credit for this goes to the Revolutionary Studies Group. situation in Russia at the end of 1850 - beginning. 1860s Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences, headed by academician. M. V. Nechkina (See: "Revolutionary situation in Russia in 1859-1861", vol. 1-3, M., 1960-63, art. Nechkina, Ya. I. Linkova, V. I. Neupokoeva, etc.). Lit.: Herzen A.I., Complete. collection op. and letters, ed. M. K. Lemke, vol. 10, 15-17, 22, P.-L.-M., 1919-25; him. Past and thoughts. Parts 6-8, Collection. op. in 30 vols., vol. 11, M., 1957; Ogarev N.P., Izbr. socio-political and philosopher production, vol. 1-2, M., 1952-56; Materials for the history of revolution. movements in Russia in the 60s. First supplement to Sat. "State crimes in Russia", ed. B. Bazilevsky, St. Petersburg, (b. g.); (Utin N.I.), Propaganda and organization, "People's Affairs", 1868, No. 2-3; Panteleev L.F., Memoirs, M., 1958; Sleptsova M., Navigators of the Coming Storm (From Memoirs), "Links", vol. 2, M.-L., 1933; Reiser S. A., Memoirs of A. A. Sleptsov, in the book: N. G. Chernyshevsky, vol. 3, Saratov, 1962; Herzen, Ogarev and the “young emigration” will enter. Art. B. P. Kozmina, publ. E. N. Kusheva, I. Zverev, in the book: Lit. inheritance, vol. 41-42, M., 1941; “Confession” by V.I. Kelsiev, ibid.; New materials about the revolution. situation in Russia (1859-61). Art. and publ. M. Nechkina, in the same place, t. 61, M., 1953; Letters from Herzen to representatives of the “young emigration”, publ. B. Kozmina, ibid.; Unpublished and uncollected prod. Ogareva, intro. art., publ. and comments by Ya. Chernyak, ibid.; Letters from I. I. Kelsiev to Herzen and Ogarev, publ. P. G. Ryndzyunsky, in the same place, t. 62, M., 1955; Was N. N. Obruchev the addressee of the letter taken during the arrest of Chernyshevsky?, comm. Ya. Z. Chernyak, in the same place; N.A. Serno-Solovyevich - Herzen and Ogarev, ibid.; Letters from N. I. Utin to Herzen and Ogarev, publ. B.P. Kozmina, ibid.; Letters from Herzen and Ogarev to to different persons, ibid., t. 63, M., 1956; About the memoirs of A. A. Sleptsov, message by V. E. Bograd, ibid., vol. 67, M., 1959; Alexander Serno-Solovievich. Materials for biography. Art. and publ. B.P. Kozmina, ibid.; Nechkina M.V., N.P. Ogarev during the revolutionary years. situations, "IAN USSR, Series of History and Philosophy", 1947, No. 2; hers, “Land and Freedom” of the 1860s. (According to consequent materials), "ISSSR", 1957, No. 1; Revolutionary the situation in Russia in 1859-61, vol. 1-3, M., 1960-63; Lemke M., Essays will liberate. movements of the “sixties”, 2nd ed., St. Petersburg, 1908; him, Politich. processes in Russia in the 1860s, 2nd ed., M.-P., 1923; Kozmin B.P., From the history of revolution. thoughts in Russia, Izbr. works, M., 1961, Levin Sh. M., Society. movement in Russia in the 60-70s. XIX century, M., 1958; Linkov Ya. I., The role of A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev in the creation and activities of the Earth and Freedom society, VI, 1954, No. 3; him, Osn. stages of revolutionary history Society "Land and Freedom" of the 1860s, "VI", 1958, No. 9; him, A.I. Herzen and the revolutionary. organizations - predecessors of the first "Land and Freedom", "VI", 1962, No. 4; Belyavskaya I.M., A.I. Herzen and the Polish national liberation. movement of the 60s XIX century, M., 1954; Kovalsky Yu., Russian revolutionary. democracy and the January uprising of 1863 in Poland, trans. from Polish, M., 1953; The uprising of 1863 and the Russian-Polish revolutionaries. connections of the 60s Sat. Art. and materials, M., 1960; Smirnov A. P., Revolution. connections between the peoples of Russia and Poland in the 30-60s. XIX century, M., 1962; Rus. underground and foreign press. Bibliographical index, vol. 1, Donarovolch. period. 1831-1879, c. 1. Books, brochures, leaflets, M., 1935. Sh. M. Levin. Leningrad. 2 . secret revolutionary society of populists in the 70s. 19th century Basic in St. Petersburg in 1876. She was the most important and major revolutionary for her time. org. Name “Z. and V.”, associated partly with the tradition of the 60s, according to the testimony of most memoirists, was given to the society in the end. 1878, with the appearance of a printed organ of the same name; former names (according to memoir sources): “Northern revolutionary-populist group”, “Society of Narodniks”. In the composition of "Z. and V." a number of participants in the “walking among the people” who survived the arrests entered, as well as younger revolutionaries. Prominent figures of "Z. and V." from its founding there were M. A. and O. A. Natanson, A. D. Mikhailov, A. D. Oboleshev, G. V. Plekhanov, A. A. Kvyatkovsky, D. A. Lizogub, V. A. Osinsky , O.V. Aptekman and others. Later S.M. Kravchinsky, D.A. Klements, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovskaya, M.P. Frolenko, L.A. Tikhomirov joined it (all - b. "Tchaikovsky") Platform "Z. and V." shared and collaborated with the circle of V. N. Figner (A. I. Ivanchin-Pisarev, Yu. N. Bogdanovich, A. K. Solovyov, etc.). "Z. and V." had close ties with the revolutionaries operating in Ukraine - in Kyiv, Odessa, Kharkov, where the work of its individual members (Osinsky, Lizogub) took place. Education "Z. and V." preceded by a discussion of the experience of "going to the people" 1873-75. As a result of the well-known revision of program tactics. and organizational views, the foundations of the updated platform were determined, and at the same time the participants themselves gave the name “populist”. Like other representatives of the populist. worldview (in the broad sense of this concept), the landowners recognized the possibility of a special (non-capitalist) socio-economic path. development of Russia, the basis for which was to serve as a cross. community. Finding the activities of their predecessors too divorced from the real conditions of Russia, the landowners considered it necessary to adapt the goals and slogans of the movement to independence. revolutionary aspirations that, in their opinion, already exist in the peasantry. “We are narrowing down,” said the program “Z. and c., - our demands to those that are actually feasible in the near future, that is, to the people’s demands, as they are at the moment.” These demands, summarized in the slogan “Land and Freedom!”, were reduced by the society’s program to the transfer of all land “into the hands of the rural working class” with its “uniform” distribution, to “full secular self-government” with one form or another of “intercommunal and external relations"(it was allowed to transfer a possibly more limited share of social functions to community unions), to divide the empire into parts "according to local desires." The landowners believed in the socialism of the "radical character traits" of the peasantry, thanks to which the implementation of immediate demands would be the foundation for "further successful progress of social affairs in Russia." "Z. and V." defended the need to create permanent "settlements" of revolutionaries in the countryside in order to establish strong ties among the peasantry with the goal of ultimately preparing a people's revolution. The program "Z. and V." also proposed "the establishment of relations and connections in the centers of concentration of industrial workers"; but the landowners assigned a subordinate role to the labor movement, they saw the main revolutionary force in the peasantry. Serious importance was attached to work among the intelligentsia, primarily from the point of view of replenishing the ranks of the revolutionary .org-tions. Based on the inevitability of a “violent coup”, among the means of preparing it, the landowners put forward to a particularly important place “agitation”, both verbal and mainly “through action” - riots, demonstrations, strikes; they, in general, supported Bakuninist tradition, represented the "rebellious" stream in the revolutionary movement of the 70s. A significant merit of the Zemlya Volyas was the desire to create a strong and disciplined, truly combat-ready revolutionary organization, noted with great approval by V. I. Lenin. For the organization "settlements" landowners elected first of all certain Volga provinces (Saratov - as the main center, Nizhny Novgorod, Samara, Astrakhan), as well as Tambov, Voronezh, Pskov provinces. Work was carried out in the Don region, revolutionary attempts were made. activities in the North. Caucasus, Urals. "Z. and V." staged the publication and distribution of revolutionary works on a wide scale for underground conditions. literature (issue of "Land and Freedom", "List of Land and Freedom", many illegal appeals and brochures). In St. Petersburg and some other cities "Z. and V." conducted propaganda and agitation among workers; landowners participated in several. strikes in St. Petersburg in 1878-79. "Z. and V." had great connections as students (primarily in St. Petersburg and Moscow) and influenced the development of students. movements. She organized or supported demonstrations in St. Petersburg, including the so-called. Kazan demonstration 1876, cut "Z. and V." for the first time openly declared its existence. The active work of the Zemlyovolists in the publication and dissemination of revolutionaries. literature, the organization of various kinds of protests, the deployment of agitation had a major political impact. meaning. But theoretically "Z. and V." still adhered to anarchist or semi-anarchist views on politics. struggle; the latter only spontaneously burst into her activities. Program "Z. and V." also provided for actions aimed at “disorganizing the state,” in particular the destruction of “the most harmful or prominent persons from the government.” The loudest terrorist act "Z. and v." there was the murder of the chief of gendarmes Mezentsov (1878). However, "W. and V." still did not yet consider terror as a political means. fight against existing system , assessing it from the angle of self-defense of revolutionaries and revenge against the government. Difficulties and disappointments in the revolution. activities in the countryside, which did not bring quick and sufficiently tangible results to the landowners, strengthening of governments. repressions, and on the other hand - a sharp aggravation of political discontent in various societies. circles during the Russian-Tourist period. war and the maturation of revolution. situations contributed to the emergence and development of new sentiments within the “Z. and V.” and in the environment close to it. In "Z. and V." A faction of terrorist-politicians gradually formed, which even actually received its own organ in March 1879 - "Leaflet" Z. and in."". Disagreements between supporters of the continuation of the previous line of society (Plekhanov, M.R. Popov, Aptekman, etc.) and defenders of the transition to politics. struggle through systematic use of terrorist methods (A.D. Mikhailov, Morozov, Tikhomirov, Kvyatkovsky, etc.) caused the convening of the Voronezh Congress of “Z. and V.” in June 1879, which led only to a formal and short-term compromise between the two groupings. In Aug. 1879 "W. and E." finally split; Instead, “Narodnaya Volya” and “Black Redistribution” arose. Like other representatives of the revolutionary. populism, landowners of the 70s. were exponents - in a certain form characteristic of them - of utopian ideas. “peasant socialism” and essentially reflected the aspirations of the cross in their activities. the masses of Russia, the struggle of the peasantry for land, its desire for a free and equal life. Material on the history of "Z. and V." contained in its publications, in program and statutory documents (published in the collection: Archives of “Land and Freedom” and “Nar. Will”, 1932), in memoirs, letters, testimonies of its participants and figures close to it, and also in some officials. sources (indictments, etc.). The first story intended for publication. essay "Z. and V." was given back in the beginning. 80s in exile by O. V. Aptekman; in printed form, however, it appeared - in an expanded and changed edition - only during the period of the first Russian revolution (a new expanded edition - after October). In the 90s essay on the history of "Z. and V." publ. E. A. Serebryakov. Written from the Narodnaya Volya. positions, this essay was subsequently criticized by Plekhanov. Plekhanov repeatedly touched upon the activities and role of "Z. and V." in their productions both the 80-90s and later years (for example, “Russian worker in the revolutionary movement”, preface to the Russian edition of A. Thun’s book, a critical article about Bogucharsky “The Unsuccessful History of the People’s Will Party” and etc.). About the story meaning "W. and V." in the matter of creating an organization of revolutionaries, V. wrote. I. Lenin at the beginning 20th century The newest owl. a work specifically dedicated to “Z. and V.” belongs to P. S. Tkachenko. Lit.: Lenin V.I., What to do?, Works, 4th ed., vol. 5; his, One step forward, two steps back, ibid., vol. 7; Plekhanov G.V., Soch., vol. 1-3, 9, 12, 24, M.-P.-L., 1923-27; Archives of "Land and Freedom" and "People's Will", M., 1932; Revolutionary journalism of the 70s, 2 appendix. to Sat. "State crimes in Russia", Rostov/D., (b. g.); Tkachenko P. S., Rev. populist organization "Land and Freedom" (1876-1879), M., 1961; Serebryakov E. A., Essay on the history of "Land and Freedom", St. Petersburg, 1906; Bogucharsky V. Ya., Active populism of the seventies, M., 1912; Levin Sh. M., General. movement in Russia in the 60-70s. XIX century, M., 1958; Aptekman O.V., Society "Land and Freedom" of the 70s, 2nd ed., P., 1924; Popov M.R., Notes of a landowner, M., 1933; Frolenko M. P., Collection. soch., vol. 1-2, 2nd ed., M., 1932; Figner V., Complete. collection soch., vol. 1, 5, 2nd ed., M., 1932; Morozov N. A., Tale of my life, vol. 2, M., 1962; Tikhomirov L. A., Memoirs, M.-L., 1927; Stepnyak-Kravchinsky S., Soch., vol. 1, M., 1958; Ivanchin-Pisarev A.I., Walking among the people, M.-L., 1929; Bukh N.K., Memoirs, M., 1928; Rusanov N.S., At home. 1859-1882, M., 1931; Lyubatovich O., Distant and recent, M., 1930; Tyutchev N. S., Revolution. movement 1870-80s Art. according to architect mat-lam, M., 1925; Pribyleva-Korba A.P. and Figner V.N., Narodovolets A.D. Mikhailov, L., 1925; Kozmin B., On the history of “Land and Freedom” of the 70s. (Program of the Tambov settlement of landowners), "KA", 1926, t. 6(19); Historical-revolutionary. Sat., t. 2, L., 1924; Tvardovskaya V. A., The crisis of “Land and Freedom” in the late 70s, “ISSSR”, 1959, No. 4; her, Voronezh Congress of Land Volunteers (June 1879), "NDVSh, Historical Sciences", 1959, No. 2, see also lit. at Art. Populism and articles about individual landowners. S. M. Levin. Leningrad. 3 . press organ secret society "Land and Freedom" in Russia, "social-revolutionary review". No 1 marked 25 Oct. - Nov 1 1878, No. 5 (last) published April 16 1879. Published in the underground "Petersburg Free Printing House" of the Land Volunteers with a circulation of several. thousand copies. To the editor in different time included S. M. Kravchinsky, D. A. Clements, N. A. Morozov, G. V. Plekhanov, L. A. Tikhomirov, the Crimea also belonged to the b. part lit. mat-lov. Along with the program articles "Z. and v." gave political feuilleton, correspondence about unrest, strikes, student movement, announced secret governments. documents, etc. Text "Z. and v." reprinted by V. Ya. Bogucharsky in the book. "Revolutionary journalism of the 70s." (1905, Paris, 1906 - in Russia). Lit.: Kuzmin D., Narodovolch. journalism, M., 1930; Verevkin B.P., Rus. illegal revolutionary print from the 70s and 80s. XIX century, M., 1960.

"Land and Freedom" (1861-1864)

The landowners considered N.P.’s article their program document. Ogarev “What do the people need?”, published in June 1861 in Kolokol. She warned the people against premature unprepared actions and called for the unification of all revolutionary forces. The main demands were the transfer of land to peasants, the development of local self-government and preparation for future active actions to transform the country.

"Land and Freedom" was the first major revolutionary democratic organization. It included several hundred members from different social strata: officials, officers, writers, students. The organization was headed by the Russian Central People's Committee. Branches of the society were created in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Tver, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Kharkov and other cities.

At the end of 1862, the Russian military revolutionary organization created in the Kingdom of Poland joined “Land and Freedom”.

First secret organizations did not last long. The decline of the peasant movement, the defeat of the uprising in the Kingdom of Poland (1863), the strengthening of the police regime - all this led to their self-dissolution or defeat. Some members of the organizations were arrested, others emigrated. The government managed to repel the onslaught of radicals in the first half of the 60s. IN public opinion there was a sharp turn against the radicals and their revolutionary aspirations. Many public figures, who previously stood on democratic or liberal positions, moved to the conservative camp (M.N. Katkov and others).

In the second half of the 60s, secret circles arose again. Their members preserved the ideological heritage of N.G. Chernyshevsky, but, having lost faith in the possibility of a popular revolution in Russia, switched to narrowly conspiratorial and terrorist tactics. They tried to realize their high moral ideals by immoral means. In 1866, a member of the circle N.A. Ishutina D.V. Karakozov made an unsuccessful attempt on the life of Tsar Alexander II.

In 1869, teacher S.G. Nechaev and journalist P.N. Tkachev created an organization in St. Petersburg that called on student youth to prepare an uprising and use any means in the fight against the government. After the defeat of the circle of S.G. Nechaev went abroad for a while, but in the fall of 1869 he returned and founded the “People’s Retribution” organization in Moscow. He was distinguished by extreme political adventurism and demanded unquestioning submission from his participants. For disagreement with the methods of S.G. Nechaev student I.I. Ivanov was falsely accused of treason and killed. The police destroyed the organization. S.G. Nechaev fled to Switzerland, he was extradited as a criminal. The government used the trial against him to discredit the revolutionaries. “Nechaevism” for some time became a serious lesson for the next generation of revolutionaries, warning them against unlimited centralism.

At the turn of the 60s and 70s, largely based on the ideas of A.I. Ger price and N.G. Chernyshevsky, populist ideology took shape. It became very popular among democratically minded intellectuals of the last third of the 19th century, who considered it their duty to serve the people. There were two trends among the populists: revolutionary and liberal.

Earth and Freedom is a secret revolutionary society. The participants set their goal to prepare a peasant revolution. One of the most important demands put forward by members of the organization was the convening of an unclassified people's assembly.

The inspirers of the society were Herzen and Chernyshevsky. Among the organizers were N. N. Obruchev, S. S. Rymarenko, I. I. Shamshin and others. Program documents were created under the influence of the ideas of Herzen and Ogarev.

The first Executive Committee of the organization in 1861 included 6 of its organizers (N. N. Obruchev, S. S. Rymarenko, brothers N. A. and A. A. Serno-Solovyevich, A. A. Sleptsov, V. S. Kurochkin).

Land and Freedom was an association of circles located in 13–14 cities. The largest circles were Moscow and St. Petersburg. According to the data available to A. A. Sleptsov, the number of Earth and Volya was 3,000 people ( Moscow branch consisted of 400 members).

In the summer of 1862, the tsarist authorities dealt a serious blow to the organization, arresting its leaders - Chernyshevsky and Serno-Solovyevich, as well as the radical journalist D. I. Pisarev, associated with the revolutionaries.

Members of the organization expected a powerful peasant uprising in 1863, but hopes for a peasant revolt did not materialize. In addition, the liberal-minded part of society for the most part refused to support the revolutionary camp, believing in the progressiveness of the reforms that had begun in the country. Under the influence of all these factors, Earth and Freedom was forced to self-destruct at the beginning of 1864.

In 1876, Earth and Freedom was restored as a populist organization. It included A. D. Mikhailov, G. V. Plekhanov, D. A. Lizogub, later S. M. Kravchinsky, N. A. Morozov, S. L. Perovskaya, L. A. Tikhomirov, N. S. Tyutchev. In total, the organization consisted of about 200 people. Earth and Will in its activities relied on a wide circle of sympathizers. The name Earth and Freedom was given to the society at the end of 1878, with the appearance of a printed organ of the same name.

The organization’s propaganda was based not on the old socialist principles, incomprehensible to the people, but on slogans emanating directly from the peasantry, that is, the demands of “land and freedom.” In their program they proclaimed “anarchy and collectivism” as the goal of their activities. The specific requirements were the following:

- transfer of all land to peasants,

– introduction of full community self-government,

– introduction of freedom of religion,

– granting nations the right to self-determination.

The organization consisted of a main circle, which was divided into seven special groups by type of activity, and local groups, located in many major cities empires.

On December 6, 1876, a demonstration took place on the square of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. It was organized and carried out by the land populists and members of workers' circles associated with them. About 400 people gathered in the square. G. V. Plekhanov delivered a passionate revolutionary speech to those gathered. The young worker Potapov unfurled a red flag. The demonstrators resisted the police. 31 demonstrators were arrested. The Kazan demonstration of 1876 marked the beginning of the conscious participation of the Russian working class in the social movement.

Landlords took part in several strikes in St. Petersburg in 1878–1879.

The Lipetsk congress of the organization took place in June 1879. It was convened in an atmosphere of heightened disagreement among the revolutionary populists on the issue of the future direction of the organization’s activities. Several radical revolutionaries took part in it, secretly from Earth and Volya. The congress decided to include in the program of Earth and Freedom the recognition of the need for a political struggle against autocracy as a primary and independent task. Participants in the Lipetsk Congress declared themselves the Executive Committee of the Social Revolutionary Party and adopted a charter based on centralism, discipline and secrecy. The Executive Committee was to take upon itself the implementation of terror.

At the same time, in June 1879, the Congress of Earth and Freedom met in Voronezh. About 20 people took part in it. Supporters of the “policy” of political struggle and terror (Zhelyabov, Mikhailov, Morozov) came to the congress as a united group. Plekhanov’s supporters (“villagers”) took a conciliatory position, considering main task work among the peasants: they did not, in essence, object to terror. Plekhanov, who proved the danger of being carried away by terror for the prospects of working among the people, formally resigned from Zemlya and Volya and left the congress. The resolutions of the congress were of a compromise nature: along with activities, the people also recognized the need for political terror.