Expressions of the Middle Ages. Quotes about the Middle Ages

Add site to bookmarks

History of electricity

Electricity, a set of phenomena caused by the existence, movement and interaction of electrically charged bodies or particles. Interaction electric charges carried out using electromagnetic field(in the case of stationary electric charges - electrostatic field).

Moving charges (electric current), along with the electric one, also excite a magnetic field, i.e., they generate an electromagnetic field, through which electromagnetic interaction occurs (the study of magnetism is integral part general doctrine of electricity). Electromagnetic phenomena are described by classical electrodynamics, which is based on Maxwell’s equations

The laws of the classical theory of electricity cover a huge set of electromagnetic processes. Among the 4 types of interactions (electromagnetic, gravitational, strong and weak) existing in nature, electromagnetic ones take first place in terms of breadth and variety of manifestations. This is due to the fact that all bodies are built from electrically charged particles of opposite signs, the interactions between which, on the one hand, are many orders of magnitude more intense than gravitational and weak ones, and on the other hand, are long-range in contrast to strong interactions. The structure of atomic shells, the cohesion of atoms into molecules (chemical forces) and the formation of condensed matter are determined by electromagnetic interaction.

The simplest electrical and magnetic phenomena have been known since ancient times. Minerals have been found that attract pieces of iron, and it has also been discovered that amber (Greek electron, elektron, hence the term electricity), rubbed on wool, attracts light objects (electrification by friction). However, only in 1600 W. Gilbert first established the difference between electrical and magnetic phenomena. He discovered the existence of magnetic poles and their inseparability from each other, and also established that Earth- a giant magnet.

In the XVII - 1st half of the XVIII centuries. Numerous experiments were carried out with electrified bodies, the first electrostatic machines based on electrification by friction were built, the existence of electric charges of two kinds was established (C. Dufay), and the electrical conductivity of metals was discovered (English scientist S. Gray). With the invention of the first capacitor - the Leyden jar (1745) - it became possible to accumulate large electrical charges. In 1747-53, Franklin outlined the first consistent theory of electrical phenomena, finally established the electrical nature of lightning and invented the lightning rod.

In the 2nd half of the 18th century. quantitative study of electrical and magnetic phenomena began. The first measuring instruments appeared - electroscopes of various designs, electrometers. G. Cavendish (1773) and C. Coulomb (1785) experimentally established the law of interaction of stationary point electric charges (Cavendish’s works were published only in 1879).

This basic law of electrostatics (Coulomb's law) made it possible for the first time to create a method for measuring electric charges by the forces of interaction between them. Coulomb also established the law of interaction between the poles of long magnets and introduced the concept of magnetic charges concentrated at the ends of magnets.

The next stage in the development of the science of electricity is associated with the discovery at the end of the 18th century. L. Galvani "animal electricity" and works A.Volty, who invented the first source of electric current - a galvanic element (the so-called voltaic column, 1800), creating a continuous (direct) current for a long time. In 1802, V.V. Petrov, having built a galvanic cell of much greater power, discovered the electric arc, studied its properties and pointed out the possibility of using it for lighting, as well as for melting and welding metals. G. Davy obtained previously unknown metals - sodium and potassium - by electrolysis of aqueous solutions of alkalis (1807). J.P. Joule established (1841) that the amount of heat generated in a conductor by electric current is proportional to the square of the current; this law was substantiated (1842) by the precise experiments of E.H. Lenz (Joule-Lenz law).

G. Ohm established (1826) the quantitative dependence of electric current on voltage in the circuit. K.F. Gauss formulated (1830) the fundamental theorem of electrostatics.

The most fundamental discovery was made by H. Oersted in 1820; he discovered the effect of electric current on a magnetic needle - a phenomenon that testified to the connection between electricity and magnetism. Following this, in the same year A.M. Ampere established the law of interaction of electric currents (Ampere's law). He also showed that the properties of permanent magnets can be explained on the basis of the assumption that constant electric currents (molecular currents) circulate in the molecules of magnetized bodies. Thus, according to Ampere, all magnetic phenomena are reduced to the interactions of currents, while magnetic charges do not exist. Since the discoveries of Oersted and Ampere, the doctrine of magnetism has become an integral part of the doctrine of electricity.

From the 2nd quarter of the 19th century. The rapid penetration of electricity into technology began. In the 20s The first electromagnets appeared. One of the first uses of electricity was the telegraph apparatus, in the 30s and 40s. Electric motors and current generators were built, and in the 40s, electric lighting devices, etc. Practical use electricity subsequently increased more and more, which in turn had a significant impact on the doctrine of electricity.

In the 30-40s. XIX century M. Faraday, the creator of the general doctrine of electromagnetic phenomena, in which all electrical and magnetic phenomena are considered from a single point of view, made a great contribution to the development of the science of electricity. With the help of experiments, he proved that the effects of electric charges and currents do not depend on the method of their production [before Faraday, they distinguished between “ordinary” (obtained by electrification by friction), atmospheric, “galvanic”, magnetic, thermoelectric, “animal” and other types of energy. ].

Arago's experiment ("rotation magnetism").

In 1831, Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction - the excitation of an electric current in a circuit located in an alternating magnetic field. This phenomenon (also observed in 1832 by J. Henry) forms the foundation of electrical engineering. In 1833-34 Faraday established the laws of electrolysis; These works of his marked the beginning of electrochemistry. Later, trying to find the relationship between electrical and magnetic phenomena and optical ones, he discovered the polarization of dielectrics (1837), the phenomena of paramagnetism and diamagnetism (1845), magnetic rotation of the plane of polarization of light (1845), etc.

Faraday first introduced the concept of electric and magnetic fields. He denied the concept of action at a distance, the proponents of which believed that bodies directly (through emptiness) act on each other at a distance.

According to Faraday's ideas, the interaction between charges and currents is carried out through intermediate agents: charges and currents create electric or (respectively) magnetic fields in the surrounding space, with the help of which the interaction is transmitted from point to point (the concept of short-range action). His ideas about electric and magnetic fields were based on the concept of lines of force, which he considered as mechanical formations in a hypothetical medium - the ether, similar to stretched elastic threads or cords.

Faraday's ideas about the reality of the electromagnetic field did not immediately gain recognition. The first mathematical formulation of the laws of electromagnetic induction was given by f. Neumann in 1845 in the language of the concept of long-range action.

He also introduced the important concepts of coefficients of self- and mutual induction of currents. The meaning of these concepts was fully revealed later, when W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) developed (1853) the theory of electrical oscillations in a circuit consisting of a capacitor (capacitance) and a coil (inductance).
The creation of new instruments and methods was of great importance for the development of the study of electricity. electrical measurements, and one system electrical and magnetic units of measurement, created by Gauss and W. Weber.

In 1846, Weber pointed out the relationship between current strength and the density of electrical charges in a conductor and the speed of their ordered movement. He also established the law of interaction of moving point charges, which contained a new universal electrodynamic constant, which is the ratio of electrostatic and electromagnetic charge units and has the dimension of speed.

When experimentally determined (Weber and F. Kohlrausch, 1856), this constant was obtained with a value close to the speed of light; this was a definite indication of the connection between electromagnetic phenomena and optical ones.

In 1861-73, the doctrine of electricity was developed and completed in the works of J. C. Maxwell. Based on the empirical laws of electromagnetic phenomena and introducing the hypothesis about the generation of a magnetic field by alternating electric field, Maxwell formulated the fundamental equations of classical electrodynamics, named after him. At the same time, he, like Faraday, considered electromagnetic phenomena as a certain form of mechanical processes in the ether.

The main new consequence arising from these equations is the existence electromagnetic waves, propagating at the speed of light. Maxwell's equations formed the basis of the electromagnetic theory of light. Maxwell's theory found decisive confirmation in 1886-89, when G. Hertz experimentally established the existence of electromagnetic waves. After its discovery, attempts were made to establish communication using electromagnetic waves, culminating in the creation of radio, and intensive research in the field of radio engineering began.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. a new stage began in the development of the theory of electricity. Research electrical discharges culminated in the discovery by J. J. Thomson of the discreteness of electric charges. In 1897 he measured the ratio of the charge of an electron to its mass, and in 1898 he determined the absolute value of the charge of an electron. H. Lorentz, relying on Thomson's discovery and the conclusions of molecular kinetic theory, laid the foundations for the electronic theory of the structure of matter. In classical electronic theory, matter is considered as a collection of electrically charged particles, the movement of which is subject to the laws of classical mechanics. Maxwell's equations are obtained from the equations of electron theory by statistical averaging.

Attempts to apply the laws of classical electrodynamics to the study of electromagnetic processes in moving media have encountered significant difficulties. Trying to resolve them, A. Einstein came (1905) to the relativity of the theory. This theory finally refuted the idea of ​​the existence of an ether endowed with mechanical properties. After the creation of the theory of relativity, it became obvious that the laws of electrodynamics cannot be reduced to the laws of classical mechanics.

At small space-time intervals, the quantum properties of the electromagnetic field, which are not taken into account by the classical theory of electricity, become significant. The quantum theory of electromagnetic processes - quantum electrodynamics - was created in the 2nd quarter of the 20th century. The quantum theory of matter and field already goes beyond the study of electricity and studies more fundamental problems relating to the laws of motion elementary particles and their structures.

With the discovery of new facts and the creation of new theories, the importance of the classical doctrine of electricity did not decrease; only the limits of applicability of classical electrodynamics were determined. Within these limits, Maxwell's equations and classical electron theory remain valid, being the foundation of the modern theory of electricity.

Classical electrodynamics forms the basis of most branches of electrical engineering, radio engineering, electronics and optics (the exception is quantum electronics). Using its equations, a huge number of theoretical and applied problems have been solved. In particular, numerous problems of plasma behavior in laboratory conditions and in space are solved using Maxwell's equations.

INTRODUCTION

Instead of the term "constant current" it is better to use the term "constant voltage". The same applies to the term “alternating current”; it is better to use the term “constant voltage”. The voltage in the network of the battery, as a rule, is primary, a constant value (except for emergency modes), and the current value depends on the load (in accordance with Ohm’s law): I = U/R, where I is the current strength (in amperes) , U - voltage (in volts), R - resistance (in ohms). All units are in the SI system, they are used in technology, physics, etc. Multiple quantities are also used, for example, kilovolts (1000 x volts).

Electric current is the ordered (directed) movement of charged particles. Electric current arises from the ordered movement of free electrons (in metals) or ions (in electrolytes).

The main difference between direct voltage is that it is constant in magnitude and sign, and direct current “flows” in one direction, for example, through metal wires (current carriers are electrons) from the negative terminal of the voltage source to the positive terminal (in electrolytes, current is created by positive and negative ions) .

Alternating voltage and current change according to the law of a sinusoid, from zero increases to a positive amplitude value (positive maximum), then decreases to zero and continues to decrease to a negative amplitude value (negative maximum), then increases, passing through zero again to a positive amplitude value.

Alternating current changes over a period both its magnitude and the direction of current movement.

The average current value over the period is zero.

The effective value of an alternating current is the strength of a direct current at which the average power released in a conductor in an alternating current circuit is equal to the power released in the same conductor in a direct current circuit. When they talk about currents and voltages in an alternating current network, they mean their effective values. The network voltage of 220 volts is the current network voltage.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

One of the greatest discoveries of mankind is electricity. Thanks to electricity, our civilization was able to develop intensively and is still developing today. Electricity is perhaps the most ecological view energy. And it will probably soon become the main type of energy after we exhaust the raw materials resources of our planet. But who invented or discovered electricity? Let's talk about everything in order...

The discovery of electricity goes back a long way. Ego was discovered by the Greek philosopher Thales in the 7th century BC. e. He discovered that if you rub amber on wool, it can attract light objects. By the way, electron in Greek means “amber”, and electricity means “amber”. These terms first appeared only in 1600, because Thales's observations remained observations.

1650 Magdeburg burgomaster Otto von Guericke built an electrostatic installation. This is a metal rod on which a ball of sulfur is attached. With this device it was possible to observe the properties of attraction and repulsion.

1745 This year the first electric capacitor was assembled, which was called the Leyden jar. The author of this invention is Pieter van Musschenbroek from Holland.

1747 The work (essay) of the American Benjamin Franklin “Experiments and Observations on Electricity” appears. This was, in fact, the first theory of electricity, in which Franklin designates electricity by the term “immaterial fluid.” This work also puts forward a theory about the existence of positive and negative charges. B. Franklin invented a lightning rod and with its help he was able to clearly prove that lightning is of an electrical nature.

1785 This year became a turning point, and made it possible to transfer the study of electricity to a scientific level. This is the discovery of Coulomb's Law.

In 1800, another key invention occurred, which made it possible to study electricity more specifically and carry out many useful experiments. This is the invention of the first direct current source by the Italian Volt. This was the first galvanic cell, consisting of silver (later copper was used instead of silver) and zinc circles, and paper soaked in salt water was placed between them.

In 1821, Ampere (a French physicist) discovered that magnetism around a conductor appears only when an electric current is applied to it, and with static electricity there is no magnetism.

Scientists Joule, Lenz, Ohm and Gauss also made an invaluable contribution to the study of electricity. Gauss in 1830 already describes the main theorem of the theory of the electrostatic field.

Faraday also invented the first electric motor. It was a conductor carrying an electric current that could rotate around a permanent magnet.

It is absolutely impossible to imagine the life of modern people without electricity. However, this was not always the case. The active use of electric current began only in the 20th century, and before that everything was limited to experiments and research conducted by individual scientists from different countries. Therefore, the question of when electricity appeared does not have a clear answer, since the first concepts about it arose in the 7th century BC. Watching some physical phenomena, the Greek scientist and philosopher Thales of Miletus drew attention to the fact that amber is able to attract light small objects after rubbing it against wool. At this level, knowledge about electricity was suspended for many centuries.

First research and discoveries

Knowledge in the field of electricity began to develop further only in the 15th century. And if we consider electricity, who created it and introduced such a concept, we should first of all note the English physicist William Gilbert (1544-1603). This natural scientist and court physician is rightfully considered the founder of the doctrine of electricity and magnetism. Thanks to William, the terms "electricity" and "electric" were coined. In his scientific work William Gilbert convincingly proves the presence of a magnetic field on the Earth.

The book “On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies and the Great Magnet of the Earth” describes in detail experiments confirming the magnetic and electrical properties of bodies. All bodies were divided into those electrified by friction and those not electrified. It was found that each magnet has two inseparable poles. That is, when sawing a magnet into two equal parts, each half again forms its own pair of poles. Opposite poles attract each other, and like poles, on the contrary, repel each other opposite sides. During experiments with a metal ball interacting with a magnetic needle, scientists first suggested that the Earth is nothing more than a huge magnet, and its magnetic poles may coincide with the geographic poles.

Electrical phenomena were studied by the scientist using a versor, created with his own hands, which became the first unique electroscope. The concepts of magnetism and electricity are separated, since mainly metal objects have magnetic properties, while electrical properties are inherent in many substances included in a special category. In William Gilbert's book, the concepts of electric attraction, electric force and magnetic poles were first defined.

Many years later, the German physicist, engineer and philosopher from Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke (1602-1686), decided to repeat the scientist’s experiments. He invented special physical instruments that helped not only confirm Gilbert's conclusions, but also confirm the scientific research of von Guericke himself. The best evidence is considered to be a number experimental research, affecting which until then practically no one was interested.

To confirm our own research and previous experiences William Gilbert, von Guericke invented a special device that allows you to create an electrical state. It lacked a capacitor to store electricity produced by friction, so this device did not fully correspond to the concept of an electric machine. Nevertheless, he played his role and thanks to him, the history of the development of electricity received a new impetus in the right direction.

Von Guericke also discovered the effect of electric repulsion, which was previously unknown. To confirm this effect a large ball of sulfur was made, through which an axis was threaded, which set it in motion. During rotation, it was rubbed with a dry hand, which caused the ball to become electrified. During the experiment, it was noticed that bodies are first attracted to it and then repelled. In addition, it was visible how the repelled fluff was attracted by other bodies. Other effects were observed during the study, confirming General characteristics and the properties of electricity known at that time.

Subsequently, von Guericke's electric machine was improved by the German scientists Bose, Winkler, and the English physicist Hoxby. With its help, in the 18th and 19th centuries it was possible to make a lot of new discoveries in the theory and practice of electricity.

Great discoveries of the 18th and 19th centuries

Research in the field of electricity was successfully continued by other scientists. So in 1707, the French physicist Du Fay discovered the difference between electricity obtained from friction against different materials. For the experiments, circles made of glass and tree resin were used.

In 1729, English scientists Gray and Wheeler found that individual species substances are capable of transmitting electricity through themselves. It was from their discovery that all bodies began to be divided into types and called conductors and non-conductors of electricity. In the same year, the Dutch physicist Muschenbroek from Leiden made a grand discovery. During experiments with glass jar, closed on both sides with sheets of staniol, it was found that such a vessel is capable of storing electricity. Based on the location of the experiment, this device was called a Leyden jar.

The American scientist and public figure Benjamin Franklin made a great contribution to science. He proved the theory of the coexistence of positive and negative electricity and explained the processes occurring during the charging and discharging of a Leyden jar. It was found that free electrification of the plates of this device can occur under the influence of different electric charges. Benjamin Franklin devoted a lot of time to the study of atmospheric electricity and, using a lightning rod, proved the occurrence of lightning from a difference in electrical potentials.

In 1785, the French scientist Charles Coulomb discovered a law that describes the electrical interaction between point charges. The discovery of an exact physical law occurred without complex laboratory equipment, using only steel balls. To determine the distance and force of interaction, the same torsion balances were used as in studies of gravitational forces between two bodies. The scientist did not use the absolute value of electric charges; he simply took two identical charges or unequal ones, but with a previously known difference in their magnitude.

An important discovery in the field of electricity was made by the Italian scientist Alessandro Volta in 1800. This invention was a chemical battery consisting of round silver plates, arranged with pieces of paper, previously moistened with salt water. Chemical reactions, occurring in the battery, contributed to the regular generation of electric current.

In 1831, the famous English physicist Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon, and on its basis he was the first in the world to invent electric generator. The name Michael Faraday is associated with the concepts of electric and magnetic fields and the invention of the simplest electric motor.

The entire history of electricity would be incomplete without the outstanding inventor Nikola Tesla, who worked at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and was significantly ahead of his time. He constantly transferred his research in the field of magnetism and electricity to a practical level. The devices created by the brilliant scientist are still considered unique and inimitable.

Throughout his life devoted to studying the possibilities of electricity, Tesla registered many patents and made discoveries that became breakthroughs in electrical engineering. Most inventions and discoveries are still used in one way or another Everyday life. Of the most famous works Of note is the rotating magnetic field, which allows the use of alternating current in electric motors without conversion to direct current. Tesla also created an alternating current motor, on the basis of which an alternating current generator was later created. These and other discoveries have been successfully used in many technical solutions.

The list of scientists who made a significant contribution to the development of the science of electricity can be long. In conclusion, I would like to mention Georg Ohm, who, through experiments, deduced the basic law of the electrical circuit. Thanks to Ohm, terms such as electromotive force, conductivity, voltage drop and others appeared. No less famous is Ampere Andre-Marie, who invented it to determine the direction of current on a magnetic needle. He also owns the design of a magnetic field amplifier, which is a coil with big amount turns. These and other scientists have done a lot to ensure that humanity takes full advantage of the benefits that electricity provides.

Overall rating- 5 points (name correctly - 1, explain what it means and why it arose - 3, explain the meaning of use today - 1).

The competition can be organized in several ways.

On the history of the ancient world

"Carve the sea." The Persian king Xerxes went to war against Greece in the 5th century BC. e. and ordered the construction of a bridge across the strait between Asia and Europe to transport his troops. The storm swept away the bridge. The enraged ruler ordered the builders to be executed and the sea to be cut with chains. The expression is used in relation to those people who, in blind rage, try to take out their anger on something beyond their control.

"Penelope's Fabric" Penelope is the wife from Homer's poem of the same name. She waited twenty years for her husband. She promised her many fans that she would get married as soon as she wove the blanket. But every night she unraveled everything she had done during the day. Today the expression is used to mean clever cunning. "Penelope's Work" is an endlessly ongoing labor, the results of which are destroyed as one moves forward.

"Sink into oblivion." Summer was called underground river Hell, which separated the living world from the kingdom of the dead. The waters of the river brought oblivion. “To sink into oblivion” means “to disappear from memory, to be subject to oblivion.”

"Barrel Danaid" According to Greek legend, King Danaus had 50 beautiful daughters. He was against their marriage and ordered them to kill their husbands. The gods were angry at this atrocity and sentenced their daughters to the following punishment: deep underground, fill a bottomless barrel with water. Now it is a symbol of aimless, never-ending work.

"Reach the climax." Means to achieve the most capital punishment prosperity, power, glory. Apogee - Greek word: “apo” - “far”, “gay” - “earth”. Literally, “far from the earth.”

“Raise it on the shield.” In Rome, when choosing a commander, they raised him high on a shield above the heads of the soldiers. Today it means “to extol a person’s merits, to strongly praise a person.”

"Hannibal's Oath." As a nine-year-old boy, Hannibal, the future outstanding Carthaginian commander, vowed to fight Rome forever. He kept his vow. Used in the meaning of the oath of allegiance that a person takes and devotes his entire life to this noble cause,

“And you, Lying!” His closest friend, Brutus, took part in the murder of Caesar in the Senate. Caesar allegedly uttered this phrase when he saw him among his murderers. Used as a symbol of betrayal.

"Geese saved Rome." Rome was attacked by the Gauls at night. Under cover of darkness, they silently overcame the fortifications. But the geese who were in the temple heard the noise and began to guffaw. The Romans woke up and repelled the attack of the Gallic tribes. Used when minor events are given extreme importance.

"Cross the Rubicon". Caesar, returning to Rome with victory, stood for a long time at border river Rubicon. Her transition and return to Rome meant that he was beginning a struggle for power. After some thought, Caesar made up his mind and crossed the Rubicon. Used when an important decision is made and there is no way to retreat. Synonym: “The die is cast!”, “Burn the ships.”

"Pyrrhic". King Pyrrhus of Ephesus defeated the Romans at the cost of enormous losses. After the battle, he allegedly exclaimed: “Another such victory, and I will have no army left!” Used to mean “to achieve something at the cost of enormous sacrifices.”

On the history of the Middle Ages

"Go to Canossa." The 11th century German emperor, who opposed the pope, was excommunicated. He had to beg a petition on his knees in front of Canossa, where the pope was in the castle. Used in the case of humiliating begging for something.

"Paris is worth a mass"(mass). These words were allegedly said by Henry of Bourbon, the leader of the Huguenots, when in 1593 he renounced his faith and converted to Catholicism. This step secured him the French throne. He entered it under the name of Henry IV. Used in the sense of “to compromise for the sake of gain, for selfish purposes.”

"Throw down the gauntlet." The expression comes from the times of medieval chivalry. Calling on, the knight threw the gauntlet to the enemy. The one who raised the glove accepted the challenge. Now it is used in the sense of “challenge for an argument, competition.”

“If the mountain does not come to Mohammed, then Mohammed goes to the mountain.” The founder of Islam, Mohammed, was considered the “prophet of Allah on earth.” According to legend, he, wanting to prove that he had extraordinary power, ordered the mountain to come closer. But the mountain did not move. Then he himself approached her. Used in the sense of the need to obey someone whom one wanted to force to obey oneself

On the history of Russia

“Put in a long box.” In the administrative huts in Russia, petitions submitted were folded into long chests. These cases lay unsolved for years. Used when a decision is postponed indefinitely.

"The real truth." During the interrogation, the defendant was beaten with a whip, which was called a long whip. It was believed that in pain a person would tell the whole truth.

"Sharpen the laces." Lyasy, or balusters, is the name given in Rus' to the carved wooden decorations on the pillars holding up the porch. Cutting balusters was considered not difficult and did not require special attention.

Therefore, the worker could simultaneously carry on extraneous conversations. Used in the sense of wasting time.

“Shout at the top of Ivanovo.” In the Moscow Kremlin, near the bell tower of Ivan the Great, there was Ivanovo Square. At it, all important sovereign decrees were publicly announced to the people. Used in the sense of condemnation when a person speaks too loudly.

"Work carelessly." The clothing of the Russian boyars was such that the sleeves went down very low, almost to the knees. It was absolutely impossible to work in such clothes. It means “to work poorly, sloppily.”

"Pull the red tape". A very thin thread was drawn from copper wire - red tape. The work was slow and laborious. Used to mean “to do slowly, to take time.” The thread was sometimes called "gimp". Therefore, the synonym is “pull the gimp.”

"Knock it off." To make a wooden spoon or cup, you need to chop off a block of wood. It was an easy task, it was entrusted to apprentices. It didn't require any special skill. Used in the sense of “doing an empty, worthless thing, doing nonsense.”

"Nick down". The nose is a memorial plaque, a record tag. They carried it with them and made notches as a keepsake. Means “to remember for a long time.”

"Stay with your nose." Petitioner in Tsarist Russia, when he approached an institution or court, he brought an offering to speed up the consideration of cases. If his “gift” was not accepted, then he went back with his offering, or nose, that is, with what he brought. It means “to leave with nothing, to achieve nothing.”

"Red thread." The expression entered the speech of several peoples from the language of English sailors of the late 18th century. Since 1776, by order of the Admiralty, a red thread was woven into all ropes of the English navy. It could only be pulled out by destroying the rope itself. The British naval rope was recognizable everywhere. Used to mean the very essence, a constant sign.

"gibberish letter" Special in a secret way written letter, used in secret correspondence of the 12th-13th centuries. In the 19th century, officials used gibberish letters, in more late time- Old Believers. Means “to speak a language not understood by most”

“Saryn, to the kitchka! Cry when capturing ships. Saryn is a loaf - Kichka is the front part of the vessel. While robbing the rich, the robbers on the Volga and other rivers did not touch the poor. It means “to step aside, hide, not interfere.”

Summing up, awarding the winners.

But still she spins- legend attributes these words to the great Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) - astronomer, physicist, mechanic. Summoned to trial by the Inquisition for adhering to and promoting the teachings of Copernicus on the movement of the Earth around the Sun, he was forced, kneeling before the tribunal, to swear his renunciation of “heresy.” According to legend, when Galileo stood up, he exclaimed: “eppur si muove” (“Still she is spinning”). This phrase has become a catchphrase and is used as an expression of unshakable conviction in something.

Alma mater(Latin: Alma mater - “nursing mother, nursing mother”) - an expression coming from the name of the university by medieval students who ate spiritual food there. Used today in a humorous or affectionate sense.

Arabian tales- the expression is used when they encounter something unusual, surprising, unexpectedly successful and favorable, which can be compared with the wonders of Arabian fairy tales from the collection “A Thousand and One Nights.”

Ascetic– see in the Dictionary. The word has become a household word to designate a modern person leading a modest, even harsh, “ascetic” lifestyle.

Architecture is frozen music- expression of Johann Wolfgang Goethe (conversation with Eckermann on March 23, 1829). Most often used in relation to gothic(See Dictionary, Part I).

Run like the plague. To be afraid like the plague - in 1348-1349 The countries of Western Europe were struck by a terrible epidemic of bubonic plague, which claimed the lives of a third to half of the inhabitants. Contemporaries called the plague the Black Death. The plague raged in both villages and cities, especially in the latter due to overcrowding and unsanitary conditions. The flight of a group of rich and noble youth from a plague-ridden city became the basis of the plot of the collection of short stories by one of the first Italian humanists Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) “The Decameron”. Shocked by the unprecedented disaster, Boccaccio began writing the Decameron in the same year 1348.

Vandals. Vandalism– In 455, the German tribe of Vandals captured and plundered Rome, destroying or damaging many works of art and priceless ancient manuscripts. The name of the tribe has become a common noun and means an ignoramus, a barbarian, a destroyer. Vandalism is damage and destruction of cultural or public material assets.

St. Bartholomew's Night- on the night of August 24, 1572 - the feast of St. Bartholomew - Parisian Catholics, with the blessing of the royal power, carried out a treacherous and bloody massacre of the Huguenots who came to Paris on the occasion of the wedding of the sister of King Charles IX Margaret and their leader Henry of Navarre. The massacre of the Huguenots in Paris lasted 4 days, and in the provinces where it spread until October.

In a figurative sense, V.n. began to mean cruel, merciless reprisals.

Great Mogul– Europeans called the Great Mughals (from the distorted “Mongols”) the rulers of the Baburid dynasty, descendants of Timur, who conquered India in 1526.

The name became a common noun denoting an extremely rich person.

Let's go back to our sheep- with these words in the anonymous French farce “Pierre Patlin the Advocate” (c. 1470), the judge interrupts the stormy stream of reproaches of the rich clothier. The clothier, having forgotten that a case is being heard in court against a shepherd who stole his sheep, directs all his anger at the shepherd’s defender, lawyer Patlen, recognizing him as a man who did not pay him for the purchased cloth.

The expression applies to those people who are excessively distracted by main topic your story (speech, performance, conversation).

Castles in the air – one of the first fathers christian church St. Aurelius Augustine (Augustine the Blessed - 354-430) once spoke figuratively in his sermon about “building in the air.” The expression was remembered, but spread later in the form of “building castles in the air (or in Spain).” In Russia, the expression became popular in another form, namely “Castles in the Air” after the publication of I.I. Dmitriev’s fairy tale of the same name (1794) about a dreamer.

The expression “castles in the air” is used when we mean unrealistic plans, fantastic dreams, etc.

War of all against all(Latin “bellum omnium contra annis”) - an expression by the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) in his work “Elements of Public and Civil Law” (1642).

All roads lead to Rome- medieval proverb.

World Spider- this is how the Duke of Burgundy Charles the Bold (1468-1477) described the French king Louis XI (1461-1483) - a cautious, prudent politician, a great master of behind-the-scenes intrigue and a hypocrite, for the latter’s ability to draw almost all European rulers into the sphere of his interests.

The expression has become popular.

Everything is lost except honor- defeated by the troops of the German Emperor Charles V in 1525 at Pave and taken prisoner, the French king Francis I (1515-1547) sent a letter to his mother Louise of Savoy, allegedly consisting of only one phrase: “Everything is lost except honor.” In fact, the letter was very detailed and extensive.

Gallic rooster– the ancient Romans called the Celtic population of Gaul – modern France and Belgium – Gauls. Latin word galbus means not only “gall”, but also “rooster”. According to the French historian A. Blok, the Romans named these territories Celts because many of them were red-haired and their tufted hairstyles resembled the combs of roosters. During the Great French Bourgeois Revolution, a coin was minted with the image of a rooster as a symbol of vigilance. The rooster on the coins was perceived by the French, who considered the Gauls as their ancestors, as the “Gallic rooster”, and it began to be perceived as a national idea, as an allegory of France. Caricaturists often began to depict France in the form of a rooster, hinting at the love of life, vivacity and enthusiasm of the French.

Gaudeámus úgitur(Gaudeamus igitur) – the opening line of a medieval student hymn is “Let us be merry.”

Garun al-Rashud– more precisely Harun ar-Rashid (786-809), Caliph of Baghdad. In the tales of "A Thousand and One Nights" he is presented as a wise, fair ruler, father of the people, patron of the arts. The real Harun al-Rashid was extremely far from this idealized image.

State within a state- taking advantage of the weakening of central power in the first years of the reign of the young French king Louis XIII, the Huguenots (see Dictionary) at the end of the second decade of the 17th century. began an uprising and proclaimed their Huguenot republic in the south of the country, creating a kind of “state within a state.” This expression is first found in the work of the French writer Agrippa d'Aubigne (1552-1630) “On the Duties of the King and Subjects” (written between 1610 and 1620). The action of the Huguenots was suppressed in 1629 under the leadership of Cardinal Richelieu.

The expression has been preserved and began to be used in relation to any organization or group of people who place themselves in exceptional, privileged conditions, not taking into account the interests of others.

The state is me- these words were allegedly spoken by the French king Louis XIV (1643-1715) at a meeting of parliament in 1655. These words are, as it were, the quintessence of an absolute monarchy. Now this expression is used to characterize individuals who occupy a leadership position in any field of activity and do complete arbitrariness.

Don Juan. Don Juanism– Don Juan (Juan) is the hero of an ancient Spanish legend, a red tape worker who spends his life in love adventures. In world literature there are more than a hundred works, the plot of which is inspired by this legend. The most famous are the plays of the Spanish playwright Tirso de Molina (1572-1648) “The Seductress of Seville” (1630) and J.-B. Molière (1622-1673) “Don Juan” (1665); in Russian literature - the drama “The Stone Guest” by A.S. Pushkin and the poem “Don Juan” by A.K. Tolstoy. The plot of this legend is the basis for Mozart's opera Don Giovanni (1787).

Don Quixote. Knight of the Sad Image- the main character of the novel by the great Spanish writer Miguel Cervantes de Saavedra (1547-1616) “The Glorious Knight Don Quixote of La Mancha” (1605-1615). Don Quixote is a poor nobleman, old and lonely, a lover of ancient chivalric novels, after reading which he lost all understanding of reality and imagined himself as a knight errant. Don Quixote's fantasies push him to do imaginary great deeds, which in reality are absurd, funny and pitiful, for example, mistaking windmills for giants, he fights with them, etc. As a result of these absurdities and misunderstandings, Don Quixote receives bruises and bumps. The pitiful appearance of the beaten gentleman leads Sancho Panza to call Don Quixote the Knight of the Sad Image. The name Don Quixote has become a household name; it is used to describe a kind but detached person from life, a dreamer who engages in a useless struggle with real or imaginary evil without measuring his strength.

Dulcinea (Dulcinea)– “The incomparable Dulcinea of ​​Toboso” was what Don Quixote called his noble “lady of the heart” in Cervantes’s novel of the same name, who was in fact the portly and rude peasant woman Aldonsa. The name D. became a humorous household name for the woman he loved, his beloved.

If the mountain does not come to Mohammed, then Mohammed goes to the mountain- one of the most common variants of the origin of this expression is the story given by the English thinker Francis Bacon (1561-1621) in his “Moral and Political Essays” that Mohammed (Muhammad) promised the people to move the mountain by the force of his order and, when he did not succeeded, without being confused, he stated the following: “Well, since the mountain does not want to go to Mohammed, Mohammed will go to it himself” (essay “On Courage”).

There are many things in the world, friend Horatio, that our sages never dreamed of.– Quote from William Shakespeare’s tragedy “Hamlet” (act 1, scene 5, words of Hamlet).

If not me, then who?– The words belong to Joan of Arc (1412-1431) – the national heroine of France. Answering the question about the reasons for leaving home without the knowledge of her parents, Jeanne said: “No one in the world... will save the kingdom of France or help it. Except me. If not me, then who?” The expression means the difficult need to personally perform an extremely difficult duty or duty.

Go to Canossa- German Emperor Henry IV (1056-1106) entered into a sharp political struggle with the papacy on behalf of the imperious and ambitious reformer of the Catholic Church, Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085), who claimed to subjugate all the secular states of Europe. Henry IV categorically refused to obey the pope and, having convened a council of German bishops in 1076, had the pope declared deposed. The Pope, in turn, cursed Henry IV, excommunicated him and freed all his subjects from the oath of allegiance. Dissatisfied with the imperial power that had strengthened by that time, the German princes, taking advantage of the situation, agreed not to recognize him as king if he remained in excommunication for more than a year. Henry IV, finding himself in a hopeless situation, was forced to beg the pope for forgiveness. To do this, having crossed the Alps, in January 1077, on foot, barefoot and in rags, he appeared under the walls of the castle of Canossa, where the pope was then, and stood on his knees for three days until the pope accepted his repentance. The expression “go to Canossa” became a catchphrase, meaning the need to make reconciliation with the enemy even at the cost of humiliation.

Kaluf (haluf) for an hour- this is what they say about a person who has received power over a short time. The expression arose from the title of the fairy tale “A Waking Dream, or Caliph for an Hour” from the collection of Arabic tales “A Thousand and One Nights.” The plot of the tale is as follows. The young Baghdadian Abu Hassan met a visiting merchant and invited him to visit, not suspecting that in front of him was the Caliph Harun al-Rashid in disguise. Opening up, Abu Hassan told the guest about his cherished place - to be in the place of the caliph, at least for a short time. Unnoticed, Harun al-Rashid slips him sleeping pills, and the asleep Abu-Ghassan is transferred to the caliph's palace. The courtiers are ordered to obey Hassan in everything. Waking up, Hassan discovers that he has become caliph. All day long he enjoys a luxurious life in the palace and gives various orders. In the evening, they again quietly add sleeping pills to him and take him home. In the morning, Hassan cannot understand what happened to him the day before - a dream or reality.

Insidious Albin– Albion is the ancient name of Britain. In Russian pre-revolutionary literature, the expression “insidious Albion” was widely used to denote England. Probably, this expression was first used in the chronicle of Otto of St. Bazen (beginning of the 13th century), in which by “insidious England” he meant the actions of the English king Richard the Lionheart (1189-1199) during the Third Crusade. The expression was remembered, but was somewhat transformed during the Great French Bourgeois Revolution and Napoleon's Empire. In the context of sharply aggravated French-English relations and increased interest in ancient history and its heroes, the combination “insidious Albion” appears, which became especially popular after England violated the Peace of Amiens in 1803. Further political realities of the 19th century. made this expression widely used.

Columbus egg- the expression goes back to a medieval Spanish joke, the essence of which is that many sages and craftsmen tried in vain to place an egg on the table vertically with its sharp end, and only the simpleton Juanelo thought of flattening the end of the egg by hitting the table. This is how the Spanish expression Huevode Juanelo (Janelo's Egg) arose. Later, the joke about an egg placed on a sharp end was included in various literary works. One of these stories is associated with the name of Christopher Columbus (1451-1506). Benzoni in “History of the New World” (1565) told the following story: after the first voyages of Columbus, when many others began to follow in the footsteps of the strange navigator, in one of the conversations the interlocutor told Columbus that his voyage was not too difficult; Columbus invited this man to deliver the egg, but he, of course, could not do this. Then Columbus himself placed the egg, having first lightly cracked its end, noting that this was not difficult. The expression “Columbus egg” is used to denote an original, bold and unexpected solution to a complex problem.

Russian Columbus– words from M.V. Lomonosov’s unfinished poem “Peter the Great”:

The Russian Columbuses, despising gloomy fate,

Between the ice a new path will be opened to the east,

And our power will reach America.

In an ode of 1747, M.V. Lomonosov, referring to Vitus Bering (1681-1741), wrote:

Russian Columbus through the waters

Hastens to unknown nations.

The expression is used on special occasions, when referring to the heroic pages of the history of the Russian fleet.

Conquistadors(see Dictionary) - in a figurative sense, rough, cruel conquerors, robbers.

King Lear- the hero of William Shakespeare's tragedy of the same name (1608), the old king, expelled from his home after the division of the inheritance by his ungrateful daughters. His name became a household name.

The king reigns but does not rule- for the first time this expression in Latin (Rex regnat sed gubernat) was used by the Polish hetman Jan Zamoyski (1541-1605) at one of the meetings of the Valny All-Polish Sejm.

The king is dead, long live the king!- a traditional medieval formula adopted in European monarchies, proclaimed by royal heralds to the population when a ruler changes. Today, the expression is used when talking about a person who easily changes his views and beliefs depending on the interests of the momentary situation. Such a person is also compared to a weather vane; the meaning of the expression is similar to the proverbs “keep your nose in the wind” and “feel where the wind is blowing.”

Crusade(see Dictionary, part I) - now under K.p. in a figurative sense, it is usually understood as targeted opposition, persecution or persecution on the part of reactionary or conservative forces to manifestations of dissent in any area of ​​social, scientific or cultural life; in this sense, the expression is similar to "witch hunt". In everyday life, the expression K.p. often used humorously and ironically.

Round table- in medieval Western Europe The cycle of chivalric novels about King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table was very popular. In one of these novels, the wizard Merlin gives the idea to the King of the Britons, Uther (Arthur's father), to create a knightly order of the Round Table. The knights, watching the round table at the royal feasts, felt equal, because there were no better or worse places here. The idea of ​​a round table was adopted in international politics to emphasize the equality of all deliberating or negotiating parties. The expression “round table” has also entered our lives to designate any event related to the discussion of any problem, at which different points of view are freely expressed and objectively assessed.

He who does not know how to pretend does not know how to reign- words of the French king Louis XI (see World Spider).

Chicken in a pot (soup)– the French king Henry IV the Great (1589-1610) allegedly once said to the Duke of Savoy: “If God prolongs my life, I will ensure that there is not a single peasant left in my kingdom who would not be able to have a chicken in his pot.” "(H.de Péréfixe. Histoire du roy Henry le Grand, 1861). This phrase became popular in the following version: “I would like every peasant to have his own chicken in soup on Sundays.”

Flying Dutchman– in the Netherlands, where people’s lives were inextricably linked with the sea, many fairy tales and legends about sailors were composed. One of the legends told about a brave navigator who vowed to go around the cape that blocked his path, despite the storm raging at sea, even if it took forever. For his self-confidence and pride, he was punished by becoming an eternal wanderer across the stormy seas and oceans. The legend said that his appearance foreshadowed the death of the ship he encountered on his way. The legend probably appeared during the era of great geographical discoveries. It is likely that the historical prototype of the fearless sailor was the Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu Dias, who was the first to circumnavigate the Cape of Good Hope after completing his expedition. In the 17th century this legend was mainly associated with the name of Dutch captains, which is reflected in its name. The expression “flying Dutchman” is applied to people who are constantly on the move, to lovers of travel, tourism, as well as to “flyers” at work.

Magisterdixit(Master Dixit) – translated from Latin - “so said the teacher.” This was the usual reference of the scholastics to the indisputable authority of Aristotle as their only argument. Today they say this, meaning a speech, statement, etc., devoid of evidence and supported only by reference to someone else’s authority.

Tradesman in the nobility- the title in the Russian translation of Moliere’s comedy “Ze Bourgeois gentilhomme” (1670), in which the bourgeois Jourdain was ridiculed, striving in every way to penetrate high society and blindly imitating the nobility in everything. All his attempts to be like a nobleman look ridiculous and ridiculous. These words mean upstart. The Russian equivalent is “From rags to riches.”

Much ado about nothing- the name of Shakespeare's comedy (1600), which has become a proverb. Similar to what appeared in the 18th century. in the expression of the French political thinker Montesquieu (1689-1755) - “A storm in a teacup.”

Silent means consent- an expression of Pope Boniface VIII (1297-1303), formulated in one of his messages. Goes back to Sophocles (496-408 BC), in whose tragedy “The Trachinian Women” there is the phrase “Don’t you understand that by silence you agree with the accuser?”

Wisdom is the daughter of experience- the aphorism belongs to the brilliant Italian artist, sculptor, architect and poet Michelangelo (1475-1564).

Master(see Dictionary, Part I) - the concept came from medieval craft, it means a true master of his craft, this is how outstanding figures of art, science, and literature are respectfully called.

This is where I stand and I can’t do otherwise.- words from the speech of the founder of the European Reformation Martin Luther (1483-1546) at the Worms Reichstag on April 18, 1521, where he was summoned for explanations and the supposed renunciation of his beliefs in the presence of the new German emperor Charles V. But Luther, knowing that in In case of refusal to renounce, inevitable persecution awaits him and perhaps the fate of Jan Hus, he showed fortitude, did not go against his conscience and rejected the renunciation. The final words of his speech became popular.

Something is wrong (not right) in the Kingdom of Denmark- one of the translation options for Marcello’s words in Shakespeare’s tragedy “Hamlet” (act 1, scene 4). This expression means hidden trouble in some matter.

"Invincible Armada"- a huge military flotilla of the Spanish king Philip II, called the “Invincible Armada” (“armada” is a large fleet) because of its confidence in victory, was sent in 1588 to conquer England. Small English ships, well equipped with artillery, met the Spaniards in the English Channel. The battle lasted more than a week, the British won a brilliant victory. The rest of "N.a." was forced to go north in order to bypass England and return to his homeland. A storm that began in the North Sea completed the inglorious death of the Spanish fleet. The expression is used in an ironic sense.

There is no god but God, and Mohammed is his prophet- two main indivisible tenets of Islam. The expression is used ironically.

There is no sadder story in the world- the words of the Duke, completing Shakespeare's tragedy "Romeo and Juliet" (1597).

New World – it is interesting that Columbus himself was the first to use this expression, however, in the form of a comparison, describing in one of his letters his impressions of the lands he discovered. Humanist scientist Petrus Martyr Anglernus, already six months after Columbus’s return from the first expedition, expressed a brilliant guess that Columbus had discovered the “New World” (novus orbis). For the first time this phrase was officially heard in the same 1493, when, by decree of the Spanish king Ferdinand V the Catholic, Columbus was granted a coat of arms with the motto: “For Castile and Leon, Columbus found the New World.” True, the expression of N.S. here, most likely, it was understood as the name of only a new country that came under the rule of the Spanish crown. Scientific evidence that Columbus was “discovered, as can be seen, new part light" in 1503 was brought by the Italian navigator Amergo Vespucci", who sailed in the footsteps of Columbus to new lands. Vespucci's published letters became so widely known in Europe that the German cartographer Waldseemüller in 1507 marked the new continent on his maps under the name Amerigo Vespucci. Expression by N.S. became winged, it is constantly used today, especially when contrasting America and Europe, which has now become the Old World.

With fire and sword- the original expression probably goes back to the most effective and radical methods of ancient medicine - surgery and cauterization with fire to stop bleeding and disinfection. Thus, the famous ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC) said: “What medicine does not heal, iron heals; what iron cannot heal, is healed by fire.” Later, in the 1st century BC. Roman poets (for example, Ovid and others) began to use this expression in a different sense - the merciless destruction of the enemy with weapons and fires. The expression became especially popular after the publication of the novel by the Polish writer Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846-1916) “With Fire and Sword.” As a rule, it has now begun to be used in a figurative sense as a merciless, extremely cruel destruction of something. Very often such words characterize actions related to medieval history(suppression of popular uprisings, campaigns of German crusaders against the Slavs, punitive expeditions in general, forced Christianization - for example, Indians in America, etc.).

She loved me for my torment,

And I thank her for her compassion for them

The words of Othello from William Shakespeare’s tragedy of the same name “Othello, the Moor of Venice” (1604), spoken by him about Desdemona and the emergence of mutual feelings between them. The expression is most often used ironically.

Oh holy simplicity!- according to legend, these words are spoken by the Czech national hero, denouncer of the vices of the Catholic Church, Jan Hus (1369-1415), condemned by this church at the cathedral in Constanta and sentenced to be burned at the stake. These words came out of him when he saw that some old woman, in religious ecstasy, threw an armful of brushwood into the flaring fire. This expression is often used in Latin: “O sancta simplicitas!”

From board to board- most often these words are uttered when they carefully read a book from beginning to end or study the files of some documents. The roots of the expression go back to the Middle Ages, when book bindings were made from boards covered with leather.

Othello- the main character of Shakespeare's tragedy of the same name, a Venetian Moor who, believing the slander, in a fit of jealousy strangled his wife Desdemona. O.'s name became synonymous with jealous.

Discover America- an ironic expression, similar in meaning to the words “Reinvent the wheel” or “The Volga flows into the Caspian Sea.”

"Witch-hunt"(see Dictionary, Part I) - mass trials against “witches” in the 15th-17th centuries, organized by church and secular authorities and covering all countries (both Catholic and Protestant). The official methods of investigation are set out in the book of the inquisitor monks Institoris and Sprenger, “The Witches’ Hammer.” The investigation sought recognition from the victims using such legalized methods as monstrous torture, deception, provocation, etc. To initiate a case, a denunciation, word of mouth, etc. was enough. As a rule, the trial ended with a guilty verdict. Convicts were sent to the stake (see Auto-da-fé), and their property was subject to confiscation. The expression has moved into the realm public policy, when large-scale persecution of dissidents is announced for political purposes.

Panurgovo herd- the expression is used to characterize a group of people, a crowd, blindly following someone. It arose from a description of an episode in the novel by the French humanist writer François Rabelais (1494-1553) “Gargantua and Pantagruel” (1534). The rogue Panurge, one of the heroes of the novel, quarreled with a merchant who was transporting a flock of sheep on a ship. The offended Panurge decides to take revenge on the merchant. For a lot of money, he buys the largest ram from the merchant and throws it overboard. The entire herd immediately rushed after their leader, dragging along with them the merchant who was trying to stop the sheep.

Paris is worth a mass (mass)- During the Huguenot Wars, after the assassination of the French king Henry III, the Valois dynasty was ended (1589). Royal power was supposed to pass to the representative of a side branch of the dynasty, Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre, but Catholics did not want to see a Huguenot king on the throne (see Dictionary, Part I). The wars continued. Paris offered especially strong resistance to Henry. The Protestant religion of Henry of Navarre became an obstacle to ending the conflict that had lasted for more than three decades. civil wars. Henry decides to once again convert to Catholicism (he already had to do this under threat of death on St. Bartholomew's Night). “Paris is worth a mass,” - so, according to legend, the future king said. In July 1593, he publicly renounced Calvinism, and already in February 1594 he was crowned as the rightful king of France under the name of Henry IV. His descendants called him the Great.

The expression means the need to compromise in order to achieve an important goal.

First among equals- the expression goes back to the time of the first French kings from the Capetian dynasty (from the end of the 10th century), who were viewed in this way by the royal vassals - dukes, marquises and counts.

The provision obliges- one of the basic rules of knightly honor, obliging knights to always act in accordance with the requirements imposed by the title of knight.

A word of praise for stupidity- the title of a satire by the outstanding representative of the Northern Renaissance, Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536). Used in the meaning: stupidity, absurd judgment, expressed with aplomb, categorically.

Subjects have no rights, only responsibilities- the words of the French king-"Sun" Louis XIV (1643-1715).

Puritan(see Dictionary, Part I) - a characteristic of a person distinguished by excessive strictness of tastes, habits, and lifestyle.

The connection of times has broken down- the words of the Danish prince Hamlet from Shakespeare's tragedy of the same name (1601).

Romeo and Juliet- the names of the heroes of the tragedy of the same name (1597) by William Shakespeare, which became a common noun to designate a couple in love.

Rocinante- Don Quixote gave his horse this name (see Dictionary, part II). In Cervantes's description, R. resembles a living skeleton (in Spanish, Rocin - horse, ante - before). Since then, the name R. has become a common noun to designate an old, emaciated, emaciated horse.

Knight without fear and reproach- this is how the contemporaries of the French knight Pierre Terail de Bayard (1473/1476-1524) called him, and this is how he is named in the book “A most pleasant, amusing and relaxing story, composed by an honest servant about the events and actions, successes and exploits of a good knight without fear or reproach, glorious lord Bayard..." (1527). In battles, B. was distinguished by unparalleled courage and nobility. Twice he was captured, and both times he was released without ransom in recognition of his military valor. After B.'s death, both warring armies concluded a truce for a dignified burial of the hero's body with military honors. The same honorary title was given to another compatriot and contemporary of B., the outstanding commander Louis de la Tremoy (1460-1525).

Now this expression is used to describe a brave, courageous person with high moral principles.

Burn the ships- the background of this expression goes back to ancient times. History knows several events related to actions that cut off the road back. One of the most famous cases is the burning of all his ships by the conquistador (see Dictionary, Part I) Hernan Cortes (1485-1547) before the start of the conquest expedition against the Aztecs in order to cut off the path of retreat for his soldiers: they could only go forward (1519) .

The expression means: such drastic measures have been taken that make it impossible to return to the previous state, leaving the only way out - moving forward towards the intended goal.

The expressions “Cross the Rubicon” (Julius Caesar, 1st century BC) and “Put everything on the line” have a similar meaning.

Sesame, open up (open up)- an expression from the first French translation (1704-1708) of the Arabic fairy tale “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves,” included in the collection “A Thousand and One Nights” (See Dictionary). These words are not in the originals, but since then they have become an integral part of it.

The expression is often used in a humorous sense with the intention of penetrating some secret, overcoming an obstacle, etc.

Blue Beard- a character in an old French fairy tale, adapted in 1697 by Charles Perrault, published under the title “Raoul, Knight Bluebeard.” Her hero is a bloodthirsty knight who kills his wives for being too curious. Since then, the nickname Bluebeard has become a common name for a jealous, cruel husband. But, as some researchers believe, the fairy-tale character had a terrible real prototype- Baron Gilles Laval de Retz (Re), statesman and marshal of France (1404-1440). In his youth, he became famous as a brave warrior, defender of the besieged Orleans, who fought over the banners of Joan of Arc, and deservedly became a marshal. But then he retired, locked himself in his castle, morally degraded and turned into a monster in human form. Among the surrounding residents, the fame of a sorcerer who killed children for ritual purposes spread about him. An investigation was conducted, de Rais was found guilty and burned at the stake. Thus, the meaning of this nickname has another meaning, becoming synonymous with a terrible villain.

Scandalous chronicle- this was the title of the publisher of the second edition (1611) of the book about the French king Louis XI (1461-1483), probably written by his squire Denu Hesselen - “Chronicle of the most Christian and victorious Louis of Valois, the eleventh of this name.” The expression speaks for itself.

Too true- the words spoken by Pope Innocent X regarding his portrait painted by the brilliant Spanish painter Diego Velazquez (1599-1660).

Fight windmills- the expression characterizes a fruitless and useless struggle with imaginary difficulties, such as that waged by Don Quixote (see Dictionary, Part II) with windmills, mistaking them for formidable giants.

He who gives his life to science does not die- medieval Arabic proverb.

Thousand and One Nights- the name of the famous collection of Arabic tales, the final edition of which dates back to the 15th-16th centuries. See Dictionary, Part II - Arabic Tales, the meaning is the same.

The Taming of the Shrew- the name of Shakespeare's comedy (1593), the plot of which is that a witty husband, under the guise of pleasing his capricious and eccentric wife, successfully re-educates her. The expression is used when it comes to 1) the re-education of people with difficult characters or 2) the use of any violent actions against various forms of protest in different areas life and activity.

Utopia(see Dictionary, Part I) - the name has become a common noun, meaning a pipe dream, fantasy, beautiful fairy tale.

Falstaff- one of the heroes in William Shakespeare's plays "Henry IV" (1598) and "The Merry Wives of Windsor" (1602) - a fat man who loves to eat and drink well, a braggart, a joker and a coward. F. is a common name for such people.

Philosophy is the handmaiden of theology- the expression is attributed to the historian of the Catholic Church, apologist of the papacy, Caesar Baronius (1538-1607). This expression is often pronounced with appropriate substitution of words, for example: “Music is the servant of poetry” (Gluck), etc.

Philosopher's Stone– according to the ideas of medieval alchemists, this is a substance that had the ability to transform silver and even base metals into gold; it is a panacea for all diseases, a means for eternal youth. The dream of medieval alchemists was to create this fantastic F.K. The term is used in a figurative sense as the basis of foundations, the beginning of all things.

End justifies the means(see Dictionary, Part I - Jesuits) - these words contained the main moral principle activities of the Jesuit order. The means to achieve the goal could be any, even murder.

The man he was- these words are pronounced when they want to emphasize the high moral character of a person, his spiritual qualities. This is precisely the meaning Hamlet conveys when speaking about his father.

What fell from the cart was lost(see Dictionary, part - Prize right) - now this is what they say about lost things that there is no probability of being found, about irretrievable losses.

Whose power (country), his faith- this principle was the basis of the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, according to which the religion of the prince of any territory of Germany determined the religion of his subjects. The expression has become popular.

Masterpiece(see Dictionary, Part I) - this word refers to outstanding works of literature and art, for example, masterpieces of world painting, etc.

El Dorado- the flow of gold and silver that poured into Europe after the discovery of America gave rise to rumors that somewhere in the deep, inaccessible regions of South America there was a fabulously rich country. The real basis for these rumors was the story that reached the ears of the conquistadors (see Dictionary, Part I) about the rite of initiation into leaders of the Muisca tribe. The cacique, newly elected after the death of the previous leader, accompanied by a magnificent retinue, went to Lake Guatavita, all covered with gold dust, sparkling like the sun. On a raft, he reached the middle of the lake and dived into its waters until all the gold dust that covered it was washed away. Meanwhile, his entourage threw various gold objects (dishes, jewelry, etc.) into the lake. In Spanish, “the gilded man” sounds like el Hombre Dorado, hence the name of the place where this sacred ceremony took place. The Spaniards found this place, but the reality turned out to be much more prosaic - and the custom was no longer observed (the Muiscas had already been conquered by another Indian tribe by this time), and it turns out they never had countless treasures. However, the rumor did not die. Various versions began to spread about other, genuine locations of Eldorado. Numerous expeditions that searched for it did not find the land of fabulous riches, but in the course of them many important geographical discoveries and ethnographic observations were made. In 1913, an English expedition, equipped with the latest technology, managed to drain Lake Guatavita. At the bottom they found several gold items that were of purely archaeological interest. As the American researcher of the history of the Great Geographical Discoveries R. Ramsay writes, “Eldorado has long been dead, but its ghost still continues to wander” (R. Ramsay. Discoveries that never happened. M. “Progress”, 1977, p. 21). This word came to mean a dream country or, which is much more prosaic. A place, a job, a business that brings in a good income.

I think, therefore I exist- aphorism of the French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650). Often quoted in Latin: "cogito, ergo sum".

I prefer to be right alone than to be wrong not only with the wise men, but with the rest of the world- the words of the famous French surgeon Ambroise Pare (1510-1590).