Syntax of poetic speech. Artistic speech, its specificity

Literary study syntactic features work of art, like the analysis of vocabulary (“poetic dictionary”), is intended to identify aesthetic the function of syntactic devices, their role in the formation of style in its different volumes (author, genre, national, etc.).

As in the study of vocabulary, the facts of deviations from the literary norm, knowledge of which is provided by linguistics, are significant here. In the sphere of syntax, as in the sphere of vocabulary, barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms, etc. are possible, because these two spheres are interconnected: according to B.V. Tomashevsky, “each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns” (Literary Theory. Poetics , p.73). In Russian literature, the most common syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernaculars.

Barbarism in syntax occurs if a phrase is constructed according to the rules of a foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often recognized as speech errors: "Approaching to this station and looking to nature through the window, I have hat flew off" in A.P. Chekhov’s story “The Book of Complaints” - this gallicism is so obvious that a comic effect arises. In Russian poetry, syntactical barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of high style. For example, in the ballad by A. S. Pushkin “Once upon a time there lived a poor knight...” the line “He had one vision...” is an example of such barbarism: the connective “he had a vision" appears instead of the combination “him there was a vision." Here we also encounter syntactic archaism with the traditional function of increasing stylistic height: “There is no prayer Father, nor Son, / Neither to the Holy Spirit forever/Has never happened to a paladin...” (it should have been: “neither the Father nor the Son”). Syntactic vernaculars, as a rule, are present in epic and dramatic works in the language of the characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the self-characterization of the heroes. For this purpose, Chekhov resorted to colloquialisms: “Your daddy talked Me, what one court councillor, but now it turns out one only just titular"(“Before the wedding”), “Which Turkins are you talking about? This is about those What does your daughter play the piano?” (“Ionych”).

When analyzing a literary text, it is necessary to pay attention to the author’s selection of types of syntactic constructions, because this selection can be dictated by the content of the work (motivated by the theme, determined by the task of verbal expression of the “points of view” of the characters, etc.).

There are some peculiarities in the perception of the syntax of a poetic work. In particular, in such works the length of a phrase is felt differently than in prose. Often, a poem of considerable length contains only a few sentences. However, the verse division of the text greatly facilitates its reading.

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study stylistic figures(they are also called rhetorical– in relation to rhetoric, within the framework of which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic – in relation to syntax as one of the speech aspects of any literary text).

The doctrine of figures was already taking shape at the time when the doctrine of style was taking shape - in the era of antiquity; developed and supplemented - in the Middle Ages; finally, it finally turned into a permanent section of normative “poetics” (textbooks on poetics) - in modern times. Tropes and figures were the subject of a single doctrine: if “trope” is a change in the “natural” meaning of a word, then “figure” is a change in the “natural” order of words in a syntactic structure (rearrangement of words, omission of necessary ones or the use of “extra” ones - from the point of view of “ natural" speech - lexical elements). In everyday speech, the detected “figures” are often considered as speech errors, but within artistic speech the same figures are usually distinguished as effective means of poetic syntax.

Currently, there are many classifications of stylistic figures, which are based on one or another - quantitative or qualitative - differentiating feature: the verbal composition of a phrase, the logical or psychological relationship of its parts, etc. in this case When listing particularly significant figures, three factors are taken into account: 1) unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic structures; 2) an unusual relative arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in a text, as well as elements that are part of different (adjacent) syntactic and rhythmic-syntactic structures (verses, columns), but have grammatical similarity; 3) unusual ways intonation marking of text using syntactic means. It should be borne in mind that within the same segment of speech not only different paths, but also different figures can be combined.

To the reception group non-standard connection of wordsinto syntactic unities relate ellipse, anacoluthus, sylleps, alogism, amphiboly(figures characterized by an unusual grammatical connection), as well as Gendiadis And enallaga(figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

One of the most common syntactic devices not only in fiction, but also in everyday speech is ellipse (gr. ellepsis - abandonment). This is an imitation of breaking a grammatical connection, which consists in omitting a word or a series of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the missing members is easily restored from the general speech context. This technique is most often used in epic and dramatic works when constructing character dialogues: with its help, the authors give lifelike scenes of communication between their characters.

Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of authenticity, because in life situation In conversation, the ellipse is one of the main means of composing phrases: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously spoken words. IN colloquial speech ellipses have an exclusively practical function: the speaker conveys information to the interlocutor in the required volume, using a minimum vocabulary. Meanwhile, the use of the ellipse as an expressive means in artistic speech can also be motivated by the author’s focus on the psychologism of the narrative. Often ellipses also indicate a structural change in states or actions. This is, for example, their function in the fifth chapter of “Eugene Onegin”, in the narrative about Tatyana Larina’s dream: “Tatyana Oh! and he roars...", "Tatyana into the forest, the bear behind her..."

Both in everyday life and in literature speech error recognized anacoluthon (gr. anakoluthos - inconsistent) - incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and control. The use of anacoluth can be justified in cases where the writer emphasizes the expression of the character’s speech: "Wait, brothers, stop! You’re not sitting like that!” (in Krylov’s fable “Quartet”).

On the contrary, it turns out in the literature that it was a deliberately applied technique rather than an accidental mistake. sylleps (gr. syllpsis - conjugation, capture), which consists in the syntactic design of semantically heterogeneous elements in the form of a number of homogeneous members of the sentence: “This sex carried a napkin under his arm and a lot of acne on his cheeks” (I.S. Turgenev, “Strange History »).

Alogism (gr. A- negative particle, logismos - mind) is a syntactic correlation of semantically incompatible parts of a phrase with the help of its auxiliary elements expressing a certain type of logical connection (cause-and-effect, gender-species relationships, etc.): “The car drives fast, but the cook cooks better” (E. Ionesco, “The Bald Singer”).

If anacoluthus is more often seen as an error than an artistic device, and sylleps and alogism are more often seen as a device than an error, then amphiboly (gr. amphibolia - ambiguity, vagueness) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphiboly is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and direct object, expressed by nouns in similar grammatical forms. (" Hearing sensitive sail annoying..." in the poem of the same name by O.E. Mandelstam).

Among the rare figures in Russian literature and therefore especially notable figures is Gendiadis (from gr. hen dia dyen – one after two), in which compound adjectives are divided into the original component parts: “longing road, railway"(A. A. Blok, “On the Railroad”). Here the word “railroad” was split, as a result of which three words came into interaction - and the verse acquired additional meaning.

Words in a verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer uses enallagu (gr. enallage - movement) – transfer of a definition to a word adjacent to the one being defined. Thus, in the line “Through the fat trenches of meat...” from N. A. Zabolotsky’s poem “Wedding,” the definition of “fat” became a vivid epithet after being transferred from “meat” to “trenches.”

To the number of figures with unusual arrangement of parts syntactic constructions relate different kinds parallelism And inversions.

Parallelism(from the gr. parallelos - walking next to) suggests compositional correlation adjacent syntactic segments of text (lines in a poetic work, sentences in a text, parts in a sentence). Types of parallelism are usually distinguished on the basis of some characteristic possessed by the first of the related constructions, which serves as a model for the author when creating the second.

Thus, by projecting the word order of one syntactic segment onto another, parallelism is distinguished straight(“The animal Dog is sleeping, / The bird Sparrow is dozing” (N.A. Zabolotsky “The signs of the Zodiac are fading...”) and converted(“The waves are playing, the wind is whistling” (“Sail” by M.Yu. Lermontov). Inverted parallelism is also called chiasmus(gr. chiasmos – x-shaped, cruciform).

When comparing the number of words in paired syntactic segments, parallelism is also identified full And incomplete. Full parallelism (its common name is isocolon; gr. isokolon – equivalence) - in the two-word lines of F. I. Tyutchev “The amphoras are emptied, / The baskets are overturned” (the poem “The feast is over, the choirs have fallen silent...”), incomplete - in his unequal lines “Pause, pause, evening day, / Extended, extended, charm" (poem "Last Love").

The same group of figures includes such a common technique as inversion (Latin inversio - rearrangement). It manifests itself in the arrangement of words in a phrase or sentence in an order different from the natural one. In Russian, for example, the order “subject + predicate”, “definition + qualified word” or “preposition” is natural. + noun in case form”, and unnatural – the reverse order.

Inverted words can be placed in a phrase in different ways. At contact inversion, the contiguity of words is preserved (“Like a tragedian in the province Shakespeare's drama..." in "Marburg" B.L. Pasternak), with distant – wedged between them are other words “Submissive Perun old man alone..." in “Song of the Prophetic Oleg” by A.S. Pushkin). In both cases, the unusual position of a single word affects its intonation emphasis. In inverted constructions, words sound more expressive and weighty.

To a group of figures marking unusual intonation composition text or its individual parts, relate different types syntactic repetition, and tautology, annomination And gradation, polysyndeton And asyndeton.

There are two subgroups of techniques repeat. The first includes techniques for repeating individual parts within a sentence. With their help, authors usually emphasize a semantically tense place in a phrase, since any repetition is an intonation highlight. Like inversion, repeat can be contact (“It’s time, it’s time, horns are blowing..." in the poem by A.S. Pushkin "Count Nulin") or distant (“It’s time, my Friend, it's time! the heart asks for peace..." in Pushkin's poem of the same name).

Simple repetition is applied to different units of text - both to a word (as in the examples given) and to a phrase (“Evening bells, evening bells!” translated by I. Kozlov from T. Moore). The repetition of one word in different cases while maintaining its meaning has been recognized since ancient times as a special figure - polyptoton (gr. polyptoton – polycase): “But person person/ He sent me to the Anchar with an imperious look...” (Pushkin, “Anchar”). An equally ancient figure is antanaclasis(gr. aptanaclasis – reflection) – repetition of a word in the original grammatical form, but with a change in meaning. “The last eagle owl is broken and sawn apart. / And pinned with a stationery pin / Down to the autumn branch head,/ Hanging and ponders head..."(A.V. Eremenko, “In dense metallurgical forests...”) - here the word “head” is used in a direct and then in a metonymic meaning.

The second subgroup includes repetition figures that extend not to a sentence, but to a larger part of the text (stanza, syntactic period), sometimes to the entire work. These types of repetition are distinguished by position in the text. So, anaphora(gr. apaphora – removal; Russian term – unity of command) – This is the joining of speech segments (columns, poetic lines) by repeating a word or phrase in the initial position: "This - cool filled whistle, / This- the clicking of crushed pieces of ice, / This is the night that freezes the leaf, / This is a duel between two nightingales” (B.L. Pasternak, “The Definition of Poetry”). Epiphora(gr. eriphora - additive ; Russian term – mono-ended), on the contrary, it connects the ends of speech series with lexical repetition: “Because they turned into a horse virtuous person(...); because they were exhausted virtuous person(...); because they are calling hypocritically a virtuous person; because they don't respect virtuous person"(Gogol, "Dead Souls", chapter 11). By projecting the principle of epiphora onto an integral poetic text, one can see its development in the phenomenon refrain(for example, in a classic French ballad).

Anadiplosis (gr. anadiplosis - doubling; Russian term - joint) – This is a contact repetition, connecting the end of a speech series with the beginning of the next one. This is how Blok’s poems “Oh, Spring” are connected without end and without edge - /Without end and without edge dream". Anaphora and epiphora often act in small lyrical genres as a structure-forming device. But anadiplosis can also acquire the function of a compositional core around which speech is built.

Opposite of Anadiplosis prosapodosis (gr. prosapodosis – addition; Russian term – ring, coverage), distant repetition, in which the initial element of a syntactic structure is reproduced at the end of the next one: "It's muddy sky, night cloudy..."("Demons" by A.S. Pushkin). Also, prosapodosis can cover a stanza (S.A. Yesenin’s poem “You are my Shagane, Shagane...” is built on circular repetitions) and even the entire text of the work (“Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy...” by A. Blok).

This subgroup also includes a complex figure formed by a combination of anaphora and epiphora within the same segment of text - simploc (gr. simploce - plexus): "I Don't want Falaleya,/ I I hate Falaleya, / I I don't give a damn Falaleya, / I I'll crush you Falaleya (...) I would rather love Asmodeus / than Falaleya!(F.M. Dostoevsky, “The village of Stepanchikovo and its inhabitants”, part 2, chapter 5).

When repeated, it is possible to reproduce not only the word as a single sign, but also the meaning separated from the sign. Tautology (gr. tauto – the same thing, logos – word), or pleonasm (gr. pleonasmos - surplus), is a figure, the use of which does not necessarily repeat a word, but necessarily duplicates the meaning of a lexical element. To do this, the authors select either synonymous words or periphrastic phrases. Thus, in A. Eremenko’s poem “Pokryshkin” the double tautology intonationally highlights the columns against the background of the general flow of speech "evil bullet bandit evil."

For the purpose of intonation highlighting of a semantically significant speech segment, they also use annomination (Latin anominatio – sub-condition) – contact repetition of cognate words: "I think I think your..." in " Railway"N. A. Nekrasova.

Close to repetition figures gradation (lat. gradatio – change of degree), in which words grouped into a series of homogeneous members have a common semantic meaning (of a sign or action), but their arrangement expresses a consistent change in this meaning. The manifestation of a unifying feature can gradually strengthen or weaken: “I swear to heaven, undoubtedly what you beautiful, undeniably what you beautiful, truly(...) what you attractive"(“Love’s Labour’s Lost” by Shakespeare, translated by Yu. Korneev). In this phrase, next to “undoubtedly-indisputably-true” the strengthening of one attribute is presented, and next to “beautiful-beautiful-attractive” – the weakening of another.

In addition, to the group of funds intonation markings relate polysyndeton (gr. polysyndeton – multi-union) and asyndeton (gr. asyndeton - non-union). Like the gradation that both figures often accompany, they imply an emphatic emphasis on the corresponding part of the text in spoken speech. Polysyndeton is essentially not only a multi-conjunction (“And life, and tears, and love” in Pushkin), but also a multi-sentence (“About valor, about deeds, about glory” in Blok). Its function is to mark a logical sequence of actions (“Autumn” by Pushkin: "AND thoughts in my head are agitated in courage, / AND light rhymes run towards them,/ AND fingers begging for the pen..."), or to encourage the reader to generalize, to perceive a number of details as a whole image ("I erected a monument to myself not made by hands..." A.S. Pushkin: specific "AND proud grandson of the Slavs, And Finn, And now wild / Tungus, And friend of the steppes Kalmyk" is formed when perceived into the generic "peoples of the Russian Empire"). With the help of asyndeton, either the simultaneity of actions is emphasized (“The Swede, the Russian stabs, chops, cuts...” in Pushkin’s “Poltava”), or the fragmentation of the phenomena of the depicted world (“Whisper, timid breathing, / The trill of a nightingale, / Silver and swaying / Sleepy stream" from Fet).

It should be noted that this classification does not include all traditionally identified figures. poetic speech. In addition to them, the most common figures are also the rhetorical question, appeal and exclamation.

The writer's use of syntactic figures leaves an imprint of individuality on his author's style. Currently, interest in the study of syntactic devices as means of artistic stylistics has increased significantly. The study of poetic syntax has received a new direction: modern science is increasingly analyzing phenomena that are at the intersection of different aspects of a literary text, for example, rhythm and syntax, verse meter and syntax, vocabulary and syntax, etc.

No less significant than the poetic vocabulary, the area of ​​study of expressive means is poetic syntax. The study of poetic syntax consists of analyzing the functions of each of the artistic techniques of selection and subsequent grouping of lexical elements into single syntactic constructions. If in the immanent study of the vocabulary of a literary text, words act as the analyzed units, then in the study of syntax - sentences and phrases. If the study of vocabulary establishes facts of deviation from the literary norm in the selection of words, as well as facts of transfer of word meanings (a word with a figurative meaning, i.e., a trope, manifests itself only in context, only in semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax obliges not only a typological consideration of syntactic unities and grammatical connections of words in a sentence, but also to identify facts of adjustment or even change in the meaning of an entire phrase in the semantic relationship of its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the writer’s use of so-called figures).

It is necessary to pay attention to the author’s selection of types of syntactic constructions because this selection can be dictated by the theme and general semantics of the work. Let us turn to examples, which will serve as fragments of two translations of “The Ballad of the Hanged” by F. Villon.

There are five of us hanged, or maybe six.

And the flesh, which has known many pleasures,

It has been eaten for a long time and has become a stench.

We became bones - we will become dust and rottenness.

Whoever smiles will not be happy.

Pray to God that everything will be forgiven us.

(A. Parin, "Ballad of the Hanged")

There were five of us. We wanted to live.

And we were hanged. We turned black.

We lived like you. We are no more.

Don’t even try to judge - people are crazy.

We won't say anything in response.

Look and pray, and God will judge.

(I. Ehrenburg, “Epitaph written by Villon for him

and his comrades awaiting the gallows")

The first translation more accurately reflects the composition and syntax of the source, but its author fully demonstrated his poetic individuality in the selection of lexical means: the verbal series are built on stylistic antitheses (for example, the high word “delight” collides within the same phrase with the low word “glutton”) . From the point of view of the stylistic diversity of vocabulary, the second translation seems impoverished. In addition, we can notice that Ehrenburg filled the translation text with short, “chopped” phrases. Indeed, the minimum length of translator Parin’s phrases is equal to a line of verse, and the maximum length of Ehrenburg’s phrases in the above passage is also equal to it. Is this a coincidence?

Apparently, the author of the second translation sought to achieve maximum expressiveness through the use of exclusively syntactic means. Moreover, he agreed on the choice of syntactic forms with the point of view chosen by Villon. Villon gave the right of narrating voice not to living people, but to soulless dead turning to the living. This semantic antithesis should have been emphasized syntactically. Ehrenburg had to deprive the speech of the hanged men of emotion, and that is why his text contains so many uncommon, vaguely personal sentences: bare phrases communicate bare facts (“And we were hanged. We turned black...”). In this translation, the absence of evaluative vocabulary and epithets in general is a kind of “minus technique”.

An example of Ehrenburg's poetic translation is a logically justified deviation from the rule. Many writers formulated this rule in their own way when they touched upon the issue of distinguishing between poetic and prose speech. A.S. Pushkin spoke about the syntactic properties of verse and prose as follows:

"But what can we say about our writers who, considering it base to simply explain the most ordinary things, think to enliven children's prose with additions and sluggish metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, whose noble flame, etc. It should say: early in the morning - and they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun illuminated the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh all this is, is it better only because it is longer?<...>Precision and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them brilliant expressions serve no purpose. Poems are a different matter..." ("On Russian Prose")

Consequently, the “brilliant expressions” that the poet wrote about - namely, lexical “beauties” and the variety of rhetorical means, in general types of syntactic constructions - are not a necessary phenomenon in prose, but possible. And in poetry it is common, because the actual aesthetic function of a poetic text always significantly overshadows the informative function. This is proven by examples from the works of Pushkin himself. Pushkin the prose writer is syntactically brief:

“Finally, something began to turn black to the side. Vladimir turned there. As he approached, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, it’s close now.” ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, constructing long phrases with a series of periphrastic turns:

The philosopher is frisky and drinking,

Parnassian happy sloth

The pampered darling harits,

Confidant of the dear Aonides,

Mail on a golden-stringed harp

Silenced, singer of joy?

Is it possible that you too, young dreamer,

Finally broke up with Phoebus?<...>

("To Batyushkov")

E.G. Etkind, analyzing this poetic message, comments on the periphrastic series: “Piit” is an old word meaning “poet”. "Parnassian happy sloth" - this also means "poet". "Kharit the pampered darling" - "poet". "The confidant of the dear aonides" - "poet". “The singer of joy” is also a “poet”. Essentially speaking, a “young dreamer” and a “frisky philosopher” are also a “poet.”<...>"Why did the golden-stringed harp fall silent..." This means: "Why did you stop writing poetry?" But further: “Have you really... broken up with Phoebus...”<...>- this is the same thing,” and concludes that Pushkin’s lines “modify the same thought in every way: “Why don’t you, poet, write more poetry?”

It should be clarified that lexical “beauty” and syntactic “length” are necessary in poetry only when they are semantically or compositionally motivated. Verbosity in poetry may be unjustified. And in prose, lexico-syntactic minimalism is equally unjustified if it is raised to an absolute degree:

"The donkey put on lion skin, and everyone thought - a lion. The people and cattle ran. The wind blew, the skin opened, and the donkey became visible. The people came running: they beat the donkey."

("Donkey in a Lion's Skin")

Sparing phrases give this finished work the appearance of a preliminary plot plan. Selection of elliptical-type designs (“and everyone thought it was a lion”), savings meaningful words, leading to grammatical violations (“the people and the cattle ran”), and finally, the economy of function words (“the people came running: they beat the donkey”) determined the excessive schematism of the plot of this parable, and therefore weakened its aesthetic impact.

The other extreme is overcomplicating designs, using polynomial sentences With different types logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution. For example:

“It was good for a year, two, three, but when it happened: evenings, balls, concerts, dinners, ball gowns, hairstyles that showed off the beauty of the body, young and middle-aged suitors, all the same, all as if they knew something, as if they had the right everyone should use it and everyone should laugh when summer months in a dacha with the same nature, which also only gives the heights of the pleasantness of life, when music and reading are also the same - only raising questions of life, but not resolving them - when all this lasted for seven, eight years, not only without promising any change , but, on the contrary, losing more and more of her charms, she fell into despair, and a state of despair, a desire for death began to come over her" ("What I Saw in a Dream")

In the field of Russian language research, there are no established ideas about what maximum length a Russian phrase can reach. However, readers should feel the extreme length of this sentence. For example, part of the phrase “but when all this” is not perceived as an inaccurate syntactic repetition, as a paired element to the part “but when this”. Because when we reach the first indicated part in the process of reading, we cannot retain in memory the already read second part: these parts are too far apart from each other in the text, too big amount The details mentioned within one sentence made the writer difficult to read. The author's desire for maximum detail when describing actions and mental states leads to violations of the logical connection of parts of the sentence (“she fell into despair, and a state of despair began to come over her”).

The quoted parable and story were written by L.N. Tolstoy. It is especially easy to determine its authorship when referring to the second example, and attention to style-forming syntactic devices helps with this. G.O. Vinokur wrote about the above quote from the story: “... I recognize Leo Tolstoy here not only because this passage talks about what this writer often and usually talks about, and not only because of the tone with which he usually speaks about such subjects, but also by the language itself, by its syntactic features... According to the scientist’s thoughts, which he expressed more than once, it is important to trace the development of linguistic features, the author’s style as a whole throughout the writer’s work, because the facts The evolution of style is a fact of the author's biography. Therefore, in particular, it is necessary to trace the evolution of style at the level of syntax.

The study of poetic syntax also involves assessing the facts of compliance of the methods of grammatical connection used in the author's phrases with the norms of the national literary style. Here we can draw a parallel with the different style passive vocabulary How significant part poetic dictionary. In the sphere of syntax, as in the sphere of vocabulary, barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms, etc. are possible, because these two spheres are interconnected: according to B.V. Tomashevsky, “each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns.”

Poetry is an incredible genre of literature that relies on rhyme, that is, all the lines in a poetic work rhyme with each other. However, poems and various similar works belonging to this genre would not be so impressive if not for the poetic syntax. What it is? This is the system special means speech structures that are responsible for improving its expressiveness. Simply put, poetic syntax is the collection of these poetic devices, which are most often called figures. It is these figures that will be discussed in this article - you will learn about different means of expression that can often be found in poetic works.

Repeat

Poetic syntax is very diverse; it includes dozens of means of expression that can be used in certain situations. However, this article will talk only about the most important and common figures of poetic speech. And the first thing without which it is impossible to imagine poetic syntax is repetition. Exists a large number of various repetitions, each of which has its own characteristics. You can find epanalipsis, anadiplosis and much more in poetry, but this article will talk about the two most common forms - anaphora and epiphora

Anaphora

Features of poetic syntax suggest the use of various ones in combination with others, but most often poets use repetitions. And the most popular among them is anaphora. What it is? Anaphora is the repetition of consonances or identical words at the beginning of each line of a poem or part of it.

“No matter how oppressive the hand of fate is,

No matter how much deception torments people...”

This is one of the ways of semantic and aesthetic organization of speech, which can be used to give one or another emphasis to what is said. However, figures of poetic speech can be varied, and even repetitions, as you have already learned, can differ from each other.

Epiphora

What is epiphora? This is also a repetition, but it is different from anaphora. The difference is that in this case the words are repeated at the end of the lines of the poem, and not at the beginning.

"To the steppes and roads

The count is not over;

Stones and rapids

Account not found."

As with the previous figure, epiphora is an expressive device and can give a poem special expression. Now you know what epiphora is, but it doesn’t end there. As mentioned earlier, the syntax of poems is very vast and provides endless possibilities.

Polysindeton

Poetic language is very euphonious precisely because poets use various means poetic syntax. Among them, polysyndeton is often found, which is also called polyunion. This means of expression, which, due to its redundancy, gives the poem a special tone. Often polysyndeton is used in conjunction with anaphora, that is, repeated conjunctions begin at the beginning of the line.

Asyndeton

The poetic syntax of a poem is a combination of various poetic figures, you already learned about this earlier. However, you still do not know even a small part of the means that are used for poetic expression. You have already read about multi-union - it’s time to learn about non-union, that is, asyndeton. In this case, the lines of the poem appear to have no conjunctions at all, even in those cases where logically they should be present. Most often, this tool is used in long ones, which are ultimately listed separated by commas to create a certain atmosphere.

Parallelism

This means of expression is very interesting because it allows the author to beautifully and effectively compare any two concepts. Strictly speaking, the essence of this technique lies in an open and detailed comparison of two different concepts, but not just like that, but in the same or similar syntactic structures. For example:

“The day spreads out like grass.

At night I wash myself with tears.”

Anjanbeman

Enjambment is a rather complex means of expression, which is not so easy to use competently and beautifully. If we talk in simple words, then this is a transfer, but far from the most ordinary one. In this case, part of a sentence is transferred from one line to another, but in such a way that the semantic and syntactic part of the previous one appears on the other line. To better understand what is meant, it is easier to look at an example:

"Into the ground, laughing that first

She stood up, crowned at dawn.”

As you can see, the sentence “Into the earth, laughing that rose first” is one separate part, and “in the dawn crown” is another. However, the word “rose” is moved to the second line, and it turns out that the rhythm is respected.

Inversion

Inversion in poems is very common - it gives them a poetic touch, and also ensures the creation of rhyme and rhythm. The essence of this technique is to change the word order to an atypical one. For example, you can take the sentence “A lonely sail whitens in the blue fog of the sea.” No. This is a well-constructed sentence with in the right order words? Absolutely. But what happens if you use inversion?

"The lonely sail is white

In the blue sea fog."

As you can see, the sentence was not composed entirely correctly - its meaning is clear, but the word order does not correspond to the norm. But at the same time, the sentence has become much more expressive, and also now fits into the overall rhythm and rhyme of the poem.

Antithesis

Another technique that is used very often is antithesis. Its essence lies in the contrast of images and concepts used in the poem. This technique adds drama to the poem.

Gradation

This technique is a syntactic construction in which there is a certain set of words arranged in a specific order. This can be either in descending order or in increasing order of the significance and importance of these words. Thus, each subsequent word either strengthens the importance of the previous one or weakens it.

Rhetorical question and rhetorical appeal

Rhetoric in poetry is used very often, and in many cases it is addressed to the reader, but it is often used to address specific characters. What is the essence of this phenomenon? A rhetorical question is a question that does not require an answer. It is used to attract attention, not to have someone come up with an answer and communicate it. The situation is approximately the same with rhetorical appeal. It would seem that the appeal is used so that the person addressed will respond to it. However, rhetorical appeal, again, is used only as a means of attracting attention.

Figures of poetic syntax are various techniques for combining words into sentences, the purpose of which is to enhance the effect of what is said.

Let's look at the most common figures of poetic syntax using examples:

Inversion (or permutation) is a change in the usual word order in an expression. In the Russian language, the order of words is considered arbitrary, but there are still generally accepted constructions, deviation from which entails a partial change in meaning. No one will argue that the expressions “I said it,” “I said it,” and “I said it” have different shades of meaning.

Repeat. In general, repetition is a fundamental feature of poetic speech. Repetitions at the level of phonetics and orthoepy form the rhythmic structure of poems. Repetitions at the level of morphemics (the endings of words that end a line) form a rhyme. Repetition at the syntax level can also play a big role. Syntactic repetitions include anadiplosis (or junction), anaphora and epiphora. Anadiplosis is a text structure in which the ending of one phrase is repeated at the beginning of the next phrase. This technique helps to achieve greater cohesion and fluidity of the text. An example is K. Balmont’s poem “I was caught in a dream,” where “fading shadows,” “the steps trembled,” etc. are repeated. Anaphora - repetition initial word or groups of words in each new line of a poem. An example is the poem by M. Tsvetaeva “A rich man fell in love with a poor woman,” where the words “loved” and “don’t love” are repeated. Epiphora is the opposite of anaphora. In this case, words that complete lines or phrases are repeated. An example is a song from the movie “ Hussar ballad", each verse of which ends with the words "a long time ago."

Gradation is the sequential strengthening or weakening of the semantic coloring of words included in a group of homogeneous members. This technique helps to imagine the phenomenon in its development. For example, N. Zabolotsky in the poem “Road Creators” depicts an explosion with the following sequence of words: “howled, sang, took off...”

Rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal - these expressions, unlike ordinary questions, exclamations and appeals, do not refer to anyone in particular, they do not require an answer or response. The author uses them to give his text greater emotionality and dynamism. For example, the poem “Sail” by M. Lermontov begins with rhetorical questions and ends with a rhetorical exclamation.

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» » Figures of poetic syntax

Artistic speech, its specificity. Poetic syntax and poetic figures of language.

Classifying f., the Roman theorist Quintilian outlined four ways of creating them:

1) addition of components, i.e. different types of repetitions (anaphora, anticlimax, climax, polysyndeton, simploca, epistrophe, epiphora);

2) subtraction of components: asyndeton, zeugma, ellipse;

3) rearrangement of components: inversion, chiasmus, etc.;

Adding components

REPEAT - 1) one of the basic principles of organizing poetic speech, carried out at all its structural levels: phonetic, lexical, syntactic, rhythmic; 2) a concept that unites a significant part of syntactic and stylistic figures, called by ancient rhetoric Per adiectionen (addition). It includes amplification, anastrophe, anaphora, anti-climax, epistrophe, epiphora, climax, pleonasm, polysyndeton, simploca, tautology, etc. P. is of exceptional importance in folk poetry.

REFRAIN (French refrain from Latin refrengere - to break, break) - compositional repetition, verbatim or with minor changes, regular repetition in a poetic work of a word, expression, line or stanza in constant places in the text (mainly at the end). It can be the bearer of a leitmotif, be associated with the emotional dominant of the poem, etc. Genetically, R. arose from the chorus, with which it is sometimes identified.

ANAPHOR (Greek anaphere - elevation) - unity of beginning, lexical-syntactic figure, repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of adjacent syntactic or rhythmic units. In a broad sense - repetition at the beginning of adjacent units of any level of text (see: Sound anaphora). The opposite figure to A. is epiphora.

EPIPHOR (Greek epiphora - repetition, from epi - after + phoros - bearing) - a lexical-syntactic figure opposite to anaphora, repetition of a word or phrase at the end of adjacent - syntactic or versification - units of text. The combination of anaphora and E. creates one of the variations of simploki.

SYMPLOKA (Greek symploke - plexus) - lexical-syntactic figure, combination of anaphora and epiphora - repetition of initial and final words in the syntactic units of poetic lines or stanzas. Sometimes, as a second option, S. is called repetition of words in the middle of a poetic line.

Black eyes, passionate eyes!

The eyes are burning and beautiful!

How I love you] How I fear you!

You know, I saw you at an unkind hour!

(E. Grebenka)

POLYSYNDETON, or MULTI-UNION (Greek polysyndeton - multi-connected) - a syntactic figure, an excessive, excessive repetition of a union. Contributes to the creation of speech solemnity and coherence of syntactic units. It is a characteristic stylistic feature of the Old and New Testaments and can be used to stylize the living speech of uncultured characters.

a) Oh, summer is red! I would love you

If only it weren't for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies.

(A. Pushkin)

CLIMAX (Greek klimax - staircase) - stylistic figure, type of gradation, arrangement of words or expressions in accordance with the increase in their semantic and/or emotional meaning. Often plays the role of a compositional figure, for example, the technique of folklore tripling in Russian fairy tales, in particular, in “Sivka-burka”, the increase in the desires of the old woman in Pushkin’s “The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish”, etc.

Examples: lexical K.

Approaches, rapprochements, combustions, -

The azure silence does not accept...

It rolls in from afar.

First, with the thunder of a horse train

Along the pavement. The hum of a draft.

Then the fall of heavy barrels from the cart.

ANTI-CLIMAX (tren, anti - against + klimax - ladder) - a stylistic figure, a type of gradation, arrangement of words or expressions in order of their decreasing meaning. Unlike menopause, it is used quite rarely in poetry. In a broad sense - the compositional order of the semantic phases of a work in descending order.

And if you left for someone else

Or was he just somewhere unknown?

It was enough for me that your

The cloak hung on a nail.

When, our fleeting guest,

You rushed off, looking for a new destiny,

It was enough for me that the nail

Left after the cloak.

The passage of days, the rustle of years, -

Fog, wind and rain...

And in the house there is an event - nothing worse:

A nail was pulled out of the wall!

Fog, and wind, and the sound of rain...

The passage of days, the rustle of years...

It was enough for me that from the nail

There was a small trace left.

When did the nail mark disappear?

Under the old painter's brush, -

I was content with the fact that

The nail was visible - yesterday.

(N. Matveeva)

Subtracting Components

ASINDETON, non-union (Greek asyndeton - unrelated) - a syntactic figure, the absence of necessary conjunctions (for example, with homogeneous members of a sentence). Used to express static phenomena or events, as well as psychological tension.

ELLIPS, ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - omission, loss) - a syntactic figure, an omission of a word or phrase restored by the speech context. Being a syntactically incomplete construction, E. violates the normative grammatical connections between the members of the sentence while maintaining the general semantics of the statement. As a reflection of the general focus of speech on economy, E. is characteristic of colloquial speech (usually the easily implied members of the sentence that support the statement, rather than those that nuance its meaning, are ellipsed - the subject, the predicate, the object). In literary text it is mainly used to convey physical or psychological excitement.

Either you love me -

and then everything doesn’t matter. And snow

It falls upward, dissolving into the sky-high distance.

Or... [...] Here follows a dash about duty, freedom and gift -

And it remains - to love for two, omitting the details

Heavy flights along the sky in the direction of spring...

(P. Besprozvannaya)

ZEVGMA (Greek zeugma - link) - a syntactic figure, the subordination of a number of homogeneous secondary members of a sentence to one, logically uniting them to the main member of the sentence (mainly the verbal predicate).

Gratitude

For everything, for everything I thank you:

For the secret torment of passions,

For the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss,

For the revenge of enemies and slander of friends;

For the heat of the soul, wasted in the desert,

For everything I was deceived in life...

Just arrange it so that from now on you

It didn't take me long to thank him.

(M. Lermontov)

BREAK - a stylistic figure, interrupted or incoherent speech. Usually O. indicates the exhaustion of speech reflection, the agitation of the subject of speaking, etc. Most often it is indicated by an ellipsis.

I did not yet know the rolling stream,

From what heights does he need to fall...

And get ready to take the leap!

(S. Marshak)

SILENCE, or APOSIOPESIS (Greek aposiopesis - silence) is a stylistic figure, an expressed concealment of thought. Unlike a break, U. creates the effect of understatement; it contains a hint of the author’s conscious reluctance or indecisiveness to express his thoughts in a speech volume corresponding to his content due to various psychological motivations (hostility, shyness, fear, etc.), thereby it initiates the reader to demand semantic subtext.

I don't regret anything, I don't regret anything, I don't regret anything,

There are no boundaries over my heart,

So why do I suddenly go crazy with just one thought?

That never, never again...

My God, never!..

(A. Galich)

ALLUSION (Latin alludere - to play with someone, joke, refer) - a stylistic figure, an allusion to certain circumstances, a person, an image, etc. with a focus on the reader's memory of them. According to the source of origin, they distinguish between mythological (Augean stables), biblical (the Flood), historical (Hannibal's Oath), political and journalistic (the Black Hundred), and literary.

literary

You're just playing around,

And already from the deck - jump! -

Not a seven, not an ace, not a three.

Damned Queen of Spades!

(A. Galich)

Rearranging components.

TRANSFER, SINAPHIA (Greek sinaphia - contact), or ENJAMBEMAN (French enjambement from enjamber - to step over, jump over) - a syntactic figure, an expressive discrepancy between the syntactic division of poetic speech and its metric division. There are transfers of syllables and even letters. It is used for the author’s emphasis on a word or phrase, which brings P. closer to inversion and other figures of speech accentuation. Widely used in spoken poetry, as well as in blank verse. When pronouncing P., the final pause in the verses must be preserved.

Shining, the clouds pass by

By blue sky. The hill is steep

Illuminated by the autumn sun. River

Runs down the rocks with speed.

(M. Lermontov)

PARTELLATION (Latin pars - part) is a syntactic figure, the division of a single statement into a number of isolated words or phrases. The main methods of such segmentation are auxiliary parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions), as well as interjections; in writing P. is often indicated by punctuation marks, and when pronounced - by intonation. P. is used primarily for stylistic purposes - to convey speech emotion, to accentuate each word in a sentence, etc. P. of words is also found.

a) Oh, how big he is in the field!

He is cunning and quick and firm in battle;

But he trembled as he stretched out only his hand

God-rati-on towards him with a bayonet.

(G. Derzhavin)

b) That in response to my love

You lowered your eyelids -

O life! oh forest! oh sunshine!

O youth! oh hopes!

(A.K. Tolstoy)

c) Distance: miles, miles...

We were arranged, seated,

To behave quietly,

At two different ends of the earth.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

d) I should surround her with a blockade of rhymes,

get lost, now turning pale, now blushing,

but a woman! me! thanks!

for being me! man! be gentle with her!

(E. Yevtushenko)

INVERSION (Latin inversio - rearrangement, inversion) is a syntactic figure, a violation of the normative order of the members of a sentence. Relocation of words or phrases ensures their logical and emotional markings, and more broadly, weakens the automaticity of text perception. The most common variation of I. is the castling of the subject-noun and adjective-determiner, which have an increased ability to express the author’s assessment and the author’s modality.

I dreamed of an azure, clear morning,

I dreamed of the vast expanse of my homeland,

The sky is ruddy, the field is dewy,

My irrevocable freshness and youth...

(K. Sluchevsky)

SYNTACTIC PARALLELISM (Greek parallelos - walking side by side) is a lexical-syntactic figure, an identical arrangement of similar members of a sentence in adjacent syntactic or rhythmic segments. Often coincides with psychological parallelism. Ancient rhetoric distinguished speech: by the number of commensurate speech segments (colons) included in it - dicolon, tricolon, etc.; by parallelism of sentence members (isocolon), by structural similarity/dissimilarity of columns (anthopodosis/chiasmus), by consonance (homeotelevton) or dissonance of the endings of columns, by similarity (homeoptoton) or dissimilarity of case endings of columns, etc.

What are you, white birch,

There is no wind, but are you making noise?

What, zealous heart,

There is no grief, but you are in pain?

(Folk song)

Crazy nights, sleepless nights,

Speeches are incoherent, eyes are tired...

Nights illuminated by the last fire,

Autumn's dead flowers are belated!

(A. Apukhtin)

CHIASM (Greek chiasmos from the letter “X” - xi - crosswise arrangement) is a syntactic figure covering two adjacent sentences, phrases, as well as poetic lines in which similar members of the sentence are located in relation to each other in negative sequence(mirroring principle).

X. with syntactic parallelism

To a ripe ear - a daring sickle,

For an adult girl - a young groom!

(Ya. Nekrasov)

ANTITHESIS (Greek contrapositum - opposition) is a stylistic figure of bringing together two opposing images, concepts, thoughts. IN oratory and artistic creativity, A. is carried out through the collision of words (antonyms), phrases, sentence segments, verbal micro-images that are similar in formal terms, but opposite in meaning.

You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blush like the color of poppies; I am like death, skinny and pale.

(A. Pushkin)

There are two misfortunes in Russia:

Below is the power of darkness,

And above is the darkness of power.

(V. Gilyarovsky)

“Happiness is in effort,” says youth.

“Happiness is in peace,” says death.

“I will overcome everything,” says youth.

“Yes, but it will all end,” says death.

(V. Rozanov)

Poetic liberties.

SOLECISM (or Greek Soloi - colony cities in Asia Minor, whose inhabitants distorted the Greek language) is a grammatically incorrect use of the word. Most often it is explained by the stylization of vernacular or the absence of the morphological form proposed by the author, which he needs to solve a specific stylistic problem. In ancient rhetoric, incorrectly constructed phrases were called S.

I'll leave without asking anything

Because mine pulled out lot,

I didn't think this month was beautiful

So beautiful and disturbing in the sky.

(I. Annensky)

The destiny of things: to rush somewhere into the distance.

Yesterday, in the evening, they gave me a shawl -

in the morning the shawl gets cold and bored,

she can't bear to hug shoulder other.

(B. Akhmadulina)

AMPHIBOLIA (Greek amphibolos - deceptive, ambiguous) - semantic ambiguity of the image.

My long path is empty and smooth...

Only in black villages

The endless is getting sadder,

Like rain, a slanting fence.

(I. Annensky)

ANAKOLUTH (Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) - a speech figure, syntactic inconsistency of sentence members in a complete statement. A phenomenon common to oral speech, A. in a literary text can be a reproduction of a conversational style, or a method emotional expressiveness, or a consequence of the author's inattention (author's deafness). The terminological synonym for A. is hyperbaton (Greek - transition), denoting a change in its syntactic order during speech, most often the separation of two connected words.

Nature hasn't woken up yet,

But through dwindling sleep

She heard spring

And she involuntarily smiled.