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The meaning of a semantic field in the dictionary of linguistic terms. Semantic field definition of a semantic field

Groupings of words by proximity of meaning are called semantic or conceptual fields. Words are included in these fields regardless of their external form; sometimes words from different parts of speech are even combined into one field. All linguistic elements in general can come together on the basis of either similarity or contiguity. Semantic fields can also combine words by similarity or contiguity of their meanings. The first groupings are called lexical-semantic, and the second - thematic fields.

Lexico-semantic fields combine words that have a common meaning. All words included in this field, as it were, concretize one general concept, adding specific meanings to it. For example, the semantic field of verbs of movement covers the verbs to move, go, go, run, come, run away, pass, sail, etc.

Such semantic fields, first described by the German scientist J. Trier (1931), are organized according to a hierarchical principle; they reflect gender-specific relationships between concepts that reflect objects and phenomena of reality. A word denoting a broader, generic concept is called a hyperonym (literally “above-name”); a word denoting a narrower, specific concept is called a hyponym (literally “sub-name”). In the given example, the hypernym is the verb to move, the hyponyms are to go, run, fly, swim, etc. In turn, these verbs turn out to be hypernyms in relation to to words of an even narrower meaning, for example the verb to walk in relation to come, enter, go out, etc. In the semantic field “domestic animals” the hypernym is the phrase domestic animal, hyponyms are the names of individual animals: horse, cow, dog, sheep, etc. n. Each of these words expresses a concept, which in turn covers the names of varieties and breeds of animals.

In many semantic fields, each word is a set of intersecting distinctive features - elementary meanings, which are called semantic components or semes. And just as the chemical formula of a substance indicates which atoms the molecule of this substance consists of, so the semantic structure of words that form a certain semantic field can be represented in the form of a formula showing which elementary meanings, which cannot be further decomposed, are included in the meaning of this word. For example, for the semantic field “terms of kinship” a number of basic meanings can be identified - sem: gender (male, female), line of kinship: ascending or descending, direct or collateral, kinship by blood or marriage, and some others. Each word (member of the field) in its content can be represented by a certain formula, for example, son: male + descendant + direct line + blood relationship.

In its semantic field, a word does not live in isolation. Just as a physical particle in a physical field interacts with other particles, approaches them, repels from them, and sometimes even leaves the boundaries of a given field, so a word in its meanings can approach or repel other words. In the sentences The car passed through the city without stopping and The car drove through the city without stopping, the verbs pass and pass are closer in meaning and act as synonyms. In the sentence You can’t walk here, but you can drive a car, they repel each other, turning almost into antonyms. In the expression This will not work for you, the verb to pass does not mean “to move”, but “to succeed”, “to obtain” and goes beyond the boundaries of the “movement” field.

In addition to relations of hierarchy and similarity, words in a language can be connected by relations of contiguity of meaning (the German scientist W. Porzig, who first drew attention to them, called them essential semantic relations). These are the relationships: part - whole (finger - hand), action - tool (see - eye), actor - action (dog - bark), object - characteristic feature(tooth - sharp), containing - contents (shed - cattle), etc. Words connected by such relationships form special thematic semantic fields. For example, the word horse is associated with words such as foal, neigh, shoe, stable, groom, hoof, harness, rider. These words may be related in form to the central word (compare: horse and groom, stable), but can come from completely different roots. There are relationships between words that are determined by the connection of objects in objective reality. Thematic fields can be extensive, combining several lexical-semantic groups and thematic fields of a smaller volume. For example, the field “livestock” can be represented by a schema (see below).

Here, horizontally there are lexical-semantic groups (names of cubs, premises for animals, etc.), and vertically there are thematic microfields. Just as in lexical-semantic groups, in thematic fields words can come closer and be interchanged in certain contexts. For example, you can say She works as a cowkeeper or She looks after the cows.

animal horse cow sheep pig chickens

male stallion bull ram boar rooster

female mare cow sheep sow chicken

baby foal calf lamb pig chick

premises stable cowshed sheepfold pigsty chicken coop

livestock breeder groom cowshed shepherd pigkeeper poultry house

shepherd shepherd

meat horse meat beef lamb pork chicken

The semantic field is heterogeneous. It is possible to distinguish between the center and the periphery. The center includes words that reflect the main meanings that make up this field. Very often these are the most commonly used words. For example, in the semantic field of verbs of movement, the center consists of verbs such as walk, run, fly, etc. Verbs that are outdated, stylistically colored, such as, for example, march or trudge, can be classified as the periphery. In the semantic field “terms of kinship,” the core consists of the names of the main relatives: father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter, wife, etc. Words like brother-in-law, sister-in-law, brother-in-law, which are currently falling out of use, belong to the periphery.

movement location

In different languages, the same semantic field is divided in different ways. Let's take three meanings associated with the idea of movement: “to move on foot”, “with the help of transport”, “on horseback”. In the main European languages, the corresponding semantic field is divided as follows:

Method of travel/on foot/by transport/on horseback

german gehen fahren reiten

English to go to go to ride

Russian go go go

French aller aller aller

Within this semantic field, the German language has delimited three sections, each of which is assigned a special verb. English and Russian divided the field into two stripes, but of different shapes. French does not divide this field into sections and uses the same verb to denote all three types of movement. If the meaning needs to be clarified, this is achieved using a phrase. Compare the Russian to go by car and ride on horseback, the French aller en voiture - “to ride by car” and aller a pied. - "walk".

Organizing vocabulary in the form of semantic fields - paradigmatic and syntagmatic - allows people to more easily remember words and their meanings, and quickly select words when they are combined in a sentence. But, on the other hand, errors also occur: the meanings of neighboring words in a given field are confused.

Lesson: “Formation of the semantic field and valence of the word “tree.”

Goals:

Educational:

Formation of the “semantic field” of the word “tree”, development of valences.

Formation of the inflection function.

Corrective:

Education of the correct corrective way of sound [d].

Development of phonemic hearing and perception.

Development logical thinking when solving logical problems (riddles).

Developing self-control over children's speech.

Educational:

Development of observation skills.

Expanding concepts about the world around us.

Upbringing careful attitude to nature.

Educational areas:

Social and communicative development

Cognitive development

Speech development

Physical development

Innovative technologies:

Health-saving

Gaming

Sensorimotor

Methods:

Verbal

Visually effective

Practical

Formation of a semantic field

Equipment:

Slide presentation equipment

Slide presentation

Dictionary

Custom mirrors

Sound patterns.

Ball

Reflection boxes (red, blue, yellow, black)

Cardboard model “tree”, leaves with syllables of words, names of trees

Wooden wall aid "Tree"

Wooden manual tree “Seasons”

Dolls benefit "Family"

Ottomans-chairs stuffed with granules for relaxation

Visual and didactic aid. Ed. "Mosaic-Synthesis": "Trees and Leaves"

Org. Moment:

Hello,

May this day bring us the joy of communication and a wealth of knowledge!!!

Slide 1

Today we will need to do great job, and at the end of the lesson publish a book on the topic of our lesson.

And to find out the topic you need to guess the riddle:

In spring and summer we saw him dressed,

And in the fall, all the poor girl’s shirts were torn off.

Tree!!!

The correct topic of our lesson is the word “tree”

We will need to study and remember the words that are associated with it.

Slide 2

Meaning of the word

What is a tree?

What is written in the encyclopedia about wood.

Tree - perennial, large plant forming a crown, covered with leaves or needles

III

Let's analyze the word "tree"

Sound analysis

Slide 3

Word scheme

How does a tree work?

Trunk

Roots

Crown

Branches

Leaves

Slide 4

Board, constructing a tree from cardboard paper.

Let's make the tree crown thick. Pay attention to the leaves on your tables, try to collect the names of the trees from them. (chestnut, birch, alder, aspen, pine, linden, maple, oak

Chestnut, maple

Be-ryo-za, oak

Alder

Aspen

Pine

Linden

Guys, why do we need trees?

Oxygen

Construction

Houseware

Paper

Medicine

The world of trees is very diverse, let's watch a film about record-breaking trees.

You see how unusual this “World of Trees” is

Slide 5

Video clip

And whatrelated words you know the word"tree"

*tree

*wood

*piece of wood

*wooden

*wood

*tree

*cabinetmaker

Slide 6

Verbs

Look in my hands, a very small tree, after a long winter, the first foliage appears on it. Let's attach leaves to it and name the words-verbs that happen to it.

Grows, stretches, develops, rises, stands

Blooms, blooms, smells

Swaying. bends, sways, rustles, makes noise

Grows old, dries up, falls, cracks, collapses

Modular wooden tree according to the seasons

Slide 7

Slide 8

Slide 9

Slide 10

YII

Prepositions

Schoolchildren like you, Tanya and Vanya, came to visit you.

I will tell you where you should put them, and then tell you where they are.

Tanya is standing by a tree. -Where is Tanya?

Vanya approaches the tree. -Where is Vanya going?

Tanya hid behind a tree - Where is Tanya?

Anya looks out from behind a tree - Where is Tanya looking out from?

Vanya is standing near a tree - where is Vanya standing?

Tree and dolls

YIII

Relaxation

And now I suggest you go into the forest along the path.

We walk the paths, we walk the paths

We go with baskets, we go with baskets.

We crossed the stream along the perch and found a bright clearing.

Exercise "Forest"

Let `s have some rest. Sit back, close your eyes and listen to my voice.

Imagine that you are in the forest on a beautiful spring day. There are many beautiful plants and bright colorful flowers around you. You feel completely calm and happy. A pleasant feeling of freshness and vigor covers the entire body: forehead, face, back, stomach, arms and legs. You feel how your body becomes light, strong and obedient. The breeze blows your body with light freshness. The air is clean and transparent.

Breathe easily and freely. The mood becomes cheerful and cheerful - you want to get up and move. We open our eyes. We are full of strength and energy. Try to maintain this feeling throughout the day.

We walk along the orthopedic path, sit on ottomans-chairs with granules

Slide 11

Singular and plural

Slide 12

Ball game

Fine motor activity “Tree”

Plant the flowers evenly and climb the trunk with the ladybug

Wooden panel on the wall “Tree”

Adjectives

Return to their desks

Ball game “Tili-tali, tili-tali, you and I rolled the ball and answered questions:

The birch tree has birch leaves, and the fruit is an catkin

The meaning of the word "leaf"

The oak tree has oak leaves, and the fruit is an acorn.

The pine tree has a cone, it is pine

Meaning of the word cone

The chestnut tree has chestnut leaves and chestnut fruit

The maple tree has maple leaves, and the fruit is lionfish.

The linden tree has linden-colored leaves and linden-colored flowers.

The fruit of the alder tree is the alder catkin

Aspen has aspen leaves, and the fruit is catkin

On the board there is a visual teaching aid “Trees and Leaves”

Hedgehog massage balls

Slide 13

Slide 14

XII

Synonyms

What words do you think are similar in meaning to the word “tree”?

Forest, grove, wood, park

XIII

Antonyms

What are the opposite meanings of the word “tree”

Bush, flower

XIY

Logic problems

What tree does a crow sit on when it rains? (for wet)

How do you understand the phrase “Knock on wood”? To protect yourself from the evil eye, and in the old days they asked the tree for forgiveness for boasting.

What is made of wood?

Spoons made of wood - wooden

Dishes – wooden

Furniture – wooden

Wooden box

Clothespin – wooden

House – wooden

Chest – wooden

Toys – wooden

Letters - wooden

Slide15

XYI

Book - album

I believe that you are ready to become participants in the creation of a talking book.

There are deformed sentences on the slide, you need to read them correctly. And record it on a talking album. The corresponding picture is inserted into the album file.

Trees.

Birch has long been a symbol of Russia.

Oak - mighty deciduous tree.

A forest where oaks grow is called an oak grove.

Aspen is a very useful tree! The buds and leaves are collected to prepare medicinal infusions and ointments.

Maple is a tall slender deciduous tree. Maple loves light and warmth.

Take care of the trees!!!

"Talking Photo Album"

Making sentences from deformed text

Slide 16

Slide 17

Slide 18

Slide 19

Slide 20

After the sound recording, listen to the recorded text

XYII

Ecology

Guys, tell me, how do you understand the sentence “Take care of the trees!!!”

Keep away from fire

Do not scratch the trunk with a knife

Hand over waste paper

Plant young seedlings

2017 has been declared the year of ecology

Slide 21

XYIII

Well, our lesson has come to an end. What do you remember? What was the main topic in our lesson?

Reflection:

There is a piece of paper on your table. Go to the teacher's desk and put it in a box

in blue if it was easy and interesting,

in yellow if it was interesting, but difficult,

in red if it was not interesting, but easy,

in black if it was not interesting and difficult.

Thanks everyone for your attention!!!

Slide 22

Literature:

Z. A. Repin “Field of speech miracles”, Yekaterinburg 1996

Website:

Wikipidia:

Relaxation:

Why trees are needed:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LXrzoiUS1ek

INTRODUCTION

STRUCTURE OF THE SEMANTIC FIELD OF RELATIONSHIP

3. GENETIC CHARACTERISTICS OF FIELD UNITS

CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION

In modern lexicology, the lexical-semantic approach to the analysis of material has become firmly established, helping to identify the nature of systemic relationships between lexemes. “Words and their meanings do not live a life separate from each other, but are combined into different groups,” pointed out one of the founders of the systematic study of vocabulary M.M. Pokrovsky. In recent years, many works have appeared devoted to the study of various lexical groupings: lexical-semantic groups (LSG), thematic groups (TG), associative fields (AF), semantic fields (SF), etc.

A semantic field is a hierarchical structure of a set of lexical units united by a common (invariant) meaning and surrounding a certain area in the language. “From the point of view of the ideographic (onomasiological) description of language, i.e. in the direction from a given meaning (content) to the means of its expression, vocabulary can be represented as a system of interacting semantic fields that form a complex and specific “picture of the world” for each language, determined by its internal form: such, for example, are names that are diverse in nature time, space, movement, designation of kinship, color, beauty, names of means of transportation, musical instruments, trees, etc.” . The semantic field, which reflects the essential connections of its units, forming a moving, tense “mosaic,” can be compared with the electromagnetic field and its particles.

The semantic field is characterized by conceptual homogeneity of elements, therefore its units are usually lexical-semantic variants (LSV) of polysemantic words and unambiguous words. Conceptually heterogeneous LSV words are distributed across different semantic fields (cf. father - “parent” and father - “priest”).

Words enter semantic fields regardless of their external form; sometimes words from different parts of speech are even combined into one field. All linguistic elements in general can come together on the basis of either similarity or contiguity. Semantic fields can also combine words by similarity or contiguity of their meanings. The first groupings are called lexical-semantic, and the second - thematic fields.

In many semantic fields, each word is a set of intersecting distinctive features - elementary meanings, which are called semantic components or semes. And just as the chemical formula of a substance indicates which atoms the molecule of this substance consists of, so the semantic structure of words that form a certain semantic field can be represented in the form of a formula showing which elementary meanings, which cannot be further decomposed, are included in the meaning of this word. In its semantic field, a word does not live in isolation. Just as a physical particle in a physical field interacts with other particles, approaches them, repels from them, and sometimes even leaves the boundaries of a given field, so a word in its meanings can approach or repel other words. In the sentences The car passed through the city without stopping and The car drove through the city without stopping, the verbs pass and pass are closer in meaning and act as synonyms. In the sentence You can’t walk here, but you can drive a car, they repel each other, turning almost into antonyms. In the expression This will not work for you, the verb to pass does not mean “to move”, but “to succeed”, “to obtain” and goes beyond the boundaries of the “movement” field.

In addition to relations of hierarchy and similarity, words in a language can be connected by relations of contiguity of meaning (the German scientist W. Porzig, who first drew attention to them, called them essential semantic relations). These are the relationships: part - whole (finger - hand), action - instrument (see - eye), doer - action (dog - bark), object - characteristic feature (tooth - sharp), containing - contents (shed - cattle), etc. etc. Words connected by such relationships form special thematic semantic fields. For example, the word horse is associated with words such as foal, neigh, shoe, stable, groom, hoof, harness, rider. These words may be related in form to the central word (compare: horse and groom, stable), but can come from completely different roots. There are relationships between words that are determined by the connection of objects in objective reality.

Thematic fields can be extensive, combining several lexical-semantic groups and thematic fields of a smaller volume. Just as in lexical-semantic groups, in thematic fields words can come together and be interchanged in certain contexts. For example, you can say She works as a cowkeeper or She looks after the cows.

Semantic fields are not rigidly delimited from each other. The entire language can be imagined as a collection of partially overlapping semantic fields. The same word can, in its different meanings or uses, refer to different adjacent fields or move from one field to another. For example, there are two large fields: verbs of movement and verbs of location (to be, stand, lie, etc.). Often the same verb indicates movement or location, depending on whether the subject is animate or inanimate. For example, in the sentence The boy walks along the river, the verb goes denotes movement, while in the sentence The road goes along the river the same verb (but in a different meaning) denotes location. In the phrase Soldiers surround the house, the verb denotes movement; in the phrase Trees surround the house, the verb denotes location (they are located, growing around the house). The relationship between semantic fields can be depicted in the form of circles located on top of each other. In different languages, the same semantic field is divided in different ways. Let's take three meanings associated with the idea of movement: “to move on foot”, “with the help of transport”, “on horseback”. Within this semantic field, the German language has delimited three sections, each of which is assigned a special verb. English and Russian divided the field into two stripes, but of different shapes. French does not divide this field into sections and uses the same verb to denote all three types of movement. If the meaning needs to be clarified, this is achieved using the phrase.

It should be noted that the organization of the semantic field as an ordered field of names is based on hypero-hyponymic (genus-species) relations of its units: hyponyms as homogeneous units with the property of incompatibility (i.e. corresponding to species concepts) are included in the class (correlative with a generic concept and denoted by a hyperonym) as its elements. Thus, a word denoting a broader, generic concept is called a hyperonym (literally “above-name”); a word denoting a narrower, specific concept is called a hyponym (literally “sub-name”).

Hyper-hyponymic relations structure the semantic field from top to bottom and from bottom to top, while the concepts of hyponym and hyperonym in it are relative: thus, the lexical unit dog, acting as a hyperonym for the hyponyms poodle, greyhound, Newfowland, etc., can in turn be considered as a hyponym in relation to the hierarchical higher name animal, etc. Semantically homogeneous units are consistently combined into lexical-semantic groups, subclasses, class classes, semantic macrospheres, etc., forming a complex multidimensional hierarchical system of interconnected semantic fields, the boundaries of which are relative and often determined by a particular research task or setting.

Depending on the nature of the original unit that underlies the semantic field and determines the semantic and word-formation derivation of its elements (the nature of the meaning of units of semantic classes, the direction of deployment of the semantic field from the original lexeme, its part-speech composition, etc.), categorical types of the semantic field are distinguished: procedural (cf. “transmission” with a dominant verb), subject (cf. “ vehicles" - with a noun), indicative (cf. "beauty" - with an adjective), etc. Taking into account the typology of the semantic field allows us to identify for each of them a determinant as the main property that determines the composition of units of the semantic field and the categorical nature of their semantics: some are dominated by verbs [“transfer”: (re)give, hand over, sell...; other members are derivative, secondary, peripheral: transfer, seller, trade, etc.], secondly - nouns (“vehicles”: car, motorcycle, ship...; cf.: automobile, river, motor, etc.), thirdly - adjectives (“beauty”: beautiful, wonderful, charming...; cf.: beauty, grace, competition, etc.), etc.

In the structure of the semantic field, a core is distinguished (a lexical unit or several units, semantically the simplest and containing the general meaning of the semantic field in its “pure” form: “color” in the names of color designations, “cause someone to start having something,” i.e. e. to make something begin to take place, to arise - in the designation of transfer), center [a number of “layers” that “envelop” the core - specialized classes of units with semantically more complex meanings: (re)give - to give, to present, to present ... (“donation”), sell, sell, cede… (“sale”), report (by radio), broadcast, telegraph… (“information via communication channels”), etc.] and periphery (secondary names included in their primary meanings into adjacent semantic fields and realizing the semantics of this field in specific contextual conditions: Parents built a dacha for their children, i.e. handed over, donated; chocolate tan, i.e. brown).

It should be noted that the boundary between the core of the field and the periphery, as well as the boundary of the semantic field itself, is fuzzy and blurred, so elements of one field (especially peripheral ones) can be included in another field.

The semantic field can synthesize all types of categorical semantic relations of units that are capable of entering, if their nature does not contradict this, into the relations of synonymy (give - hand over), antonymy (give - take), conversion (hand over - accept), polysemy (transfer ( book) and transmit (radio message). In addition, they act as hyponyms in relation to the nearest hypernym and the name of the semantic field.

The semantic field is multidimensional; its units are included in three types of relationships: paradigmatic (arm - leg - head), syntagmatic (touch, grab, wave ... with a hand) and associative-derivative (polysemy: hand - “part of the body”, “handwriting”, “one who can provide assistance, protection” and word-formation nest: hand - pen - manual - handy - one-armed - sleeve...); such relations, especially the last of them, can go beyond the boundaries of a given semantic field, indicating its connections with other semantic fields.

The paradigmatic proximity of units of the semantic field and the similarity of their meanings are often reflected syntagmatically in the presence of general formula usage (sentence scheme), which becomes more specific as the semantics becomes more complex and specific.

The study of language using the semantic field method finds application in lexicology, lexicography, grammar, the science of the language of fiction, comparative linguistics and other areas of linguistics.

Thus, the semantic field is a lexical grouping that is different from lexical-semantic groups, thematic groups and associative fields. Let us cite the opinion of P.N. Denisov, who, naming among the main properties of the semantic field vastness, semantic attraction, orderliness, mutual determination, continuity, arbitrariness and blurred boundaries, indicates that these characteristics are not fully characteristic of synonymous series, lexical-semantic groups, or thematic groups.

The semantic field has, as already noted, internal structure, which makes it more convenient for analysis. It consists mainly of a corresponding thematic group, within which, in the process of analysis, smaller lexical-semantic groups will have to be identified. When studying the dynamic aspect (the functioning of the semantic field in the process of speech communication), it will be expanded to include metaphorical combinations, phraseological units, occasionalisms and vocabulary associated with the core associatively.

The purpose of our research is to identify the structural organization of the semantic field of terms of kinship and property in the Russian language.

In accordance with the stated goal, the work solves the problems of studying units included in this group:

) identification and description of the field structure;

)description of the semantic structure of its constituent elements;

)studying the genesis of field units and identifying the features of field formation.

1. STRUCTURE OF THE SEMANTIC FIELD OF RELATIONSHIP TERMS

lexeme semantic field term

Through the terms of kinship, mythology, pagan and Christian, and the fundamental principles of the world are comprehended; the terms of kinship are projected onto the animal world, as well as onto plants and objects. They appear in anthroponyms and in toponyms.

For the semantic field “terms of kinship”, a number of basic meanings can be distinguished - sem: gender (male, female), line of kinship: ascending or descending, direct or collateral, kinship by blood or marriage and some others. Each word (member of the field) in its content can be represented by a certain formula, for example, son: male + descendant + direct line + blood relationship.

terms of consanguinity: father, mother, grandfather, grandmother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, grandson, granddaughter, son, daughter, nephew, etc.

property terms:

) related to marital relations: wife, husband, husband, spouse, owner, mistress, brother-in-law “husband’s brother”, sister-in-law “husband’s sister”, son-in-law “daughter’s husband”// “sister’s husband”// “sister-in-law’s husband”; daughter-in-law “son’s wife” // “brother’s wife”; brother-in-law, svestya “wife’s sister”, brother-in-law “sister-in-law’s husband”, matchmaker, matchmaker, matchmakers; father-in-law, mother-in-law, daughter-in-law, father-in-law, mother-in-law, brother-in-law “wife’s brother”;

) associated with a secondary marriage: stepfather, stepmother, stepdaughter, stepson;

) related to the death of one of the spouses: widower, widow;

) associated with baptism: godfather, godfather, goddaughter (goddaughter), godson (godson), godmother (godmother), godfather (godfather).

In this study, field units are described using the differential semantic elements of the term.

The technique for describing field units using differential semantic elements was developed by T.P. Lomtev. The author proposes that when identifying differential semantic elements, we proceed from the following basic concepts: 1) a sign that denotes a certain object and is called a name; 2) an object that is the meaning of a sign and is called an object, or denotation; 3) the way in which a given object is distinguished from the general set of objects, called meaning. Consequently, a name names a certain object (subject), which is the meaning of this name, and the very way in which a given object is distinguished from the general set acts as the meaning of the name.

The meaning of the name of an object is expressed in the form of a set of differential semantic elements.

Based on these provisions, T.P. Lomtev considers it possible to propose for discussion the following principles for obtaining differential semantic elements.

In the vocabulary of the language there is a compact area of names that name objects belonging to the same set.

A word is considered as the name of a certain object, and if it is one name for different objects, then it is considered in different groups of vocabulary, the objects of which are distinguished as different sets.

Partitioning operations are performed on the objects of the selected set.

A partition is a division of a general set over its own subsets that satisfies the following three conditions:

a) subsets of one set should not intersect;

b) the sum of the subsets must be equal to the total set;

c) subsets of the general set should not be the set itself and the empty set.

The operation of dividing one general set into subsets serves to determine differential elements, by the nature of which subsets in the general set are distinguished. Differential elements will be selected correctly if the partition of the general set is carried out correctly, i.e. in accordance with the specified conditions. We will divide the total set of relatives into a subset of males and a subset of females, and this will allow us to establish differential semantic elements of male and female.

Dividing the total set of parents into a subset of parents who have this property through blood ties (father and mother), and parents who received this property through the marriage ties of one of the parents (stepfather and stepmother), is not correct, since there are parents who receive this property due to marital ties of one of the born (father-in-law, father-in-law, mother-in-law). This division does not provide grounds for identifying differential semantic elements: a blood parent and a parent based on his marital ties.

To obtain a sufficient number of differential semantic elements capable of distinguishing individual objects from the general set, several partitions of the general set are necessary. Thus, in order to describe the meaning of names denoting a person who is a parent, it is necessary to make several partitions of the total set of parents. Each individual partition is assigned a certain rank. The first partition is a partition of the first rank, the second partition is a partition of the second rank, etc.

Let us denote the general set of direct parents by the letter M and make the following partitions of this set.

partition rank - M - 1. Subset of male parents: father, Foster father, stepfather, father-in-law, father-in-law;

partition rank - M - 2. Subset of female parents: mother, adoptive mother, stepmother, mother-in-law, mother-in-law;

partition rank - M - 1. Subset of blood parents: father, mother;

split rank - M - 2. Subset of legal parents: adoptive father, adoptive mother;

partition rank - M - 3. Subset of parents according to marital ties of one of the parents: stepfather, stepmother;

rank of partition - M - 4. Subset of parents by marriage ties of the born male: father-in-law, mother-in-law;

rank of partition - M - 5. Subset of parents according to marital ties of the born female: father-in-law, mother-in-law.

Based on these partitions of the set of direct parents into subsets, we can construct a composition of differential elements of the meaning of the names of direct parents.

partition rank - M - 1. Male parent;

partition rank - M - 2. Female parent.

split rank - M - 1. Blood parent;

partition rank - M - 2. Legal parent;

split rank - M - 3. Parent according to his marital ties;

split rank - M - 4. Parent by marriage of the born male;

split rank - M - 5. Parent by marriage of the born female.

The correctness and objectivity of the obtained differential semantic elements are proven both by the fact that the partitions are made correctly, and by the fact that the combinations of the obtained differential elements form really existing meanings of the names of really existing persons who are direct parents.

According to the rules of combinatorics, we can get the following ten meanings of the ten names of parents:

M 11 - male parent, blood parent: father;

M 21 - female parent, blood parent: mother;

M 12 - male parent, legal parent: adoptive father;

M 22 - female parent, legal parent: adoptive mother;

M 13 - male parent, parent by marriage: stepfather;

M 23 - female parent, parent by marriage: stepmother;

M 14 - male parent, parent by marriage of a born male: father-in-law;

M 24 - female parent, parent by marriage of the born male: mother-in-law;

M 15 - male parent, parent by marriage of the born female: father-in-law;

M 25 - female parent, parent by marriage of the born female: mother-in-law.

Subsets of several partitions can be in an intersection relationship, and subsets of subsequent partitions can be in an intersection relationship with only some subsets of previous partitions.

Let us have a certain set of persons determined by the property of kinship in one generation.

Let us denote this set by the letter M and make the following partitions:

partition rank - M - 1. Subset of males;

partition rank - M - 2. Subset of female persons;

partition rank - M - 1. Subset of parents;

partition rank - M - 2. Born subset;

rank of partition - M 01 - 1. A subset of parents in their relationship to another person according to the marital ties of their children;

split rank - M 01 - 2. A subset of parents in their relationship to another person through their own marital ties;

rank of partition - M 02 - 1. A subset of those born in their relation to another person based on blood ties with parents;

rank of partition - M 02 - 2. A subset of those born in their relation to another person based on the marriage of one of the parents.

As we see, in this partition, the subsets of the first two partitions intersect each other, and the subsets of the third partition intersect only partially: the subsets of group M 01 are included only in the subset of parents, and the subsets of group M 02 are included in the subset of born.

Based on these partitions of the specified general set, we can determine the composition of the corresponding differential semantic elements of the meanings of the names of persons, determined by the property of their relationship in one generation.

rank of partition - M - 1. Male property: matchmaker, husband, brother, half-brother;

rank of partition - M - 2. Property of the female gender: matchmaker, wife, sister, half-sister;

partition rank - M - 1. Property of the parent (meaning the actual and potential property of the parent);

rank of partition - M - 2. Property of the born;

rank of partition - M 01 - 1. The property of the relationship to another person through the marital ties of their born;

rank of division - M 01 - 2. The property of relating to another person through one’s own marital ties;

rank of partition - M 02 - 1. The property of a relationship to another person through the blood connection of one of the parents.

As you can see, the differential semantic features of intersecting subsets have the property of compatibility. But differential semantic features of included sets have the property of compatibility only with those differential semantic elements that characterize sets that include the corresponding subsets. The number of possible combinations of differential elements is equal to the number of divisions of the last partition of sets multiplied by two (4 x 2 = 8). It is obvious that the combination of differential elements of the three indicated partitions forms the meanings of the following 8 names:

M 111 - a person who has the properties of a man, a parent, the property of relating to another person through the marriage ties of their born: matchmaker;

M 211 - a person who has the properties of a female gender, a parent, the property of a relationship with another person, according to the marriage ties of their born: matchmaker;

M 112 - a person who has the properties of a man, a parent, the property of relating to another person through his own marital ties: husband;

M 212 - a person who has the properties of a female gender, a parent, the property of relating to another person through his own marital ties: wife;

M 121 - a person who has the properties of a male, the property of being born, the property of relating to another person by blood connection with parents: brother;

M 221 - a person who has the properties of the female gender, the property of being born, the property of relating to another person by blood connection with parents: sister;

M 122 - a person who has the properties of a male, the property of a born, the property of a relationship to another person through the marriage of one of the parents: half-brother;

M 222 - a person who has the properties of the female gender, the property of being born, the property of relating to another person through the marriage of one of the parents: half-sister.

Terms of kinship are characterized by relativity of meaning: a person named by one or another term of kinship is not such in the absolute sense, but only in relation to other persons, which are quite specific in each specific case. For example, a son is a daughter, a female person in relation to her parents, a sister is a daughter of the same parents in relation to their other children, a daughter-in-law is a son’s wife in relation to his parents, a brother-in-law is a male person in relation to his wife brother, etc.

Kinship terms are also characterized by generic correlation. This is the correlation in the meaning of the words masculine and female, naming male and female persons respectively: grandfather - grandmother, father - mother, son - daughter, father-in-law - mother-in-law, brother-in-law - sister-in-law, etc.

Terms connected by generic correlativeness name persons who are in the same or correlative relationships to the same persons and differ only in gender. For example, the feminine word daughter corresponds to the masculine word son, since the words daughter and son name, respectively, female and male persons who are in the same relationship to the same other persons, namely, to their parents.

It is very difficult to determine the generic correlation of some kinship terms. For example, the Russian term for the property brother-in-law, according to generic correlativeness, has to be paired not with the cognate word sister-in-law, but with the word snoshelnitsa: brother-in-law is the husband of the sister-in-law. Those married to two sisters are brothers-in-law, and those who are married to two sisters are brothers-in-law in relation to each other. The word sister-in-law is related in gender to the word brother-in-law: a sister-in-law is the wife’s sister, a brother-in-law is the wife’s brother in relation to her husband.

In addition to the relativity of meanings and generic correlativity, the meaning of kinship terms in two languages is also characterized by counter-relativity, or correlativity. The counter-correlativity of the meanings of kinship terms is that each term naming a person in relation to other persons corresponds to strictly defined terms designating these persons in their relation to this person. For example, if a person is called an uncle in relation to other persons, then these latter will be nephews in relation to him. There is a dialectical connection between the terms that are in counter-correlativity, and, of course, between the persons who are named by these terms: one cannot exist without the other - without a nephew there is no uncle, etc.

The words of this thematic group of counter terms may have an unequal number: one (father-in-law, mother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law - son-in-law), two (father, as well as mother - son and daughter), four (daughter-in-law - father-in-law, mother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law) .

Another feature of some kinship terms, namely the names of persons along the lateral line of kinship: brother, sister, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece, is that they are passed on from generation to generation. So, if two people are brothers or sisters, then their children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren will be brothers and sisters to each other. In Russian, only the definition of cousin, second cousin or grandson, etc. is added to the corresponding names.

According to T.P. Lomtev, “the theory of semantics is built on the basis of the principle of reflection, which presupposes the existence of the objective world and its reflection in human consciousness» .

But reflection, in order to become public property, must be objectified in signs, in the form of language.

Let's consider the signs of natural languages.

Signs of a natural language, like signs of other semiotic systems, must have a material nature, they must be endowed with meaning. The concept of a sign presupposes the existence of a domain of the signifier and a domain of the signified. At the level of this statement, there are no differences in the understanding of the sign. However, further disclosure of the nature of the sign of natural languages leads to a divergence of points of view. From the point of view of the principle of reflection, the signs of natural language do not have a direct relationship with reality. Their attitude to reality is mediated by consciousness, the reflection of reality in a person’s head. The meaning of natural language signs is ideal, spiritual, mental “things”, meanings in which the external world is displayed. External objects are the meaning of natural language signs through their ideal representations. The semantic component of a name binarily consists of a semantic subject and the meaning with the help of which the semantic subject is specified. Meaning is a set of features with the help of which a given object is highlighted or defined, and a semantic subject is something that is highlighted and defined in a specified way. Let us consider, from this point of view, the terms of kinship. Thus, the word grandfather has a meaning containing the following five characteristics: 1) the attribute of a male person; 2) parent; 3) parent in direct line of kinship; 4) blood parent; 5) second generation parent. The semantic object, which is denoted by the word grandfather, is a person possessing the specified characteristics. Both the meaning of the name and the semantic subject of the name are reflections of some objective reality.

If a name is a common noun, then its signified is the semantic subject and denotation. The semantic subject is determined by the conjunction of semantic features, and the denotation is determined by the disjunction of real objects.

The semantic object grandfather, defined by the indicated characteristics, reflects a specific person who exists outside the reflection and independently of it, i.e. it is a reflection of the real thing. Both semantic and real objects are the signifier of the name. The fundamental difference between them is that the first is a reflection, and the second is a denotation, reflected

We will show the fundamental difference between these two types of signified using the example of the semantics of the word uncle.

The meaning of the word uncle, the signified of which is the semantic object uncle, is a conjunction of five signs: 1) the sign of a male person; 2) parent; 3) parent by blood line; 4) blood (non-blood) parent; 5) first generation parent.

The semantic subject defined by the specified word uncle is a male person belonging to the first generation of blood or non-blood parents associated with the generation born by collateral line of kinship.

The denotation of the word uncle in modern Russian can be conveyed by a disjunction of persons: either the father's brother, or the mother's brother, or the aunt's husband.

The meaning of the word son is a conjunction of five signs: 1) a sign of male gender; 2) born; 3) born in a direct line of kinship; 5) born in the first generation.

The semantic object, defined by the indicated meaning of the word son, is a male person born in the first generation, related to his parents by direct blood relationship.

The denotation of the word son is a male person who is in a disjunctive relationship with other persons: either the son of Peter, or the son of Ivan, etc.

Thus, the denotation of a proper name is the only object of reality, the denotation of a common noun is the disjunction of individual objects of reality: their reflections are semantic objects. The question of the denotation of common nouns or so-called common names has other solutions.

The meaning of a name can be constructed from individual differential semantic elements, semantic factors.

We will show the use of differential semantic elements in constructing the meanings of names using the example of the word father.

The word father names certain person, specified using a set of the following differential elements: 1) “male person”; 2) “parent”; 3) “direct parent”; 4) “blood parent”; 5) “first generation parent.” This set of differential elements forms the meaning of the word father.

Replacing the differential element “male person” with the differential element “female person” forms the meaning of the second name, new way, given by another person whose name is the word mother. Replacing the differential element “parent” with the differential element “born” forms the meaning of the third name - son. Replacing the differential element “direct parent” with the differential element “indirect parent” forms the meaning of the fourth name - uncle. Replacing the differential element “blood parent” with the differential element “parent by marriage” forms the meaning of the fifth name, which defines a new person, denoted in Russian by the word stepfather. Replacing the differential element “parent in the first generation” with the differential element “parent in the second generation” forms the meaning of the sixth name - grandfather, etc.

2. SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF RELATIONSHIP TERMS

The semantic structure of a word is the semantic structure of the basic unit of vocabulary. “The semantic structure of a word is manifested in its polysemy as the ability, with the help of internally related meanings, to name (designate) various objects (phenomena, properties, qualities, relationships, actions and states). The semantic structure of an unambiguous word comes down to his family composition".

The simplest unit (element) of the semantic structure of a polysemantic word is its lexical-semantic variant (LSV), i.e., a lexical meaning associated with other lexical meanings by certain relationships, the main of which are hierarchical: an expression of the subordination of the dependent lexical meaning of the word to the main one. In the semantic structure of a word, lexical-semantic variants are related to each other due to the commonality of the internal form, their mutual motivation, and deducibility from each other.

To understand the semantic structure of a word, most scientists consider it necessary to distinguish two types of semantic relations of its LSV: “main - particular” and “invariant (general) - variant” meanings.

The basis for distinguishing the main and private meanings (or in other words: the main and private LSV) is the different nature of the interaction of a word in such meanings with the context, i.e., a fragment of text necessary and sufficient to determine one or another meaning of the word. The main meaning is least determined by the context. The word in the main (first in dictionaries) meaning is semantically the simplest in its content and therefore has the widest and freest compatibility with other lexical units. All other meanings of the word (its LSV) act as private ones. In particular meanings, compared to the main word, the word is determined to a much greater extent by the context, adds its elements to itself and is therefore semantically more complex.

The main meaning is called the primary semantic function of the word, and the particular meanings are its secondary semantic functions.

Along with the usual dictionary meanings (main, particular), the semantic structure of a word distinguishes the general meaning as its invariant (from the Latin invarians - unchanging), opposed to variant meanings: this is a coinciding part of the content of all meanings (LSV) of the word, something constant, unchangeable in them . It stands out like a common factor in algebra: ab + ac + ad = = a (b + c + d), is an extremely generalized and semantically simple content and represents a linguistic abstraction useful for the semantic analysis of linguistic units. The relationship of the meanings of a word to its general meaning (i.e., to the general content of all its variants) allows us to establish their semantic hierarchy according to the degree of proximity to it: the central, dominant meanings turn out to be semantically the simplest, the peripheral ones are more complex and therefore further removed from the general ( invariant) meaning of the word than the first. In modern linguistics, isolating the general meaning is a necessary operation when modeling the semantic field and analyzing its units in the lexicographic description of a word.

The structure of stylistically colored words is two-part: it includes a modal component expressing a positive or negative assessment of the denoted ((+) M, (-) M), and the semantic component itself as a linguistic reflection of an object or phenomenon of reality (C); cf.: face [(C)]; high face [(+ M) (C)], e.g. the face of Christ; simple muzzle [(- M)(S)], e.g. stupid, arrogant face (about a person’s face). Stylistically marked words have a general semantic content ( face ) and various evaluative characteristics expressed in dictionaries by stylistic marks.

In a polysemantic word, a stylistically colored LSV acts as a derivative of the main one, realizing the secondary semantic function of the word, and at the same time as a synonym for another, neutral word or expressions. The derived private meaning is correlated in the semantic structure of the word with the main meaning and is motivated by it, while it is also semantically correlated with another word that serves as its interpretation. According to the law of asymmetry of the signifier and the signified in a word, discovered by S.O. Kartsevsky, the semantic structure of a word is both stable, which provides the needs of communication, and mobile, capable of its change and development.

In the semantic structure of a word, certain meanings (LSV) may die out. At the same time, the semantic structure of a word is constantly enriched with new meanings, since a word is a unit of an “open” lexical system.

It should be noted that the system of kinship terms is not only linguistic, but also cultural. Here, the systematicity of extra-linguistic relations ensures the systematicity of linguistic relations.

Kinship relations can be denoted by terms in the literal sense, and also have many other (indirect, metonymic and metaphorical) meanings in Slavic languages.

As already noted, the semantic field of kinship terms includes

terms of consanguinity and terms of property (related to marital relations; related to secondary marriage; related to the death of one of the spouses; related to baptism). Let's start by considering the semantic structure of consanguinity terms.

Note also that the terms of consanguinity, in turn, fall into subgroups. The first subgroup consists of terms of the first degree of kinship in a direct line, which call the blood male parent.

This subgroup is headed by the lexeme father. This lexeme is stylistically neutral; it can be used in any field. The lexeme is characterized by indiscriminate compatibility.

Father. The main, primary meaning of the lexeme is a man towards his children . According to BAS, the semantic structure of this lexeme has 5 derived meanings:

) a male in relation to his offspring (usually about breeding, thoroughbred horses, dogs, etc.);

3) a person who cares for others in a fatherly manner; patron, benefactor.

4) as an address to a man, usually an elderly man

) about the ancestor, the founder of something

) the name of clergy, monks (usually attached to the name or title), as well as an address to them.

In addition, the lexeme father is included as a component in a number of stable combinations:

spiritual father - priest receiving confession (in relation to the person being confessed) . The lexeme with this meaning is used in the church sphere.

Godfather - recipient in relation to those being baptized;

heavenly father - God ;

imprisoned father - replacing the parent of the bride or groom during the wedding ceremony;

father of the family - a man with a family and children;

father mother - parents . This meaning of the lexeme is colloquial.

to be, to succeed, to be ugly, etc. to father - to be like your father;

honest father, holy father - form of address to monks, to persons of the highest clergy (SSRL VIII, 1364-1367).

Stylistically marked names denoting a male blood parent are dad and dad. Each of these words, in turn, served as the basis for the emergence of a number of names, often labeled as a diminutive form of these words. Let's consider the semantic structure of the word dad and its derivatives.

Dad. This lexeme has only one meaning - father and it should be noted that the word dad is the most common name for a blood parent in speech. This word is used only in the oral version of the literary language, i.e. in colloquial speech (SSRL IX, 129-130).

In the modern Russian literary language there is a homonym for the studied lexeme papa - head of the catholic church . This word is used as part of the stable combination pope (USSR IX, 129-130).

Daddy, daddy, daddy. These words have only one meaning, which is used in colloquial affectionate address to the pope (SSRL IX, 131).

Dad. The meaning of the lexeme in colloquial vocabulary is dad . This lexeme also has a derivative meaning in common parlance - about an elderly man (usually in circulation) (SSRL IX, 131). In addition, in the Russian language this lexeme has diminutive forms papa, papashenka (SSRL IX, 131).

Folder. According to BAS, the word is used in common parlance, where it has the same meaning as pope (SSRL IX, 137).

Dad. The primary meaning of the lexeme is father . This lexeme is used only in common speech. In addition to the main one, this lexeme has a derivative meaning:

) priest (SSRL I, 297-298).

My friend. This lexeme is used only as a kind, affectionate or familiar address to someone (SSRL I, 297-298).

Old Man. Meaning of the word - father (with a touch of rough tenderness). This word is used colloquially. In addition to the main one, the word has a derivative meaning - priest, priest (USSR I, 297-298).

Along with the word batka, batko, essentially Ukrainianism, also functions in the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language. The main, primary meaning of the lexeme is during the civil war - leader of a counter-revolutionary gang

) in historical context. In Ukraine - the name of the ataman or chief of an independently operating military unit.

From father comes the lexeme father, which is most often used in common parlance. This lexeme is more common than the producing father. The semantic structure is somewhat more detailed. Firstly, the main meaning father . Secondly, the derived meaning priest, priest . Thirdly, it is used as a familiar, affectionate or kind address to someone . In addition, in pre-revolutionary times this lexeme was used in respectful address to the priest, also to landowners, officials, etc. from people dependent on them . The lexeme father is included as a component in a number of stable combinations:

dear father;

father-in-law.

In common speech and folklore, this lexeme is used as an affectionate epithet or application in relation to the personified natural phenomenon, native places: forest-father, breeze-father.

The results of lexicalization of the prepositional case form of the word batyushka are found in the construction in the batyushka way, which is an adverb and has a meaning by father, by patronymic and in the interjection Father! Fathers and lights! My fathers! and so on. with meaning exclamations expressing amazement, fear ; Also - appeal, call for help (SSRL I, 297-298).

The subgroup naming a female blood parent is headed by the lexeme mother.

Mother. The main, primary meaning of the word is . This word, according to BAS, has derivative meanings:

) the female in relation to her young;

) addressing a female person . This meaning is listed in the dictionary as colloquial.

) the name of the nun or the wife of a clergyman, as well as the address to them (usually attached to the name or title) . This meaning of the word is outdated.

The word mother can be part of stable combinations:

as an application in combinations of woman and mother - a woman with children and a motherland;

mother heroine - honorary title for a woman who has given birth to and raised 10 or more children;

godmother - successor in relation to the baptized;

planted mother - replacing the parent of the bride or groom during the wedding ceremony.

The expression Kuzka's mother stands apart, which is used in the roughly colloquial combination to show someone Kuzka's mother - as an expression of threat.

This word is also a component in the name of a perennial herbaceous plant from the family Asteraceae coltsfoot (SSRL III, 714-715).

Currently, a new system is emerging and being developed, for example, words such as surrogate mother, adoptive mother, donor mother, biological mother, etc. appear. The traditional concept of “mother” no longer fits into the framework of the classical understanding, cf.: single mother, mother-housewife.

Directly derived from mother are the words uterus, matochka.

Uterus. The primary meaning of the word is . According to BAS, this word has 8 derived meanings:

) mother, mother .

) in an artel - a woman serving artel members as a cook or laundress;

4)leader, leader, horse guide . This meaning is figurative. It was formed as a result of metaphorical transfer.

These derived meanings of the word are used in common parlance. Whereas, in the following values

) that which serves to form one’s own kind or to transfer qualities or properties to someone; that which contains something is the basis for something;

) internal organ in women and female viviparous animals in which the embryo develops;

) vessel for servicing submarines, minesweepers, torpedo boats, etc. during their stay . This meaning is given in the dictionary with the mark special.

) same as aircraft . This meaning is also given in the dictionary with the mark special.

) in regional dialects this word can mean compass .

The first three derived meanings of the word are used only in common parlance. Whereas, the other meanings of the word uterus are not stylistically marked. The scope of their use is unlimited. In addition, the word is a component in the stable combination truth-uterus - in common parlance - perfect, true truth (SSRL VI, 704-705).

Uterus. In colloquial speech this lexeme has the following meaning - female of some animals and birds; diminutive form for the word uterus in meaning female - breeder in animals . The second meaning of the word is used colloquially - affectionate address (usually to a female person). The third meaning of this word is that in regional dialects it is a diminutive form of the word uterus (SSRL VI, 707-708).

In modern vocabulary, the most common lexeme to denote a female blood relative is the lexeme mother. Unlike the lexeme dad, the lexeme mom is used in the literary language in both its oral and written forms.

Mother. The primary meaning of this lexeme is mother in meaning woman in relation to her children ; affectionate word for mother (mainly when addressing or mentioning her children); also - the mother of a husband or wife (SSRL VI, 579-580).

The lexeme mom has many derivatives: mama, mamenka, maman, mamanya, mamonka. All of them, as a main thing, sometimes this is the only meaning, matter mother . Only milf is used exclusively in colloquial speech, in addition to its meaning Mother , can be used as a familiar address to an elderly woman.

Mommy. Derivative of mother with a caressing connotation (SSRL VI, 581).

Mamenka - obsolete, refers to colloquial vocabulary, expresses the same meaning as the word Mother in meaning woman in relation to her children , but with a touch of affectionate respect (SSRL VI, 582).

Maman. In its basic meaning this word is obsolete - same as mom in its basic meaning. In the second meaning, also in outdated vocabulary, the word matters - the head of a privileged women's closed educational institution in pre-revolutionary Russia.

Mommy, mommy. In regional dialects - mother (SSRL VI, 581).

Although this is not recorded in the dictionary, our observations show that the word mother is used as an address to both the mother and a non-blood relative, such as the mother-in-law. However, only one term mom is applicable to the mother-in-law, while my own mother You can call it mommy, mommy, mommy, maman, mommy, mommy..

In dialects of the Russian language, according to the observations of researchers, to address the mother-in-law, the lexemes matushka, mamenka are used, then the native mother will be called mother, mama, mamushka, mamka.

Note that in modern Russian there is also the word parents, which is used as a common name for mother and father.

Parents. The primary meaning of this word is father and mother (in relation to children) . In common parlance, the word parents has meaning ancestors. (SSRL X, 1069-1070).

A separate subgroup of the first stage of consanguinity terms consists of the words son and daughter.

Son. The main, primary meaning of the lexeme is a male person in relation to his parents . In outdated folk poetic speech, this lexeme was used between the name and patronymic. And Ilya and son Ivanovich. In the Middle Ages, this meaning of the word was characteristic of business writing and was used in official papers in the meaning of a patronymic.

In the same meaning, this lexeme is used in the church sphere:

spiritual son - a) a male person in relation to his permanent confessor ; b) godson . godson - a male person in relation to those who baptized him . This lexeme has a number of derived meanings:

) younger generation, immediate descendants.

) (usually in circulation).

) a male person belonging to any class.

) , son of nature, nature - about a person who has not been exposed to civilization, distinguished by the spontaneity of expressing his feelings.

In its basic meaning, this lexeme is used as a plural form - sons, in the meaning younger generation, immediate descendants , a male person in relation to his confessor or a person of clergy rank , a male person belonging to any class and in meaning a person as a native, resident of a country or locality has the shape of sons. From son there are derivatives son, son.

Little son. The main, primary meaning of the word is a male person in relation to his parents And a male person in relation to his confessor or a person of clergy rank (usually in circulation). This word also has a derivative meaning:

) is used in outdated vocabulary as a derogatory reference to a son in the meaning a person as a native, resident of a country or locality.

Son. The main, primary meaning of the word is diminutive form for the lexeme son in the meaning a male person in relation to his parents And a male person in relation to his confessor or a person of clergy rank (usually in circulation). This word has a derivative meaning:

) is used as a derogatory reference to a son in the meaning a male person in relation to his parents and meaning a person as a native, resident of a country or locality . In this meaning, this lexeme is part of the phraseological unit mama's boy, which means: a) a son who is very similar to his mother; b) humorous, ironic - about a spoiled, pampered boy, a young man.

In addition, the lexeme son is included as a component in a number of stable combinations:

)bastard son a male person in relation to the father, born out of wedlock.

2)imprisoned son - the groom in relation to the persons replacing his parents during the wedding ceremony.

)adopted, named, betrothed son - person in relation to the persons who adopted him . In this meaning, the lexeme is part of the combination prodigal son (from the Gospel parable) - who left his parental home and after wandering, having squandered the property received from his father in a vicious life, returned to him with repentance.

fit to be someone's son - to be of age to be the son of someone (SSRL XIV, 1353-1355).

Daughter - a female person in relation to her father and mother . This lexeme can be used in the form dochka - this form is colloquially used as an affectionate address by an elderly or old person to a girl or young woman.

In addition, the lexeme daughter has derivatives: daughter, daughter, daughter, daughter, daughter, as well as obsolete forms daughter and daughter (SSRL III, 1077-1078).

Children. The main, primary meaning of the lexeme is minors; boys, girls; Guys . This lexeme has a derived meaning immediate descendants; sons, daughters.

In addition, the lexeme children has a figurative meaning - people who are characteristic representatives of any environment, era, etc. . It was formed as a result of metaphorical transfer. The lexeme children has derivatives: detki, detochki, kiddies, detushki (SSRLYa,).

In modern Russian literary language, a term is used that is used both to designate a son and a daughter - child. In turn, this term has outdated forms child and child.

Child. The primary meaning of the word is boy or girl at an early age . In addition to the main one, this word has a derivative meaning - son or daughter (usually infants or minors) . In addition, the word child forms the diminutive form baby. In common parlance, this word has the form detenok, detenochek. (SSRL X, 845-847).

Child. The main meaning of the word is younger boy or girl, small child . This lexeme has one derived meaning: young son or daughter.

In addition, the lexeme child has a figurative meaning, formed as a result of metaphorical transfer - a person who is a characteristic representative of any environment, era, etc. . The lexeme child as a component is part of the stable combination child of nature - about a person close to nature, direct . In common parlance, this lexeme is used in the form dityo or dityatko. As a term of endearment, the lexeme child is used in the form detka, detochka (SSRL III, 356-358).

Brainchild. The main meaning of the word is young son or daughter . It is usually used colloquially. This word also has a figurative meaning - about creation, the fruit of some activity, work, etc. (SSRL III, 289-290).

Child. The primary meaning of the word is child; son or daughter . This word is also used when a clergyman addresses a junior in rank or the laity. The plural is used in the expression spiritual children - flock, parishioners in relation to the confessor . The derivative meaning of the word is the generation of something (era, environment, some influences, etc.) . This meaning is figurative. It was formed as a result of metaphorical transfer (SSRL XVII, 741-742).

Let's move on to consider the next subgroup of consanguinity terms. This group consists of words of the second degree of kinship: grandfather, woman, grandson, granddaughter, great-grandfather, great-grandmother, great-grandson, great-granddaughter.

Grandfather. The main, primary meaning of the word is father's father or mother's father . This word has a derivative meaning - old man, old man . In common parlance, this word is used as an address to an old man. This word is a derivative of the words grandfather, grandfather.

Grandfather. The meaning of the lexeme coincides with the meaning of the lexeme grandfather in the meaning father's father or mother's father and meaning old man, old man.

Grandfather. This lexeme is used in derogatory and affectionate reference to the word grandfather in the meaning father's father or mother's father and meaning old man, old man V colloquial vocabulary(SSRL III, 643-645).

In addition, the word grandfather is included as a component in a number of stable combinations: grandfather-owner, as well as grandfather-fisherman, Father Frost. In the outdated combination of a farcical grandfather, which matters funny comedian dressed up as an old man in farc theaters . The lexeme grandfather in the plural is used as a component of the expressions fathers and grandfathers, grandfathers and great-grandfathers - people who lived in the old days; ancestors.

Woman. The main meaning of the word is colloquially , in outdated vocabulary the word has a different meaning and is used only in the plural in the expression men, women - about peasants . This word has, according to BAS, 6 derived meanings:

2) wife, yours, mine, etc. woman . In this meaning, the word is used in regional dialects and in common parlance.

) about women in general . In this case, the word has a connotation of disdain.

) figurative meaning formed as a result of metaphorical transfer - about a man of weak, indecisive character, timid, effeminate, etc. , given value The word is also used in comparison.

) same as grandma . In Russian folk tales, this word is a component in the combination of once upon a time a grandfather and a woman.

) human figure made of snow . Combined stone women - ancient stone idols found in many areas of southeastern Europe and partly in Asia . This is an archaeological term.

) in zoology a) baba, baba bird - pelican ; b) blue or green dragonfly, otherwise: rocker ; V) obsolete barren queen bee . Indian summer is a short time at the beginning of autumn with clear, warm weather.

In addition, the lexeme baba is included as a component in a number of stable combinations:

fight-woman, grab-woman, well done-woman - about a determined, energetic woman.

folded: Baba Yaga - evil sorceress, cannibal (SSRL I, 232-235).

Grandmother. The main meaning of the lexeme is father's or mother's mother (in relation to their children, their grandchildren). The common meaning of this lexeme is about an older relative . This lexeme has a derived meaning:

) is colloquially used to mean elderly woman, old woman.

) in outdated vocabulary - midwife, midwife ; healer, healer ; fortune teller - fortune teller.

In addition, the lexeme is included as a component in a number of stable combinations:

In expressions, sayings: a grandmother casts a spell on someone - everything works out . Grandma said in two - it is not known yet . Don't go to grandma - that's right

The main name for mother, father or mother in modern Russian is the word grandmother. Babushka is essentially an affectionate derivative of baba. The word baba can also be used to refer to the mother of a father or mother, but in one of its derivative meanings. The main meaning married woman (usually about a peasant woman) . In addition to babushka, babka is also produced from baba.

Grandma. The primary meaning of the word is married woman , old woman (mainly in relation to a peasant woman). In addition to the main meaning, the word has a derivative meaning:

) in outdated vocabulary and regional dialects - a woman providing assistance during pregnancy and childbirth; midwife . Midwife - official title in the 19th century. for persons who have received special training and the right to engage in obstetric care ; healer, healer (SSRL I, 232-235).

We emphasize once again: the most used in the general sense father's or mother's parents nowadays are the terms grandparent.

Grandson. The main meaning of this word son of a daughter or son . This word also has a figurative meaning, formed as a result of metaphorical transfer. In this case, it is used only in the plural and has the meaning descendants . In addition, this word forms a diminutive form: grandson, granddaughter (SSRL I, 610).

Granddaughter. The meaning of this lexeme son's or daughter's daughter . Just like the word grandson, the lexeme granddaughter forms a number of derivative words: granddaughter, granddaughter (SSRL I, 610-611).

The subgroup of terms of the second degree of kinship, denoting relatives in a direct line, also includes the words great-grandfather, great-grandmother, great-grandson, great-granddaughter.

Great-grandfather. The meaning of this word grandparent's father . This word has a derivative great-grandfather.

Great-grandmother. The lexeme great-grandmother is used in the meaning grandparent's mother.

According to Dahl's dictionary, the terms great-grandfather and great-grandmother can be used together in the plural - great-grandfathers, great-grandmothers, in which case these terms have meaning ancestors (Dal III, 377).

Great-grandson. The meaning of this word is grandson's son . The word can be used in the plural - great-grandchildren, then it has a meaning descendants . The word forms the diminutive great-granddaughter (SSRL XI, 25).

Great-granddaughter - daughter of a grandson or granddaughter . This lexeme has the obsolete form of great-grandson (SSRL XI, 25).

The words great-grandson and great-granddaughter have the common name great-grandchildren. The word great-grandchildren, in turn, forms the diminutive derivatives great-grandchildren (SSRL XI, 25).

Consider the following subgroup of consanguinity terms. It consists of lexemes denoting kinship along a lateral branch.

Brother. The main, primary meaning of the lexeme is each of the sons having common parents in relation to another son or daughter . According to BAS, this word has three derived meanings:

2) in expressions, brother - with a common father and mother;

) in common parlance the word is used as a form of friendly or familiar address to someone.

) in the church sphere - member of a religious brotherhood, monk , members of Masonic lodges.

The use of the word as part of combinations allows us to clarify the nature of the relationship:

brother - with a common father and mother;

step-brother - with a stepfather or stepmother;

half brother - with a common father;

half brother - with a common mother;

cousin - the son of an uncle or aunt in relation to the son of their brother or sister;

great-brother - son of a great uncle; second cousin;

In addition, the lexeme brother is used in negative expressions: not your brother - about someone, something hostile, difficult, cruel ; he's not even a brother - he thinks a lot about himself, despises everyone , in colloquial expression - to brother, from brother - for each individual person, for one person, from one person ; neither matchmaker nor brother - a stranger .

Common expressions are brother, brothers in the fatherland (homeland), by nationality - compatriot ; brothers in service, profession, occupation, etc.; brothers by class, social status, brothers by upbringing, way of thinking, social activities - comrades, like-minded people . In common parlance it can be used in combinations: yours, ours, your brother - a person who is similar, close in social status, worldview, etc.; like . Derivations from the word brother are: brother, brother, brother, bro.

Brother. The primary meaning of the lexeme is a diminutive form when addressing a brother in the meaning . This word has a derivative meaning: in common parlance it is a form of friendly or familiar address to a comrade, friend. In Russian folk tales the expression brother-wolf is often found.

Brother, brother. The meaning of these lexemes is the diminutive colloquial form of the word brother in the meaning each of the sons having common parents, in relation to another son or sister . The lexeme brother has a derivative meaning - friend, comrade.

Bro. The meaning of the lexeme is a diminutive colloquial form of the lexeme brother in the meaning of a friendly or familiar address to a comrade, friend.

According to the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language at the beginning of the 21st century, the lexeme bratok has currently acquired the meaning gang member and is used in the criminal sphere.

Bro. The main meaning of the lexeme is in regional dialects and dialects - brother or cousin . In the lexicon of young people it is currently important friend, buddy.

Brother. In common parlance - the same as little brother (SSRL I, 607-610).

Sister. The primary meaning of the lexeme is . The use of the word as part of combinations allows us to clarify the nature of the relationship:

cousin - uncle or aunt's daughter

second cousin - daughter of a great uncle or great aunt . half-sister - paternal sister

stepsister - sister by stepfather or stepmother . In this combination, the lexeme is also used in a figurative meaning - about a woman who is close, loving, spiritually related . This is the result of metaphorical transfer.

This word has a derivative meaning:

2)about a woman united with someone by common interests, aspirations, and common position.

)person of nursing staff in medical institutions . In the expression nurse; elder sister - a nurse whose duties include supervising paramedical and junior medical personnel , sister of mercy - in pre-revolutionary Russia the same as a nurse.

) about a nun .

The lexeme sister forms a number of derivative words: sister, sister.

Sister. In colloquial speech this is an address to a sister meaning daughter of the same parents in relation to their other children . This word has a derivative meaning: young sister, girl sister.

Sister. The meaning of the lexeme is sister in meaning young sister, girl sister (SSRL XIII, 721-723).

Uncle. The main meaning of the lexeme is father's or mother's brother, aunt's husband . This word has one derivative meaning: when addressing an adult man.

Uncle - in common parlance, this is a derogatory term for uncle when addressing an adult man. Derived meaning of the word: in outdated vocabulary - a person assigned to supervise the boy; pestun . In pre-revolutionary times - minister in men's educational institutions ; non-commissioned officer, senior soldier, who was entrusted with a recruit for single training.

Uncle, uncle, uncle. The main meaning of the words is affectionate address to uncle (in the main and derivative meaning) (SSRL III, 1216-1217).

Aunt. Primary meaning of the lexeme sister of father or mother in relation to nephews; uncle's wife in relation to his nephews . This word has a derivative meaning:

2) in common parlance - about every adult woman (SSRL XV, 405-406).

Aunt. The main, primary meaning of the word is same as aunt in the primary meaning in combination with a proper name (usually with a diminutive form of a proper name). Derived meanings of the word aunt are:

2) about a middle-aged woman I know (only in combination with a proper name).

) in the speech of children - about every woman (SSRL XV, 410-411).

Nephew - son of a brother or sister . This word is used in expressions:

dear nephew - son sibling or sister;

cousin-nephew - son of a first cousin;

second cousin - son of a second cousin;

great-great-nephew - grandson of a brother or sister.

The word nephew has the diminutive form niece (SSRLYA IX, 1368).

Niece - brother or sister's daughter . This lexeme is used in expressions:

dear niece - daughter of a sibling;

cousin - first cousin's daughter;

second cousin - daughter of a second cousin;

grand-niece, great-niece - granddaughter of a brother or sister . The lexeme niece is used in the diminutive forms niece, nephew (SSRL IX, 1368).

Let us move on to consider the semantic structure of a group of property terms associated with marital relations. The group is headed by the lexeme husband. This lexeme is stylistically neutral; it can be used both in the literary language and in its oral version, i.e. in colloquial speech.

Husband. The main, primary meaning of the lexeme is . In a playful expression, the country husband - the head of the family, burdened with the need to deliver purchases from the city to the dacha . This lexeme has derived meanings:

)usually in solemn speech. A man in adulthood.

)a figure in some social or scientific field. Maybe

used in the expression husband of science, reason.

Hubby. In colloquial vocabulary - affectionate address to husband in meaning a man in relation to the woman married to him.

Man. In common parlance, this word refers to terms of kinship and has the meaning husband, spouse (USSR VI, 1339-1340).

Another way to express meaning a man in relation to a woman married to him - the word spouse (USSR XIV, 1207).

In addition, in common parlance a lexeme with an ironic connotation is used: spouse (SSRL XIV, 1208).

Wife. The main, primary meaning of the lexeme is ; in the expression husband's wife in common parlance - married woman . The second meaning of this lexeme is obsolete - same as a woman . (SSRL IV, 74). The lexeme has a number of derivatives: wifey, little wife, little wife.

Zhenenka - in colloquial speech - a disparaging form of the word wife in the meaning married woman (in relation to her husband).

Wife. In colloquial speech same as wife in its basic meaning.

Wifey. In common parlance, an affectionate address to a wife meaning married woman (in relation to her husband) (SSRL IV, 74).

Note that just like the lexeme husband, the word wife has another way of expressing meaning married woman (in relation to her husband) , which is more often used in literary language, is the word spouse. (SSRL XIV, 1207-1208).

Spouse. In common parlance married woman (in relation to her husband) (SSRL XIV, 1207-1208).

In modern Russian, special terms are used to refer to the parents of a husband or wife: father-in-law and mother-in-law.

Father-in-law. The word is used in only one meaning husband's father . No derivatives are recorded. The exception is the lexeme mother-in-law (SSRL XIII, 293).

Snokhach - father-in-law having sexual intercourse with daughter-in-law (SSRL XIII, 1513). This lexeme is obsolete; currently it is used only in some dialects.

Mother-in-law. Just like the word father-in-law, the lexeme mother-in-law has only one meaning husband's mother . This lexeme has a diminutive derivative svekrovushka (SSRL XIII, 293-294).

Father-in-law. This word is used in a single meaning wife's father (SSRL XVII, 1615).

Mother-in-law - wife's mother (SSRL XV, 431-432).

Both father-in-law and mother-in-law have one affectionate derivative, father-in-law and mother-in-law.

There are special words in modern Russian to designate the parents of a wife or husband in relation to each other. These are the words matchmaker and matchmaker.

Matchmaker. The main, primary meaning of this word is a person who matches the groom to the bride or the bride to the groom . The semantic structure of this word also has a derivative meaning:

the father or relative of one of the spouses in relation to the parents or relatives of the other spouse . In colloquial speech, this lexeme can take the form svatok, svatochek, svatushka (SSRL XIII, 271).

Matchmaker. In the first meaning - female form for the word matchmaker . In a derivative meaning - the same as matchmaker (mother or relative of one of the spouses in relation to the parents or relatives of the other spouse) . In colloquial speech this word can take the form svakhonka, svashenka (SSRL XIII, 273).

It should be noted that although the terms matchmaker and matchmaker in the main meaning refer to the person who matches the groom to the bride or the bride to the groom, the second meaning of these words has now been updated, namely the meaning parents or relatives of one of the spouses in relation to the parents or relatives of the other spouse.

Son-in-law - daughter's husband . Used in the expression son-in-law to take, accept; to become a son-in-law - accept the wife's parents into the family; live with the wife's parents' family . In a derivative meaning - sister's husband ; sister-in-law's husband .

Zyatyushka is an affectionate form of addressing one’s son-in-law (SSRL IV, 1364).

The son's wife in Russian can be indicated by different words. The more common word today is daughter-in-law. A less common word is daughter-in-law.

Daughter-in-law - a married woman in relation to her husband's relatives: father, mother, brothers, sisters, brothers' wives and sisters' husbands . This word is part of the expression for daughter-in-law in revenge (to do something) - repay an insult with an insult.

Bride-in-law - colloquially an affectionate form of addressing one’s daughter-in-law (SSRL VII, 736).

Daughter-in-law - son's wife .

Sexy. In colloquial vocabulary, an affectionate address to a daughter-in-law (SSRL XIII, 1511-1513).

In addition, a number of special words have been preserved in the modern Russian literary language, which are the designations of wife's brother, husband's brother, husband's sister, wife's sister. Unfortunately, these words are rarely used today. Their exact meaning is unclear to many native speakers. These words are replaced by the words daughter-in-law-son-in-law or the phrases brother of the wife, brother of the husband, sister of the wife, sister of the husband.

Brother-in-law - wife's brother .

Shurinok is an affectionate form of the word brother-in-law (SSRL XVII, 1615).

brother-in-law - husband's brother (SSRL III, 631).

Sister-in-law - husband's sister .

Cinderella is an affectionate form of addressing one's sister-in-law. The word is used in colloquial speech (SSRL IV, 1311).

Brother-in-law. The main meaning of the lexeme is sister-in-law's husband . In its derivative meaning, this lexeme is used in colloquial speech in the meaning the same as a relative - a person who is related to someone , and also matters your loved one . This word has the diminutive form svojachok (SSRL XIII, 450).

Sister-in-law - wife's sister (SSRL XIII, 451).

According to Dahl's dictionary, there is another name - svestya, svestya - the same as the sister-in-law (Dal IV, 148).

Let's consider the property terms associated with secondary marriage.

Stepfather - stepfather, mother's husband in relation to her children from a previous marriage (SSRL VIII, 1696).

Stepmother - the father's wife in relation to her children from another marriage; stepmother . In a figurative meaning, which was formed as a result of metaphorical transfer - about someone, something hostile, causing trouble (SSRL VI, 726-727).

Despite the fact that stepfather and stepmother have the same meanings, distinguished only by gender, unlike the word stepfather, the lexeme stepmother more often has a disparaging connotation.

Stepson - step-son of one of the spouses, related to the other . In a figurative meaning, which was formed as a result of metaphorical transfer - about someone unloved, deprived of help and support . This lexeme is also used in outdated vocabulary with the meaning princely warrior of boyar origin in ancient Rus'.

In addition to the lexeme stepson, Dahl’s dictionary contains the word groom, which is not used in modern vocabulary.

I'm getting married. According to Dahl's dictionary, - wife's son, illegitimate, illegitimate son (Dal I, 534).

According to BAS, the lexeme stepson has a homonym - lateral shoot of a plant developing in the axils of the leaves of the main stem ; a branch located at a slight angle to the axis of the tree trunk (SSRL IX, 279-280).

Stepdaughter - the stepdaughter of one of the spouses, who is the relative of the other (SSRL IX, 829).

In the modern Russian literary language, there is a small group of property terms associated with the death of one of the spouses. These are the words widower and widow.

Widower - a man living celibately after the death of his wife (SSRL II, 97).

Widow - a woman living celibately after the death of her husband . In the expression straw widow - about a woman who is not living or is separated from her husband (usually joking). In the term black widow - view poisonous spiders, common in America (SSRL II, 96-97).

Let us consider the last group of property terms that are associated with baptism.

Godson - godson (USSR V, 1637);

Goddaughter - goddaughter (SSRL V, 1637);

Godfather The main, primary meaning of the word is godfather in relation to the parents of the godson and godmother; the child's father in relation to the godfather and godmother . In outdated and colloquial vocabulary this word can be used in the following meaning - meaning of addressing an older man . This word is used with an ironic meaning - about a friend who provides patronage in service or in anything else (SSRL V, 1832).

Kuma. Meaning of the word - godmother in relation to the godson's parents and godfather; the child's mother in relation to the godfather and godmother . In outdated and colloquial vocabulary, this lexeme can have two derived meanings:

)as an address to an elderly woman;

3)an elderly woman who is in a friendly relationship with someone, as well as in an extramarital affair . In addition, this lexeme is an epithet of a fox in Russian folk tales.

Kumanek, kumanka. These words are colloquial, they are affectionate forms for the lexemes kum and kuma (SSRL V, 1833).

A separate subgroup of terms included in the many terms of kinship and property are the words descendant and ancestor, which can name any relative in any tribe, along any branch. However, it should be noted that both the descendant and the ancestor express only consanguinity.

Descendant. Meaning of the word - a person descended by birth from someone, a person in relation to his ancestors . Also, this word is used only in the plural and has the meaning - people of future generations . In colloquial speech - about a son, heir (USSR X, 1623).

Ancestor. The main meaning of the lexeme is a person who is a predecessor in a family, clan, tribe in the paternal or maternal ascending line . In its derivative meaning, the lexeme is used in the plural and has the meaning people who lived long before the present time . This lexeme can also be used in the meaning - about animals, fish, plants (SSRL XI, 138).

GENETIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATIONSHIP FIELD UNITS

Father. The lexeme father is common Slavic. Correspondences for Russian father are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian. ote ?ts, blr. aytsets, old-slav. father, bulg. ote ?c, Serbohorvian O ?tats, Slovenian. o? ?e, o ??e ?t a (from the sound *ot ?e), Czech., Slvts. Otes, Polish ojсieс - all with the same meaning as the Russian father.

This lexeme is of Proto-Slavic origin. Praslav. *ots? otъкъ - suffixal derivative from *otъ father , which is assumed on the basis of other Russian, Tslav. fuck father's . For the Slavic lexeme, parallels are found in other Indo-European languages: Greek. ? ???, lat. atta, goth. atta, alb. at, Hittite. atta ? - everything is in meaning father , Irish aite in meaning guardian, educator . According to researchers, this is a common lexeme in children's speech. In the Slavic language it replaced I.-e. *R? t?r (Vasmer III, 170).

Stepfather. This lexeme, like father, is one of the common Slavic ones. Correspondences for the Russian stepfather are also found in other Slavic languages: Ukrainian. Vitchim, blr. Aychym, Baltic-Slovinsk vоicim, vоtсim, Polish. dial ojcim.

Researchers believe that the suffix -im- in the lexeme stepfather is of verbal origin. However, regarding the stepfather, it would be more correct to conclude that it is of an analogous formation, perhaps modeled after the brother-in-law, since the original verb for the independent formation of the stepfather is absent. Further, according to researchers, the Russian word changed its original emphasis: ó stepfather instead of fatherfather ú m, wed. accents of other formations with -im of the Russian language (sycophant ú m, brother ú m). In this sense, the testimony of the Ukrainian, which retained the old accent: wich ú m. From non-Slavic languages, this may include such suffixal formations of Lithuanian as the adjectives svet-imas stranger , art-imas close , Also art-ymas, art-ymas . It is formed similarly with the suffix -im- Middle Bolg. we'll spare you.

Dad. This word is common Slavic. Parallels are found in other East Slavic languages: Ukrainian. pa ?pa, blr. dad.

This is a word of children's speech, of Indo-European origin. Formed by doubling the syllable pa. Correspondences for this word also exist outside of the Slavic languages: Greek. ?????, lat. R ?ra, rarra, french. rara (Vasmer III, 200).

Dad. Common Slavic lexeme. Diminutive form (with loss of r and softening of t) from *bratrъ. Correspondences for Russian dad are found in a number of Slavic languages: Ukrainian. daddy, blr. Father, Bulgarian Bascha, Serbian bashta.

Initially, dad was an intimate address to an older brother, then to a father (Vasmer I, 169).

Mother. The Indo-European name for mother is *mater, a form common to all Indo-European languages and unmatched among related terminologies in terms of breadth of distribution.

The older period of Indo-European comparative linguistics is still characterized by attempts to give the etymology of *mater in the same way as *p?ter: Old Indian. matár? m A - produce, create , i.e. mother - producer , creator , parent . The new period of linguistics is characterized by the recognition of the unprovability of etymological attempts of this kind, but already from Delbrück there has been a tendency to elevate *mater to the primitive formation of “baby talk” ma-.

The lexeme mother is common Slavic. Correspondences for Russian mother are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian. ma ?you, mother, blr. m á ci (undeclined), m á tka, old glory mother, Bulgarian ma ?you, ma ?ter, Serbohorv. ma?ti, Slovenian. ma?ti , Czech ma?ti , slvts. mat?, v.-luzh. mac? , n.-luzh. mas - all with the same meaning as Russian mother . For this Slavic lexeme, parallels are found in other non-Slavic languages: ltsh. ma?te, lit. m o?tin a, other ind. m?t? (m?ta ?r-) , Avest. m?tar- , Armenian mair, Greek ?????, lat. m ?ter, m ?tr ?x, irl. m ?thir in meaning mother , lit. mo?te ?, in meaning woman , alb. motre? in meaning sister (Trubachev, 26; Vasmer II, 565).

Mother. The word mother is common Slavic. Parallels for Russian mama are found in other Slavic languages: Ukrainian, Blair, Bulgarian, Serbo-Horvian. mother, Slovenian, Czech, Slavic, Polish, V.-Luz. mama - all with the same meaning as Russian mama .

A word from a children's language. Formed by repeating the syllable ma-. For this Slavic word, correspondences are found outside the Slavic languages: Eastern-Lit. moma, lit., ltsh. mama, other Indian m?t? (m?ta ?r-) , Greek ?????, lat. mamma, French maman (Trubachev, 26; Vasmer II, 565).

Stepmother. This word is common Slavic. Parallels for Russian stepmother are found in other Slavic languages: Serb. Mashtecha, Ukrainian motherfucker, blr. machakha, machykha, Polish. macocha, Slovenian maceha, Serbian ma?eha, Bulgarian mashekha - all with the same meaning as the Russian stepmother. The listed words go back to *matjexa, the common Slavic name for stepmother, the most common in Slavic languages.

The formation *matjexa is very ancient in its form; it is described by researchers as *mat-ies-a, where mat- is associated with slav. *mati, ? mate mother and *-ies-Indo-European suffix comparative degree. Thus, *mat-ies-a - mother-like . For all its antiquity, *mat-ies-a is a purely Slavic formation. It is hardly correct from a historical point of view to single out one -kha in a word as a suffix. The original meaning of *matjexa can only be judged on the basis of the morphological analysis outlined above: it is a formation with a comparative degree suffix, presumably meaning like a mother (Trubachev, 27-29).

Parent. The lexeme parent is formed from the verb to give birth (to give birth) using the suffix -tel-. The lexeme parents is the plural form of the word parent. The use of the plural form in other Russian, Old Slav. to designate father and mother is explained by the fact that this plural form originally extended to a number of ancestors, similar to Lat. parents, Greek ??????, ?????? (Vasmer III, 492).

Son. The word son is common Slavic. To designate a son, the Slavic language has the ancient term synъ, dating back to *s ?n?s - the name of a son common to a number of Indo-European languages. Initial i.e. *s ?n?-s has that rare feature among Indo-European kinship terms that its etymology has long been clarified and accepted by everyone without exception: *s ?n?s from I.-e. *seu-, *s ?- beget . These include: st.-slav. son, Ukrainian sin, blr, son, Polish. syn, Czech syn, Slovak syn, Slovenian sin, Serbian sin, bolg. sin - all with the same meaning as the Russian son.

Outside of Slavic languages, this word also has parallels in other Indo-European languages: Lit. sinus, Avest. hinu-, goth. sunus (Trubachev, 37-49; Vasmer III, 817-818).

Stepson. The names of stepson are, like all other terms of step-kinship, exclusively new words. The originality of the Slavic designations for stepson is expressed in their diversity. So, genetically only one of them goes back to o.-slav. *synъ: pasynъkъ - a form that also has a common Slavic character. True, along with it, in the same meaning, other, completely original formations appear in the Slavic languages: pastorъkъ, paserbъ, also derived from very ancient morphemes. Slav. *rasupъkъ, which goes back to ancient Russian. stepson and Russian. stepson, Ukrainian stepson great-great-grandson , stepson , Art.-Polish pasynek in the two meanings mentioned, Bulgarian. pasinche.

For the Slavic stepson, a non-Slavic correspondence is found: Lithuanian. posunis stepson formed from the same morphemes - the prefix ra- and i.-e. *s?n?s (Trubachev, 49-50).

Daughter. The lexeme daughter is common Slavic. Parallels for Russian daughter are found in all groups of Slavic languages: St.-Slav Dashti, Ukrainian. daughter, blr. dacha, Polish сora, сorка, Czech. dcera, Slovenian hci, hcere, Serbian k?i, etc.

This lexeme is of Indo-European origin. The modern form was formed from *dъkti, ъ? O; kt? h, unstressed i has disappeared. For this Slavic lexeme, non-Slavic correspondences are found: lit. dukte? ?, d ?kra ?,other Prussian duckti, other Indian duhit? ?, Avest. dug?dar-, Armenian dustr, Greek ???????, Goth. d au?htar - all in the same meaning as the Russian lexeme daughter (Trubachev, 50-58; Vasmer I, 533).

Stepdaughter. This lexeme has correspondences in other Slavic languages: Bulgarian. step-daughter, slap in the meaning stepdaughter . This is a fairly ancient lexeme. It is known outside the East Slavic languages: Lithuanian. podukre, pod?kra, podukra .

Old Slav. padeshteritsa - prefix-suffix formation from ancient Russian. Daughter, Daughter? accusative case form (Trubachev, 58).

Child. The original form was *orbe?, from which Old Russian. rob? ? reb?. Russian *reb- is derived from *rob- as a result of vowel assimilation. Related words, formed from the same root are the words slave, work (Trubachev, 34-37).

Child. The lexeme child is common Slavic. Parallels for the Russian child are found in other Slavic languages: Ukrainian. child ?, blr. dzitsia, old glory d?ti, bolg. children ?, Serbohorvian dije ?those Slovenian de? ?te , Czech di?te ?, slvts. diet"a, Polish dziecie? - all with the same meaning as the Russian child.

This lexeme is of Proto-Slavic origin. Praslav. *de?te?. *de?tь was reconstructed as a prototype for it. In addition, the Proto-Slavic language had a paradigmatic variant to *de?te? - *de?tь. This is evidenced by the lexeme children, which is the plural form of *de?tь. The form with -i- in the first syllable is exclusively Eastern Slavic, probably the result of the assimilation of *d?tina. Although, in our opinion, this is, rather, the consolidation of the Northern Russian pronunciation of this lexeme as a normative one. In many northern dialects of the Russian language? ? and, not e. These words go back to I.-e. *dh?i ? in meaning breastfeed, suck (Vasmer I, 516).

Child. The word child is common Slavic. Parallels for the Russian child are also found in other Slavic languages: Ukrainian. cha ?do in the same meaning as the Russian child, blr. child ?in meaning evil child, stubborn , old glory h?do, bolg. what ?before in meaning child , Serbohorvian what? up, Czech. old ?ad, ?a ?d - boy, youth.

Praslav before. ?e ?do was considered by everyone to be borrowed from Germanic languages. This point of view can be challenged on the grounds that this is the only example where ?-corresponds to germ. k- before front vowels (usually s-, cf. st.-slav. ts?ta). Therefore, recently they have accepted kinship with the beginning, beginning, end (Vasmer IV, 310-311).

Descendant. The lexeme is a descendant of the common Slavic one. Correspondences for Russian descendant are found in all Slavic languages: Bulgarian. descendant, descendant, Czech. rotomek, slvts. rotomok, Polish rotomek with the same meaning as the Russian descendant.

This lexeme is of Proto-Slavic origin. Praslav. *rotomъkъ is formed from the adverb *rotomъ, which in turn is a prefix derivative of * tomь (i.e. after that) (Vasmer III, 345).

Grandfather. The word grandfather is common Slavic. Parallels for the Russian grandfather are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian. did, blr. dzed, st.-slav. d?d, bulg. da ?before, Serbohorv. dje?d, Slovenian. de? ?d , Czech de?d, slvts. ded, Polish dziad, v.-luzh. dz?e ?d, n.-luzh . z?e ?d - all with the same meaning as the Russian grandfather.

According to researchers, this is a word in children's language, like papa and baba.

Further ascending degree of kinship is indicated in Slavic for the most part by the addition * d?d ъ with the prefix *рра-?и.-е. *pro- before : o.-slav. pradedъ, old glory. prad?d, ukr. Pradid, Polish pradziad, Czech Praded, Slovenian Praded, Serbian great-grandfather, npadjed, great-ed, bulg. great-grandfather (Trubachev, 43-46).

Woman. The lexeme Baba is common Slavic. Correspondences for Russian baba are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian. ba ?bah, blr. baba, bulg. ba ?ba, Serbohorv. ba?ba, Slovenian. ba?ba , Czech ba?ba , Polish baba - all with the same meaning as the Russian baba.

Slav. baba is fairly unanimously interpreted by researchers as the original word of baby talk. In Russian, the derivative form babushka, formed with the suffix -ushk-, is popular. The expression of increasing degrees of kinship is similar to what is known for grandfather: Slovenian. prababa, Serbian great-grandmother, Bulgarian great-grandmother, Serbian chukumbaba, shukunbaba, n.-luzh. staromas (Vasmer I, 99).

Grandson. The word grandson is common Slavic. Parallels for Russian grandson are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian. he ?k, blr. Unuk, Bulgarian grandson, mnuk, Serbohorv. at ?nuk, slovenian. vnu?k , Czech vnuk, slvts. vnuk, Polish wnuk - all with the same meaning as the Russian grandson.

Formed using suf. *ukъ from ъn-, sound combinations from baby babble, similar to the sound combinations ma-, pa-, ot-. Initially - *ъnukъ, the sound v in anlaut is a prosthesis that developed here during the period of activation of the law of open syllables. For Slavic *vъnukъ correspondences are found in other Indo-European languages: Lit. anukas. The word *vъnukъ is a generative word for the word *vъnu ?ьka, formed using the suffix *-ьk(a).

Further descending degrees of kinship are indicated by the same means as for the ascending one, that is, by adding the prefix *pra-: Polish. praunuk, praprawnek, Slovenian. prdvniik; phonetic deviations - Bulgarian. dial paraunuk. Etymologically, pra- in this addition does not make sense, it is taken from the addition * prad?d ъ (I.-e. *pro- before , i.e. before, older).

There are various semantic and formal connections between the names of opposite degrees of kinship, in particular the names of grandfather and grandson. Meaning grandson , quite probably, is not very ancient and arose after the change of the classification system to the descriptive system of kinship. Really, grandson described in its relation to the grandfather, while in more ancient times, under the clan system, there was no need for such a term, since the grandson could be considered the same son grandfather, like the latter's real son. Thus, grandson And grandfather in the proper sense of the word - relatively late terms. However, both names could be formed from ancient morphemes (Trubachev, 26-28).

Brother. The lexeme brother is common Slavic. Correspondences for the Russian brother are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian, Blr. brother, senior slav. brother, brother, Serbohorv. brother, Slovenian. bra?t , Czech bratr, Polish brat, v.-luzh. bratr, n.-luzh. b rat? - with the same meaning as the Russian brother.

This lexeme is of Indo-European origin. Ancient stem on -er: the form *bratъ, according to researchers, is dissimilated from *bratrъ. For the Slavic lexeme, parallels are found with a similar meaning outside the Slavic languages: Old Prussian. br?ti in meaning brothers , lit. brother? ?-lis , ltsh. b r?tar?tis in meaning brother , Avest. br?tar- , Armenian e?bair, Greek. ???????, ???????in meaning phratry member , lat. fr?t er, irl. br?thir , goth br? Þar , tox. pracar (Vasmer I, 207-208).

Sister. The word sister is common Slavic. Correspondences for Russian sister are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian. sister ?, blr. sister ?, old glory sister, Bulgarian sister ?, Serbohorvian se ?str, sound se?stro, Slovenian. se?stra , Czech, Slvts. sestra, Polish siostra, v.-luzh. sotra, n.-luzh. sot ?a, half sestra - all with the same meaning as the Russian sister.

This word is of Proto-Slavic origin. Sister? *sesra (with inserted t as in the words meeting, motley, sharp), additions *s(v)e (as in the words own, special) and *sr (Vasmer III, 641).

Uncle. The lexeme uncle has correspondences in other Slavic languages: Ukrainian. da ?duh, duh ?damn, blr. dziadzka.

Due to initial assimilation *d?d? ? d?d. This was favored by the fact that the lexeme belongs to children’s speech (Vasmer I, 405).

Aunt. This word is common Slavic. Correspondences for Russian teta are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian. ti ?tka, blr. tse?tka, old glory. aunt, Bulgarian those ?ta, those ?tka, Serbohorv. te?tka, those ?ta, Slovenian te??ta, te ?tka, Czech, Slvts. tetta, Polish сiоtka, v.-luzh. c? eta, n.-luzh. s? ota.

A word of children's speech, an addition similar to papa, baba (Vasmer II, 54).

Nephew. The lexeme nephew is derived from the word tribe, which is common Slavic. Tribe is a suffixal derivative (suff. -men) from the same stem (with a reword o/e) as the fruit: dm? m, en? ? ? A. In other Slavic languages, ancient lexemes go back to Proto-Slavic, which in turn continues I.-E. *nep ?t - .And in the Russian language this lexeme is a new formation. In turn, the lexeme nephew is the generative for the lexeme niece, which was formed using the suffix -ts-.

In other Slavic meanings nephew is designated differently: Czech. neti, Slovak. netera, niece , Serbian nestera (Vasmer III, 260).

Husband. The word husband is common Slavic. Correspondences for Russian husband are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian. husband, blr. husband, senior slav. m?zh, bulg. mazh ?t, Serbohorv. man, Slovenian. mo? ?, Czech, Slvts. mu? and etc.

Researchers compare slav. *mo? ?ь с lit. ?can ?s Human . There are probably different extensions represented here: -g- and -u-. True, praslav. changing sounds nu? ? ng cannot be proven.

For the Russian word husband, correspondences are found outside the Slavic languages: Old-Indian. maґnus· (maґnu-, maґnus-), Avest. manu, goth manna, Old-Islamic mar, lat.-germ. Mannus is the name of the progenitor of the Germans.

The Indo-European name for a person underwent a radical change in meaning in Slavic, as a result of which it became involved in the sphere of kinship terminology (Vasmer II, 670).

Spouse. This lexeme is a derivative (with a reversal) from sjprushti (1st unit - conjugation) pull together, connect, harness . Initial spouse? spouse under the influence of words with the prefix su-. The lexeme spouse is productive for the word spouse (Vasmer III, 805).

Wife. The lexeme wife is common Slavic. Parallels for Russian wife are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian. zhona, zhinka, blr. Zhana, senior glory wife, Bulgarian wife, Serbohorvian wife, Slovenian јeґna, Czech., Slavic. јena with the same meaning as Russian wife.

This lexeme is of Indo-European origin, the same root as the word genetics, Lat. genus genus . Original *gena ? wife after change *g ? *?before the front vowel *e. For the Slavic lexeme, parallels are found in other Indo-European languages: other - Prussian. genno meaning woman , Armenian kin, goth. qino meaning wife, spouse (Trubachev, 84-98).

Father-in-law. The lexeme father-in-law is common Slavic. Parallels for the Russian svekor are found in all groups of Slavic languages: Ukrainian. sve ?cor, blr. father-in-law, Bulgarian sve ?kar, Serbohorv. sve?kar, Czech. svekr, slvts. svokor, Polish s?wiekier - all with the same meaning as the Russian father-in-law.

This word is of Proto-Slavic origin. Praslav. *svekrъ (due to Ukrainian -e-)? i.-e. *svekuros: for the Slavic word, parallels are found with the same meaning in other I.E. languages: Old Indian c? va?c ?uras, Avest. ?vasura- , lit. ?e ??uras , Greek ? ?????, Homer. ?????, lat. socer (Vasmer III, 571-572).

Mother-in-law. The word mother-in-law is common Slavic. Correspondences for Russian mother-in-law are found in all Slavic languages: blr. Svyakrow, Bulgarian svek ?ditch, Serbohorv. sve?krva, Slovenian. sve??krv, sve??krva, slvts. svokra - all with the same meaning as the Russian mother-in-law.

This word is of Proto-Slavic origin. Praslav. *svekry corresponds to Old Indian. c?vac? r? ?s, new-pers. ?usr ?, lat. socr?s , D.-V.-S. swigur, Alb. vje?he ?rre?, Greek ? ????. According to some researchers, there existed along with I.-E. *sve?k?uros m i.-e. *svekr? ?s g (Vasmer III, 571-572).

Father-in-law. The lexeme father-in-law is common Slavic. Parallels for the Russian father-in-law are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian. father-in-law, blr. tsests, old-slav. yes, bolg. tst, Serbohorv. ta?st, Slovenian. ta?st, Czech. test, slvts. test?, Polish tes?c? .

Related to Old Prussian. tisties in meaning father-in-law . However, Trautman is trying to explain the ancient Prussian. word as a loan. from glory

In the semantics of this word they usually see an affectionate connotation, associating it either with te?tya, or with the Greek. ?????father, father (Vasmer IV, 51-52).

Mother-in-law. The word mother-in-law is common Slavic. Parallels for the Russian mother-in-law are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian. those ?now, blr. tseshcha, st.-slav. tshta, bulg. t ?now ?, Serbohorvian ta?sta, Slovenian. ta? ??a , Czech testice, slvts. testina.

This word is derived from the word father-in-law, original. *tьsti?a, further associated with te?tya (Vasmer IV, 54).

Matchmaker. The lexeme Swat is common Slavic. Parallels for the Russian matchmaker are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian, Blr. matchmaker, Bulgarian matchmaker, Serbohorv. matchmaker, Slovenian svat, Czech, Slvts. svat, Polish, V.-Luz. swat, lab. swat - all with the same meaning as the Russian svat.

This lexeme is of Indo-European origin. Researchers have established that the only ancient formations from I.-E. *su ?-t- in Slavic are the noun *svatъ and verbs *xot ?ti, *xъt ?ti, *xvatati, *xvatiti. While the verbs *svatati(se), *svatiti(se) were formed later, it can be said that their narrowly specialized meanings are just as new to woo, to ask for hands . Having received such a special terminological meaning, the verb *svatati, *svatiti began to influence the noun *svatъ, which originally meant only one's own, kinsman . As a result, the glory. *svatъ meaning has been developed wedding planner, matchmaker , and it, as a new name of the figure, formed a semantic-morphological pair with the named verb: cf. Russian matchmaker - to woo. These relationships reveal the non-primordial nature of the narrow special meanings of fame. *svatъ, which, however, have become so dominant over time that the original meaning is sometimes obscured. The extreme point of this process is the lexeme matchmaker matchmaking woman , education similar to the names of female professions in Ha: spinner, dressmaker, while there is a correct female education from matchmaker - matchmaker relative, close woman . As a result of contamination of the meanings of similar forms, matchmaker is also used mother of son-in-law, daughter-in-law (Trubachev, 87-93).

Son-in-law. This lexeme is common Slavic. Correspondences for Russian son-in-law are also found in other Slavic languages: Ukrainian. son-in-law, blr. son-in-law, senior glory huh, bolg. z, Serbohorv. ze?t, Czech. zet?, slvts. zаt?, Polish zie? c? - all with the same meaning as the Russian son-in-law.

This word is of Proto-Slavic origin. Related Lit. ?e ?ntas son-in-law , connected by alternation with ltsh. znuo?ts brother-in-law , Greek ??????relative, brother , other ind. jn? ?ti ?s? relative . Other researchers associate ze?tь with the root *g?en- beget . Secondary names for son-in-law in Slavic languages, reflecting the position of a son-in-law living with his wife’s parents: Russian. dial Valazin, Wed. vlazins a ritual that accompanies moving to a new building , blr. dial Priymach, Wed Ukrainian Priymak, Polish dial pristac, Bulgarian dial ghost, cf. similar to Latvian iegatnis; Bulgarian dial cripple, Czech dial zenich son-in-law (Trubachev, 93-94; Vasmer II, 112).

Daughter-in-law. This lexeme is a new formation. It is a suffix derivative of the word bride. There is no generally accepted etymology of the word bride. It still seems most preferable to explain the word as a prefixal derivative (negation of non-) from the lost *v?sta known (Vasmer III, 54-55).

Daughter-in-law. The word daughter-in-law is ancient, common Slavic. Parallels for the Russian daughter-in-law are found in all Slavic languages: St.-Slav. snha, Polish sneszka, Serbian snah, bulg. snha, snha, Czech. snacha - all with the same meaning as the Russian daughter-in-law.

This word is of Indo-European origin. Some researchers consider it to be derived from the same base as son. Other researchers interpret it as a suffixal derivative from I.-e. sneu- knit (Vasmer III, 700).

Brother-in-law. The Slavic lexeme brother-in-law is undoubtedly an ancient, Indo-European word. Correspondences for this Russian lexeme are also found in other Slavic languages: blr. Schwager, Bulgarian shu ?rey, shu ?rivers, Serbohorv. Shura, Slovenian. ?urja ?k, Polish szurzy.

If there is a long diphthong, a relationship with Old Indian is assumed. sy?la ?s brother-in-law . Some researchers are trying to bring them closer to I.-E. *si? ?u ?-, *si? ?-tie, sew (Vasmer IV, 488).

Brother-in-law. The word has a common Slavic character. It is best preserved in the eastern and southern Slavic languages, while in the western it has been largely repressed. Slav. dever has a number of Indo-European correspondences, cf. related and identical in meaning lat. levir, Greek ????, other ind. d ?vdr, ancient German zeihhur, Armenian taigr (Trubachev, 95-99).

Sister-in-law. In modern Slavic languages, the word is far from fully represented. So, almost all Western languages have forgotten it. Of the East Slavic languages, it has been preserved in the Russian language better and more widely than in Ukrainian. Slav. *zъly - old - ?- the basis of the feminine gender, like *svekry, expanded in a similar way: zalva, hereinafter - Russian. sister-in-law, Wed. mother-in-law, Serbian mother-in-law, Russian dial mother-in-law, with the only difference that for the name sister-in-law, an ancient form like Russian has not been preserved anywhere. dial fathers-in-law. Slav. *zъly is associated with related Indo-European words going back to the form *gelou-s: Greek. ?????, lat. glos, Armenian tal, calr - all with well-preserved value sister-in-law, husband's sister (Trubachev, 99-100).

Brother-in-law. The lexeme brother-in-law is common Slavic. Parallels for the Russian brother-in-law are also found in other Slavic languages: Polish. swak, szwak, Czech. svak, Slovenian svak, Bulgarian brother-in-law, svako in the meaning sister's husband , Slovak svuk, svako meaning aunt's husband .

Etymological connections Russian. brother-in-law are completely transparent: cf. glory svojь, Russian. mine. Similar formations of the Baltic are adjacent here: Lithuanian. svainis, Latvian svainis brother-in-law, wife's sister's husband and other derivatives that are independent, local in nature: balt. *suainia-. The lexeme brother-in-law is a generative word for the word sister-in-law, formed in a suffixal way. Other Slavic names for brother-in-law, sister-in-law: Slovenian. pas, pasanec, pasenog brother-in-law , pasanoga sister-in-law , Serbian pashanats, pashenog brother-in-law , Bulgarian badjanak brother-in-law (Trubachev, 103-104).

Widow. This common Slavic word is perfectly preserved in all Slavic languages: St. Slav. widow, blr. boa constrictor, Ukrainian widow, udova, widow, udovitsya, Polish. wdowa, Czech vdova, Slovak. vdova, vdovica, bdova, gdova, Slovenian. vdova, vdovica, Serbian Udovitsa, Bulgarian widow This word is of Proto-Slavic origin. According to some researchers, Praslav. *vьdova originally related to ancient Prussian. Widdew? (from *vidav? ?), other Indian vidh? ?v ?, vidhu?s? Avest. vi?av ?, lat. vidua. The word form vedova (from the original vidova) was obtained under the influence of the prepositional prefix въ. Rather, vowel assimilation occurred here. This word is productive for the lexeme widower (Vasmer I, 281-282).

Godfather, godmother. The lexeme godfather, godmother is the result of the substantivization of the adjective godmother (father), godmother (mother). The originator for this lexeme is the word cross, which is borrowed from ancient German. lang., where is krist, christ? Greek Christos Christ . Initially - Christ , then - what he was crucified on, the cross . The lexeme is formed using the suffix -n-. This lexeme is generating for the word godson, formed with the suffix -nik-, and the word godson, in turn, is generating for the lexeme goddaughter, formed with the suffix -its- (Vasmer II, 387).

Godfather The lexeme kum is common Slavic. Parallels for the Russian kum are found in other Slavic languages: Ukrainian, Blr. godfather, Bulgarian godfather, Slovenian kum, Polish kum.

Researchers explain the etymology of this lexeme as old. abbreviation for къмоtrъ godfather (Vasmer II, 414).

Kuma. The word godfather is common Slavic. Parallels for the Russian godfather are found in all Slavic languages: Ukrainian, Blair. godmother, Bulgarian Kumaґ, Serbohorvian kugma, Slovenian kuґma, Polish kuma.

Researchers believe that the usual etymology from the shortened form of *kъmotra from Lat. commatter. Raising glory. words for Turkic kuma concubine, young wife, concubine, slave, maid does not find confirmation due to differences in meaning. last word. In this case, we have to accept the semantic influence of the words kъmotrъ, kъmotra and the new formation *kumъ from *kuma (Vasmer II, 414).

Most kinship terms are ancient, dating back to the Indo-European era. Nuclear terms are words of children's speech, isolated from children's babble: father, mother, father, mother, grandfather, woman, uncle, aunt. It should be noted that all these words refer only to blood relatives.

A small group consists of neoplasms: daughter-in-law.

For most Russian lexemes, correspondences are found not only in the East Slavic group, but also in other groups of Slavic languages. An exception is the word nephew: this meaning in the Slavic languages of other groups has a different form of expression.

There are also terms that in ancient times were not included in the semantic field of kinship, but over time underwent semantic changes and were involved in the field of kinship terminology. These are the lexemes husband, matchmaker.

CONCLUSION

The terminology of kinship and properties of the Russian language belongs to the most ancient and stable layers of the vocabulary of the language, going back in its main part to the common Slavic and even common Indo-European era.

The semantic field of kinship terms includes:

Terms of consanguinity;

Property terms:

) related to marital relations;

) associated with secondary marriage;

) related to the death of one of the spouses;

) associated with baptism.

In this work, all words are described using differential semantic elements, and the etymology of the units that make up the lexical-semantic kinship group is also explored.

When identifying differential semantic elements, we proceeded from the following basic concepts: 1) a sign that designates an object and is called a name; 2) an object that is the meaning of a sign and is called an object, or denotation; 3) the way in which a given object is distinguished from the general set of objects, called meaning. Consequently, a name names a certain object (subject), which is the meaning of this name, and the very way in which a given object is distinguished from the general set acts as the meaning of the name.

The system of kinship terms is not only linguistic, but also cultural. Here, the systematicity of extra-linguistic relations ensures the systematicity of linguistic relations.

This system is not constant in historical terms, on the one hand, and on the other hand, it is not strictly defined.

Through the terms of kinship, mythology, pagan and Christian, and the fundamental principles of the world (mother earth) are comprehended; the terms of kinship are projected onto the animal world, as well as onto plants and objects. They appear in anthroponyms (surnames, nicknames of people and names of animals) and in toponyms.

The terms of consanguinity are superimposed on the terms of property, extend to the spiritual relationship that arises at baptism, are widely used when addressing non-relatives, as well as in the names of animals, and are transferred to the “outer”, material world.

The cosmogonic picture of the world was interpreted through the terms of kinship.

In conclusion, it should be said that the extremely complex relationships within the Slavic terminology of consanguinity, which seem even more complex when trying to study it etymologically, are explained mainly by the presence in it of a number of chronological layers, which throughout history have displaced, displaced or only pushed aside each other in that or other function.

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Shansky, N.M. Lexicology of the modern Russian language [Text] / N.M. Shansky. - M.: Higher school, 1972 - 268 p.

Shmelev, D.N. Modern Russian language. Vocabulary [Text] / D.N. Shmelev. - M.: Higher school, 1977 - 305 p.

Shmelev, D.N. Lexicology [Text] / D.N. Shmelev // Russian language: Encyclopedia / Under. ed. Yu.N.Karaulova. - M.: Scientific publishing house Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2003. - 415 p.

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figurative means of mythopoetics, expanding the semantic field of mythological associations, allusions, quotations, using the wide possibilities of stylization, not limited to the speech level, and the plot components of a fairy tale, myth in the structuring of a narrative text both in the genre of a novel and in the genre of a short story.

Literature

1. Bely Andrey. Selected Prose. M., 1990. 489 p.

2. Propp V.Ya. Historical roots of fairy tales. M., 2002. 397 p.

3. Mints Z.G. Poetics of Russian symbolism. St. Petersburg, 2004. 726 p.

4. Smirnoe I.P. From fairy tale to novel // TODRL. L., 1972. 4378 p.

5. Shmelev I.S. Summer of the Lord. Novels and stories. M., 1969. 645 p.

6. Kataev I.I. Under the clear stars. M., 1969. 689 p.

7. Zhirmunsky V.M. Poetics of Russian symbolism. M., 2000. 521 p.

8. Sigov V. Russian idea V.M. Shukshina. M., 1999. 268 p.

9. Shukshin V.M. Conversations under a Clear Moon: Collection of Stories. M., 1975. 493 p.

S.F. Zhelobtsova, A.I. Oschepkova, L.I. Rumyantseva

TO THE PROBLEM OF MYTH-FOLKLORE ORIGIN IN THE RUSSIAN PROSE OF THE XX CENTURY

The article is devoted to studies of myth-folklore origin in the Russian prose of the XX century that ascends to symbolist tradition. The authors discuss the transformation of symbolist myth poetics presented by “para-folklore” text of Andrey Beliy and developed in stories and short novels of I. Shmelev, I. Kataev, V. Shukshin.

UDC 801:001.89

A. K. Basharina

THE CONCEPT OF “SEMANTIC FIELD”

The article discusses theoretical concepts and methodological approaches in the study of the semantic field, which by its name covers very heterogeneous phenomena.

The idea of vocabulary as a diverse, multidimensional and at the same time integral system object explains the possibility of constructing its various but interconnected subsystems. Research into the lexical system of a language is usually carried out in the form of identifying lexical groupings of various types and volumes, as well as establishing their relationships with each other. The search for ways to study the systemic connections of lexical composition led to the emergence of the theory of semantic FIELD. In modern linguistics, both domestic and foreign, there is a variety of theoretical concepts and methodological approaches in the study of FIELD. The term “semantic field” was first introduced by G. Ip-sen in 1924. Since then, it has become firmly established in the works of linguists in different countries and different areas of linguistics, and the field model of the language system has various interpretations and applications.

Field theory essentially covers many points of view, which represent very significant variants of the general idea - the idea of the semantic connection of words

with each other in language. Field theory turned out to be effective because in the concept of “field” linguists managed to realize the idea of the presence of a certain structural value that unites vocabulary into a lexical-semantic system, where each lexeme reveals this value as a dominant seme of lexical meaning.

Analysis of the definitions of the semantic field shows that the criteria for the relationship of lexical units and their inclusion in one or another group are “lexical meanings as a whole”, “semantic feature”, “semantic feature”, different meanings of a word or variants of its meaning, components meanings and more. As such common element a concept, theme, or some situation may also appear.

It is easy to see that the features used as forming the semantic field are divided into two main groups. The first of them consists of features that are in one way or another connected with lexical meaning; These are linguistic signs. The second group consists of signs

focused on the conceptual, subject-thematic sphere and other areas; they can be called extralinguistic.

In accordance with this, there are two main approaches to the study of semantic fields: linguistic and extralinguistic. At the same time, the extralinguistic approach, the founder of which is considered to be the German scientist J. Trier, was developed earlier than the linguistic one.

The concept of J. Trier is based on the idea of language as an independent closed system that determines the essence of all its component parts. Language divides the world, which exists in consciousness in the form of a system of concepts. This system represents the content side of the language and participates in its division.

Each such field in the conceptual sphere corresponds to a lexical field in the language, consisting of a collection of individual words. Lexical fields completely cover the corresponding spaces of conceptual fields, thereby outlining their boundaries. On the other hand, the belonging of words to the conceptual field, that is, their ability to express a certain range of concepts, determines the composition of the lexical field, which acts as an independent unit and occupies an intermediate position between the language system as a whole and an individual word. The independence of such units, according to J. Trier, lies in the fact that individual words are not isolated carriers of meaning. Each of them has a meaning because other words adjacent to it that are included in the field have it. In this regard, the listener can understand a single word if the entire field of verbal signs is present in his consciousness, that is, the word has meaning only within the whole field and thanks to this whole. Important point J. Trier's concept is to affirm the presence of a strict (almost unambiguous) correlation between the system of concepts (logical components) and field structures in the lexicon, the presence of an unambiguous determination between the concept and the lexeme. The basis for identifying the semantic field of J. Trier is a logical approach.

As an alternative to the conceptual-logical approach, a linguistic direction has been formed, based on the use of connections that exist between the meanings of individual words, which are considered as basic and independent units of language. Representatives of the actual linguistic approach to vocabulary study the lexical composition of a language in different ways, use different methods, but they all study words or phrases, groups of words, but not concepts, and study the types of semantic connections of words in a language. And yet there is no need to talk about any single direction in the development of the theory of semantic fields.

The most prominent supporters of the linguistic approach, who with their research laid the foundations for the development of the concept of the semantic field, were

G. Ipsen and V. Porzig, who considered the vocabulary of a language as a set of lexical-grammatical and lexical-syntactic groups of words, V. Reuning, who applied the method of independent study of semantic systems in different languages, L. Rudskoger, who reduced the concept of “field” to the meaning of polysemantic words .

G. Ipsen explored the linguistic field based on purely linguistic relations. The subject of his study was a group of words related both in formality and in meaning - the Indo-European field of metals. The combination of various names of metals was carried out in a multi-stage manner: the first stage was the combination of disparate units into a class of words; the second is their specification through syntactic division; the third is rethinking, metals are included in the designation system. It should be noted that G. Ipsen’s theory is limited in application, since there are few such groups of words representing both semantic and formal kinship.

The linguistic approach also characterizes the semantic field of V. Porzig. Its fields are verbal complexes, which are simple relationships consisting of a verb and a subject or object, an adjective and a noun. Such relationships create common values, which the author calls “elementary value fields.” Linguistic meaning, according to W. Porzig, is determined through its relationship to all other meanings. Moreover, unlike J. Trier, W. Porzig allows for a certain independence of words, members of “elementary fields of meaning.” This approach has spread to a wide range of phenomena and has been further developed in the research of domestic linguists, who interpret various syntactic complexes as semantic-syntactic fields.

The study of semantic fields is also carried out in terms of comparing them in two languages in one historical era. This method allows you to compare vocabulary sets different languages, turns out to be effective in determining their similarities and originalities. Thus, V. Reuning considers the linguistic field of pleasant emotions in English and German. The linguistic field of V. Reuning includes words and expressions that mean certain human feelings, united by a common concept - “emotion”. The same concept is expressed specifically in different languages, which constitutes the national identity of the language. The author explains the lexical differences in the composition of fields by differences in the national characters of the Germans and the British. Thus, the researcher actually goes beyond purely linguistic analysis, emphasizing the influence of extralinguistic factors on the language.

A similar technique for studying fields by comparing them in two languages is quite productive.

noah and still attracts the attention of linguists. Interlingual comparison makes it possible to identify common and specific features of the field structures of the same name in different languages, which helps solve the problem of the relationship between the universal and the idioethnic in a language.

Semantic fields combine not only lexical units, but also the meanings of a polysemantic word. A. Rudskoger analyzes in detail in his study four adjectives of the English language (fair, foul, nice, proper) and more superficially 24 polysemantic adjectives over three centuries. The main attention in the work is paid to the analysis of the semantic scope of each word, that is, the system of meanings of one word is studied, and not the system of semantic relations of a number of words.

A. Rudskoger studies the four words selected for the study based on determiners, taking into account syntactic constructions. The researcher believes that it is these determiners that determine the meaning of the word, and not vice versa, the word enters into certain semantic connections due to its meaning; the meaning of the word does not exist outside the context.

A deep study of the meanings of adjectives allowed A. Rudskogger to conclude that polysemy is not completely preserved in any word; some of the meanings are lost. The polysemantic word itself belongs simultaneously to several conceptual fields.

The question of the field interpretation of a polysemantic word is also being developed by modern linguists. An example is the study by H.A. Borovikova, devoted to the analysis of the semantics of a polysemantic word. By semanteme the author understands “a system of elements of individual semes that form a single semantic structure of a word.” All elements of a semanteme are interconnected due to the presence of common semes (grammatical, categorical-lexical, differential, and so on). Semantic connection allows the semantic theme to maintain its unity. In the semantics, the author distinguishes the core and periphery. As an independent field structure, a semanteme exists thanks to a common lexeme (the sound shell of a word), which unites all its elements (sememes) into one whole. Semantemes are not isolated from each other. In the process of language development, sememes die off or new ones arise, which leads to the expansion or narrowing of semantics.

In modern linguistics, the subject of study in field theory is lexical units, united on the basis of the commonality of the meaning they express (semantic principle) or on the basis of a combination of lexical-syntactic features interacting on the basis of the commonality of their functions, based on a certain semantic category (functional-semantic principle) .

Fields identified based on these characteristics are pre-

are semantic system formations characterized by specific connections and relationships.

Interest in the idea of a systematic organization of vocabulary has increased in connection with the study of the so-called “human cognitive organization.” Based on experimental data, studies of this kind indicate the psychological reality of linguistic structural units, characterized by a core and a periphery. In psychological research in recent years, much attention has been paid to the construction of a prototype theory of meaning, which directly correlates with the linguistic description of the core and periphery at different levels of its consideration; the problem of the status and specificity of semantic features, which are interpreted as the most generalized type of “knowledge about the world”, is carefully developed; Attempts are also made to distinguish semantic features according to the degree of their importance for describing a particular concept. The most significant conclusion seems to be the requirement to take into account in linguistic research the significance of extralinguistic parameters, without which any description of the language remains far from reality.

With all the diversity of material interpreted as a field, it seems possible to identify some of the most general characteristics of the linguistic field, which most researchers write about in one form or another.

The field is a set of lexical elements interconnected by structural relationships, the main ones of which are occurrence, convergence, and divergence.

The next important property of the field, which is also recognized by many domestic and foreign linguists, is the presence of its specific structure. “The field has a special structure - core-periphery - which is characterized by a maximum concentration of complete features in the core and an incomplete set of these features with a possible weakening of their intensity on the periphery.”

All members of the field are in various kinds of semantic relationships that develop in relation to its core, but the nature of these relationships varies depending on the group of words being studied. But the unchangeable parameter of the semantic field can be called its unevenness, which manifests itself in the heterogeneous structure of the field (the presence of a core and periphery and the unequal semantic relationships in which its members are located).

The specificity of a field as a way of existence of an object is characterized by the phenomenon of attraction, which lies in the fact that “due to the existence of a given group of elements with a common attribute, new elements with the same attribute are included in it.”

Like any systemic association, the field has a certain structure; within the field there are microsystems that have relative independence, which is manifested in the presence of connections between microsystems inside and outside it (connections between microsystems of different fields).

The properties of the field discussed above (structure, the presence of relationships between its elements, core, periphery, unevenness, attraction) seem to be mandatory for any field model. At the same time, one or another field model may have additional properties that are characteristic only of it.

The semantic field is a set that includes both words in the entirety of their semantic structure, and lexical-semantic variants (LSV) of polysemantic words expressing the corresponding concept.

It is known that each LSV in the structure of a word is characterized by its own meaning - word meaning and has the ability to be included in various lexical groupings.

Thus, the field model affirms the idea of language as a system of subsystems that interact and interpenetrate each other. According to this model, language appears as a functioning system in which constant rearrangements of elements and relationships between them occur. In the process of field structuring, dialectical connections between linguistic phenomena and non-linguistic reality, the mechanism of this connection and its patterns are revealed, the features of linguistic consciousness are revealed, and its nationally specific features are revealed. The field is one of the forms of systematization of linguistic material (meanings) in the language system.

Literature

1. Ipsen G. Der Alte Orient unt die Indogermanen. Festschrift fur W.Streitberg. Heidelberg, 1924. P. 30-45.

2. Dolgikh N.G. The theory of the semantic field at the current stage of development of semasiology // Scientific reports of higher school. Philological sciences. 1973. No. 1. pp. 89-98.

3. Vasiliev L.M. Theory of semantic fields // Questions of linguistics. No. 5. 1971.S. 105-113.

4. Karaulov Yu.N. General and Russian ideography. M.: Nauka, 1976. 355 p.

5. Trier H. Der deutche Wortschatz im Sinnbezirk des Verstandes. Heidelberg, 1931. Bd.1. s.100-397. Vol.41.

6. Porzig W.W. Wesenhafte Bedeutungsbesichungen // Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutche Sprache und Literatur. 1934. P. 70-97.

7. Reuning W.K. Joy and Freude. Swarthmoke, 1941. 141 p.

8. Rudskoger A. Fair, foul, nice, proper. A contribution to the study of polysemy. Stockholm, 1952. 505p.

9. Filicheva N.I. The structure of phrases and the semantic field // Bulletin of the Moscow State University. 1971. No. 3. P. 42-52.

10. Zolotova G.A. Semantic field of a sentence // Syn-tactics, paradigmatics and their relationships at the level of syntax. Riga, 1970. pp. 89-193.

11. Borovikova N.A. Field structures in the language system. Voronezh: Voronezh University Publishing House, 1989. 197 p.

12. Anderson J.B. Language, memory and thought. Hillsdale, 1976. 385 p.

13. Zalevskaya A.A. Text comprehension: a psycholinguistic approach. Kalinin: Kalinin University Publishing House, 1988. 241 p.

14. Osgood Ch. Towards an abstract performance grammar // Talking minds: the study of language in cognitive science. Cambridge, 1984. P.128-140.

15.Krivchenko E.L. On the concept of “semantic field” and methods of its study // Scientific reports of higher education. Philological sciences. 1973. No. 1. P. 99-103.

16. Bosova L.M. Construction and analysis of the semantic field // Lexical and syntactic semantics. Barnaul, 1980. pp. 43-56.

17. Shchur G.S. Field theory in linguistics. M.: Nauka, 1974. 255 p.

The author analyzes theoretical concepts and methodological approaches at studying the semantic field that includes non-homogenous phenomena.

Types of semantic fields

Within the framework of field theory, various field typologies are proposed. The most complete typology of semantic fields is presented by L.M. Vasiliev in his work “Methods of modern linguistics”. He identifies the following types of semantic fields: 1) lexical fields of paradigmatic type are semantic classes of words of one part of speech, the members of which are connected by an invariant meaning - an identifier and are in paradigmatic relationships with each other. They are combined into four types of paradigms: synonymous series, antonymic pairs, lexical-semantic groups and lexical-grammatical categories; 2) they are adjacent to transformation fields - paradigms of specific phrases and sentences connected by synonymous and derivational relationships; 3) inter-particular semantic fields - semantically correlative classes of words belonging to different parts speeches, the elements of which are in relation to transposition and are combined into two types of paradigms: word-formation nests and similarities (term by A.A. Zalevskaya); 4) functional-semantic, or lexical-grammatical fields, which can be represented by both lexical and grammatical means; they are divided into monocentric fields, based on a grammatical category, and polycentric fields; 5) syntagmatic fields (syntactic, in the terminology of V. Porzig), including any specific semantic syntagms (syntagmatic fields), the internal structure of which is determined by the valences of the predicate; 6) mixed (complex, combined) semantic fields, which are the result of combining several semantic classes of words in one semantic-syntactic model [Vasiliev 1997: 45-49].

The combination of linguistic units into semantic fields occurs on the basis of an invariant meaning, a common function, or a combination of both of these criteria. Thus, the same unit can be included in different types semantic fields identified by the researcher depending on the goals set. Despite some subjectivity in identifying semantic fields and defining their boundaries, semantic fields are not a methodological abstraction, but represent an objective linguistic structure.

Linguists have developed criteria for distinguishing the core and periphery of the field: frequency, semantic content, informativeness, materiality, obligatory element. It seems to us that two more criteria can be added to the above: polysemy and the ability to become the dominant of a synonymous series.

Developed polysemy indicates the frequency of use of this lexeme, due to its psychological significance for native speakers. This lexeme with developed connotative and associative connections easily enters into various semantic relationships, becoming itself the core, or center, of a semantic group.

The second criterion we propose for classifying a lexeme as a field core is also related to the ability of the lexeme to enter into synonymous relationships. A lexeme is the dominant of a synonymous series and is the carrier of a generic concept with which all other lexemes of this series are associated.

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