8 pound gun 1 26. French artillery at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries (Historical and technical essay)

In any case, from the above description it is clear that the rate of fire of the gun depended entirely on the training and coordination of the crew. In this respect, the French artillerymen were not inferior to anyone in Europe. At the training ground they managed to develop a fantastic rate of fire - 13-14 rounds per minute! However, let us immediately note that we're talking about about ideal conditions training shooting and firing without rolling the gun into its original position and without aiming, and therefore this figure has a rather theoretical significance. However, even when it was necessary to aim and roll up the gun, Napoleonic gunners during firing practice could fire very, very often: up to 5-7 rounds per minute. In real combat, this figure decreased to 2-4 rounds per minute.

A factor that seriously reduced the capabilities of Napoleonic era guns in this area was overheating of the barrel. After a series of frequently fired shots, the barrel became so hot that the fast-burning tube ignited prematurely, and the possibility of spontaneous ignition of the gunpowder in the cap was not excluded. Of course, in principle, it would be possible to cool the barrel with a few buckets of water, but such an opportunity was rarely provided in the heat of battle. A small amount of water in a bucket, which was part of the indispensable set of tools that came with the weapon, was spent on wetting the banner.

That is why in the French artillery there was a formal order prohibiting the use of guns one at a time. A single gun could stall at the most inopportune moment. Nevertheless, even with this caveat, it can be noted that, strange as it may seem, guns were generally fired no less often than guns. At critical moments, the French artillerymen fired with a stunning rate of fire. For example, the Senarmont battery, which played a huge role in the battle of Friedland, fired its charges with average speed 3 rounds per minute per gun, taking into account that the guns alternately stopped firing for a while to cool down. This means that, on average, each gun of this battery at the time of its operation fired with a frequency of 4 or more rounds per minute.

It should also be noted that buckshot was fired more often than cannonballs. 3-4 cans of grapeshot per minute fired at the enemy on the battlefield did not seem like a special record. This was due to the fact that the buckshot was not hammered into the barrel so carefully; aiming was also not required, as when shooting with a cannonball. But the howitzers were much slower. The need to carefully insert the grenade into the barrel channel separately from the cap (with the ignition tube towards the direction of flight) complicated the loading process. Therefore, one could not expect more than one or two shots per minute from this type of gun in battle.

Firing range

Let us now dwell on the range of the guns.

The maximum range of 12-pounder guns at elevation angles of about 45° was almost 4 km! However, in practice, such a firing distance was unattainable, since the design of the carriage did not allow the use of elevation angles greater than 6-8°, however, this was not particularly necessary due to the large dispersion of the nuclei at such a distance. On the other hand, it must be taken into account that at low elevation angles, although the cannonball flew much closer, when it hit solid ground it was reflected and continued its flight. The number of ricochets reached 2-3 or even more.

Below we present the approximate trajectory of the nucleus during ricocheting, as well as a table of changes in the lengths of ricochets depending on the elevation angle.

Firing range and ricochet lengths for a 24-pounder gun

elevation	Distance before the first kernels, m	Distance ricochet,	Distance ricochet,	Distance third ricochet,

As can be seen from the table, at small elevation angles, the length of the ricocheting jumps of the nucleus even exceeds the range of its flight before the first fall. This was especially noticeable when the barrel was placed horizontally. The cannonball flew only 300 m, but ricocheted a total of 1680 m! The effect of ricocheting cannonballs was, of course, well known to the French artillerymen, and they skillfully used it in shooting.

As for the effective fire distance, it, as in the case of guns, was assessed differently by contemporaries. Comparing data from various sources, we can conclude that for a medium-caliber gun (cannonball fire) it was approximately 1 km. More detailed effective firing ranges are given in the table.

Effective fire distances for guns of various calibers

12-pound gun	cannonball/grenade, m	Long-distance buckshot, m	Close-range buckshot, m
12 pounder gun
8 pounder gun
4-pounder gun

Effectiveness of artillery fire

These values ​​look, of course, very modest in comparison with the further progress of artillery. However, if you compare these parameters with the tactical and technical data of other types of weapons of that era, primarily guns, you can clearly see the significant qualitative superiority of artillery. This is also noticeable in the parameters that characterize the accuracy of fire. The dispersion of the cannonballs away from the direction of the shot was only tenths of a percent of the cannonball's flight distance. At a distance of 1000 m, the spread of cannonballs in the direction of the shot is L(undershoots and overshoots) and deviation to the left and right from the target (T)- were as follows:

12 pounder gun
8 pounder gun
4-pounder gun

As you can see, the maximum deviation away from the target (at the specified distance) was l= 0.11/2, i.e. only 3 m for an 8-pounder gun.

For real aiming at targets, the results were as follows: when shooting at a target, which was a shield, in length and height equal to the corresponding parameters of an infantry company in a deployed three-rank formation, with 1000 steps there were from 40 to 70% hits, and for a howitzer - 20-30 %. Taking into account the rate of fire of the guns and the relatively low speed of movement of closed formations, this was very accurate.

As for the effect that the cannonball produced when it hit the target, the following figures speak volumes about this. According to the calculations of French engineering officers, a 12-pound cannonball pierced two meters of earthen parapet or a brick wall 0.4 m thick from a distance of 500 m, according to Austrian data - 2.5 m of earthen parapet, which corresponds to 36 soldiers placed one after another.

The modern reader may note with irony that in order to avoid the impact of the cannonball, these thirty-six soldiers should not have stood one after another. Alas, the tactical imperative of the time was such (and this can be seen quite fully in the next chapter) that, whether people wanted it or not, they were forced to resort to dense closed formations. For the masses of infantry and cavalry, the cannonball was a very dangerous projectile, especially if you take into account its possible ricochet, and in rocky soil, the impact of flying stones.

It must also be added that even the cannonballs that did not hit the column of infantry or cavalry still had an effect on people. The deafening howl of cast iron balls rushing overhead had a demoralizing effect on the soldiers.

Shooting with buckshot

Now some information about buckshot. Experiments conducted during the time we studied clearly illustrate its impact. During the experiments, guns of different calibers were used, which fired from different distances at targets measuring 5.8 m high and 35 m wide: this approximately corresponds to the size of the front of a deployed squadron. Then the number of bullets hitting the shield was counted. Below we present the results of these experiments.

Number of buckshot bullets hitting the target

Type of gun	Number of bullets in charge	Distance to target, m	Number of bullets hit
12 pounder gun	41 (long-range buckshot)
	112 (close-range buckshot)
8 pounder gun
4-pounder gun
	61 (close-range buckshot)

As can be seen from the table, even at very significant distances, buckshot could be very dangerous. In addition, heavy grapeshot bullets were deadly when fired from a short distance.

General Thiebault cites in his memoirs an episode when, during the assault on Civitt del Castello, the enemy fired grapeshot from a 24-pound cannon at an attacking French column: 44 people were killed and wounded with one shot, 17 of them died on the spot.

Shooting grenades

Howitzer grenades could also cause considerable damage to the enemy. While the grenades were inferior in range to cannonballs, they nevertheless produced a significant effect when they exploded. The scattering range of the fragments was on average 20 m, but individual pieces of the grenade body could be dangerous at a distance of up to 150-200 m.

Each grenade produced from 25 to 50 fragments. Practitioners of that time highly valued the moral impact of grenade explosions. Finally, the explosions frightened the horses, which was not at all useless when repelling cavalry attacks.

In general, the effect of the guns was very significant, and, without any doubt, the bulk of the killed and wounded in the battles fell on artillery.

An important advantage of the Russian cavalry was its excellent cavalry, which, if inferior to anyone, was only inferior to the cavalry of the English army. At the same time, both the horses themselves and their dressage were at their best.

Artillery

And finally, the Russian artillery was most decisively transformed. As a study by the commission of General A. A. Arakcheev showed, artillery had previously been underestimated, and actual artillery fire was 6–10 times superior to small arms fire. And this meant that it was fire field artillery ensured the success of the army that had it in sufficient quantity. But at the same time, major shortcomings in the composition and organization of Russian artillery were revealed. The artillery was extremely varied in caliber, which made it difficult to control fire and supply ammunition. In addition, there were no horses in permanent composition batteries Usually mobilized horses were used, often of questionable condition, which had a bad effect on mobility. In addition, this did not provide sufficient speed for deploying guns into position and removing them from position.

Russian foot artillery

To solve these problems, Arakcheev introduced “artillery” horses, which should “never be separated from the company.” In 1803, following the example of the French artillery, standard charging boxes were introduced on the limbers, which made it possible to sharply reduce the time it took to prepare batteries for firing, since the ammunition necessary for battle moved along with the gun and ended up directly in position and in a convenient container. In 1805, artillery was unified with a sharp reduction in the number of artillery systems and calibers used. The carriages, limbers, harness and charging boxes were also unified. The low-powered regimental artillery was effectively eliminated, and its role was now to be filled by light artillery companies of 6-pounders and 1/4-pound unicorns.

Charging box

Old style 6-pounder gun

Organizationally, the artillery was consolidated into artillery brigades within infantry divisions. Such brigades consisted of battery and light companies. In addition, there were horse artillery companies as part of the cavalry corps and separate companies that were not part of the divisions.
In general, Russian artillery took first place in the world in terms of specific power (weight of a salvo per number of barrels). At the same time, it was distinguished by its harmonious organization and, thanks to the constant high-quality horse composition and the reduction in the weight of the guns, excellent mobility on the battlefield and on the march.

Field artillery charging box

Field artillery charging box

French army

The French army improved throughout the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. And very often she was an innovator in military affairs. For example, it was in the French army that they first switched to wide application shock column tactics. After clashes with the Russian army in 1805–1807, it underwent a smaller scale of reform than the Russian army, as it demonstrated its superiority. Basically, the reform of this period was expressed in the abandonment of semi-brigades and the restoration of the regimental level.

Infantry

The French infantry corps, which was the main strategic and operational unit of the French army, did not have such a clear and fixed structure as the Russian one. In addition, unlike the Russian corps, it was the highest organizational unit (for the Russians it was an army that included several corps) and, including all three types of troops, could conduct completely independent actions in the strategic direction without additional reinforcement. It consisted of 2–5 infantry divisions and 1–2 cavalry brigades or divisions, as well as corps artillery, which partly compensated for the French divisional artillery, which was weaker than in the Russian army.

The infantry division consisted of 3 brigades of 2 regiments each and usually 2 artillery batteries. The regiment consisted of 4 line and one reserve battalion. True, this division was not rigid. For example, in Davout’s 1st Infantry Corps, the regiments consisted of 5 line battalions and 1 reserve, but the brigade consisted of one regiment, that is, in fact, there was no regimental link. The battalion consisted of 6 companies, 1 grenadier, 4 fusiliers and one voltigeur.
Voltigeurs were an analogue of Russian rangers, but, unlike the latter, most often they did not stand out in separate brigades, regiments and battalions, but were dispersed as part of line battalions. This did not make it possible to use them separately as fighting forces on the battlefield. But this order made it possible to better organize the interaction of battalion columns and rifle chains in the division’s battle formations. This also allowed the French to use more complex ones than in the Russian army, battle formations divisions.
Voltigeurs were considered light infantry. They were armed with both smooth-bore guns and rifled carbines, as well as cutlasses. Voltigeurs, unlike Russian rangers, did not seriously rely on single actions away from their troops and were mainly trained to act in loose formation in the battle formations of divisions and regiments - therefore they were better prepared for such actions.
Their percentage in French units was somewhat lower than the percentage of rangers in the Russian army, which was compensated by a higher percentage in allied units, for example, in Marshal Davout’s Westphalian Corps.

French line infantry

Fusilier companies were the line infantry of the French army. Linear infantry, as in the Russian army, was intended for a bayonet attack in battalion columns or for a salvo firefight in a deployed linear formation. But unlike the Russian infantry, the French fusiliers deployed not in a 4-rank, but in a 3-rank formation. This difference was due best characteristics French guns and the level of training of the infantry. In practice, this meant that the French battalion, firing in deployed formation, had approximately a 25% advantage in fire performance. The line infantry were armed with smoothbore rifles with a bayonet. In the training of fusiliers, much more time was devoted to drill training and actions in close formation, mainly with an attack orientation.

French voltigeurs

The French grenadiers were noticeably different from the Russians. Grenadier companies were also elite, but differed in the principle of formation - to be enrolled there, a soldier had to have 4 years of service or 2 campaigns behind him. Four privates and one corporal in the grenadier company were sappers. Their distinctive feature traditionally had a leather apron and a large beard (a tradition that continues today in the French army) - they had to be strong and tall, since they walked in front of the assault columns and had to open doors, windows, gates and walls in populated areas with their large axes the enemy has settled down. However, in practice, those with the thickest beards were often hired as sappers.
In general, the French infantry, in its organization and composition, was maximally adapted to achieve success in active, attacking operations in field battle.

Cavalry

The French cavalry, in contrast to the Russian, was considered primarily as impact force on the battlefield, so its basis was made up of cuirassier and carabinieri units and also horse-jaeger units intended for the battlefield. In addition, there were hussar, dragoon and uhlan regiments. The last ones were mostly Polish.
Because of this composition, the French cavalry was used to a limited extent as an independent force. operational force, but had greater significance on the battlefield than the Russian one. Napoleon again began to use cavalry as a ram when breaking through the enemy front, although this was considered unprofitable in the era of the total armament of armies small arms and the high saturation of armies with field artillery. Heavy cavalry made it possible to quickly break the distance and overthrow the enemy. The main thing was to introduce it into battle at the right moment.

"Old Guard", grenadiers

Cuirassiers were practically no different from Russians and also represented men-at-arms, perfectly suited for breaking infantry squares. The weapons were similar, only instead of cuirassier carbines, blunderbusses were used, adapted for firing at infantry at point-blank range at full gallop. The carabinieri of the French army differed from the cuirassiers essentially only in their uniforms and in the same way could successfully attack infantry.
The hussars, whose weapons and uniforms were modeled on the Hungarian cavalrymen, acted as light cavalry capable of pursuing the enemy, engaging with enemy cavalry and performing rapid maneuvers. Actually, the name “hussars” was borrowed from the Hungarian “huzzar”.
The lancers, another part of the light cavalry, were Polish cavalry with their traditional weapons, including the pike. Expectations that the pike would significantly increase the capabilities of cavalry in the fight against infantry did not materialize. But the pike turned out to be useful in battles with cavalry.

Saxon cuirassiers

An important innovation in Napoleon's army was the mounted chasseurs. They were light cavalry, but, like cuirassiers, they were used for action in the thick of battle. Mounted rangers were intended mainly for conducting fire combat both from horseback and on foot.
Napoleon's cavalry demonstrated its capabilities by overthrowing the enemy at Austerlitz and breaking through his front at Wagram.
Cuirassiers and carabiniers were consolidated into heavy cavalry divisions, lancers, hussars and horse huntsmen into light ones. The division included 2–3 brigades of two regiments and sometimes an artillery regiment. But in heavy divisions there were often brigades of the same regiment. Each regiment consisted of 4 squadrons.
The French cavalry corps consisted of 1–2 heavy, 1 light cavalry divisions and sometimes corps artillery. These corps were an important component of attack tactics and were used primarily for rapid frontal attacks and development of success on the battlefield. It was the French who were the first in Europe of that period to use large masses of cavalry in battle.
Despite having excellent training and weapons, the French cavalry had one big disadvantage. Due to the limited capabilities of the stud farms of Napoleon's empire and heavy losses, the French cavalry had, on average, a worse cavalry composition than the Russian cavalry. This limited the mobility of the French cavalry and prevented them from being used on greater depth. Although in a frontal attack on the battlefield this did not matter much.

Artillery

French artillery was at the forefront of its fleet and organization even before the French Revolution. Faced in mid-18th century century with the superiority of the enemy’s artillery, the French were the first to undertake a radical and strictly thought-out reorganization. The great engineer and artilleryman General Gribeauval introduced such generally accepted innovations as limbers with standardized charging boxes, new frame sights, vertical aiming screw mechanisms, “long-range” buckshot in tin caps, and returned to cap loading.
In 1803, Napoleon carried out another reform that affected the number of calibers. For example, 8-pounder and 4-pounder guns were replaced with 6-pounder ones, since, according to Napoleon's observations, in battle the guns of both old calibers were used in the same way and the differences between them were not taken into account. A longer howitzer of a slightly reduced caliber was introduced to achieve greater range, which made it possible to unify the ammunition with 24-pounder siege guns.
By the time of the invasion of Russia, French artillery was reduced to 8-gun companies with 6 guns and 2 howitzers, which made it possible to use the battery for a wide variety of purposes, although it complicated fire control and supplying the battery with ammunition. Reserve (or corps) artillery had batteries of 12-pounder and 8-pounder guns and large-caliber howitzers and was intended for long-range combat and the destruction of fortifications and suppression of enemy artillery. Divisional artillery was represented mainly by 6-pound and 4-pound cannons and medium-caliber howitzers (24 pounds) and was used in the division's combat formations at the starting positions for direct fire support. The regimental artillery had a different organization of batteries - 4-guns and was equipped with 3-pounder and 4-pounder cannons. She was supposed to accompany the attacking infantry with fire and wheels.
In terms of mobility and firepower per number of guns, French field artillery was somewhat weaker than Russian due to large quantity light 3-pound and 4-pound guns. But it included both heavy long-range guns and regimental artillery, intended for operations in infantry combat formations not only in defense, but also in the offensive (which allowed it to be used more flexibly), and had more powerful artillery systems in heavy artillery.

Armament of armies

Russian army

IN early XIX century, the Russian army was faced with the enemy's superiority in small arms. This fact was all the more unpleasant because since the time of Peter the Russian small arms was at the proper global level. But the very first clashes between the Russian army and the French showed the superiority of the French gun of the 1777 model over Russian guns. But not only did French weapons provide tactical advantage, it was also more monotonous. And in the Russian army by 1808 the situation was such that 28-caliber guns were in service. At the same time, the guns were like domestic production, and foreign.
In 1805, a new, very reliable gun was adopted. But due to the unification of the cartridge with the old one, it turned out to be heavy and with powerful recoil with a modest range and accuracy of fire.

Infantry pistol model 1809

In 1808, relying on captured French guns of the 1777 model and purchased English guns of the 1794 model, Tula gunsmiths managed to develop a model that was not inferior to them. The new gun had, following the example of foreign prototypes, a caliber reduced from 19 mm to 17.8 mm and a reduced weight from 5.16 kg to 4.46 kg. Managed to increase initial speed bullets and shooting accuracy. They were also able to increase the number of hits on a standard 1.8 to 1.22 arshin target from 100 steps to more than half the bullets, while when shooting from the old gun the norm was a quarter of the bullets hit. Maximum range shooting reached 300 steps. To speed up loading, all types of guns used paper cartridges containing a bullet and a powder charge.

Gun flintlocks

In 1805, new models of screw guns were created for non-commissioned officers and huntsman rifles. These were rifled weapons that provided the ability to fire at a distance of up to 1 thousand steps, and at 500 steps they showed the same accuracy as a gun of the 1808 model at 100. Also, based on the gun of the 1808 model, cavalry guns were developed.
But, despite the successes in rearming the army, only half of the army managed to rearm with the new model guns. Another disadvantage was the use of an old bayonet - shorter than the French ones, and designed for older, longer guns, which was especially noticeable when repelling cavalry attacks. True, the percentage of rangers armed with rifle weapons has increased noticeably. Now screw guns and fittings were available in the Jaeger regiments at the rate of 12 per company and in the cavalry units, except for the hussars, at the rate of 16 per squadron.

6-inch long (left) and 24-pounder (right) French howitzers

In general, the small arms of the Russian army in 1812 can be assessed as somewhat worse than the French, but at the level of the general armament of the “Great Army”, taking into account the armament of the troops of the allied and subject states.
The characteristics of the main guns in service with the Russian army were as follows.
Model 1805 infantry rifle. Its weight (without bayonet) is 5.16 kg, length 145.8 cm (with bayonet 183 cm). Caliber – 19 mm, bullet weight – 30 g, gunpowder weight – 10.7 g. Maximum firing range 250–300 steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target more than 1/2) – 75 steps.
Infantry rifle model 1808. Its weight (without bayonet) is 4.47 kg, length 145.8 cm (with bayonet 183 cm). Caliber - 17.8 mm, bullet weight - 23.8 g, gunpowder weight - 9.9 g. Maximum firing range is 300 steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) - 100 steps.

Model 1808 infantry rifle

Dragoon rifle model 1809. Its weight (without bayonet) is 3.73 kg. Caliber - 17.8 mm, bullet weight - 23.8 g, gunpowder weight - 9.6 g. Maximum firing range is 200 steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) - 75 steps.

Dragoon rifle model 1809

Model 1805 rifle. Weight 4.26 kg. Caliber - 16.5 mm, bullet weight - 23.8 g. Maximum firing range is 1 thousand steps, effective aimed shooting range (the probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) - 500 steps.
Cavalry fitting of the 1803 model. Weight 2.65 kg. Caliber – 16.5 mm, bullet weight – 23.8 g, gunpowder weight – 7 g. Maximum firing range is 900 steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) – 300 steps.

Cavalry fitting, model 1803

However, due to the lower rate of fire of small arms (compared to artillery) and the shorter range of smoothbore rifles (compared to buckshot), the role of small arms fire in relation to artillery was small, which smoothed out the effect of the difference in small arms.

Jaeger fitting

In the field of artillery, the picture was more favorable for the Russian army. Thanks to the reform, the most used calibers remained in service. These are respectively 12-pounder and 6-pounder guns and 1/2- and 1/4-pound unicorns. The remaining artillery systems were lightened and standardized across carriages. Maintenance of the guns has been simplified. Artillery companies received a mixed composition of guns and howitzers, selected according to the weight of the artillery system, and this allowed flexible use of firepower and at the same time equal mobility of all guns in the artillery company. The mobility and weight of a volley of artillery companies were considered more important than range. Therefore, from the 12-pounder guns, medium and small-proportion guns were left; 12-pounder large-proportion guns, not suitable for rapid transportation and deployment, remained only for fortress and siege artillery. The same fate befell the 1-pound unicorn.

1/4 – pound unicorn in section

Sectional view of a 12-pounder small-proportion gun

In addition, much attention was paid to maximizing the rate of fire and ease of loading. For this reason, the gap between the core and the walls of the barrel bore was made larger than that of French guns. Also, for guns of small proportions, the barrel was made shorter. This simplified loading the cannon with a cap, which contained a projectile, wad and gunpowder. But at the same time, such measures reduced the accuracy and range of fire due to the worse obturation of the projectile core in the barrel bore.

Lighting shells

Unitary loading shots

Quite a specific weapon of the Russian army were unicorns. The field artillery of other countries included howitzers, which differed from cannons in having a much shorter and thin-walled barrel. They were intended to fire mainly grenades and bombs and had a lower muzzle velocity and a steeper trajectory. In the Russian army, instead of field howitzers, unicorns were used, which, in fact, occupied an intermediate position between a cannon and a howitzer.
The characteristics of the guns in service with the Russian army were as follows.

12-pounder medium proportion gun

12-pounder model 1805 gun

Gun weight - 800 kg (50 pounds), system weight - 1624 kg (101.5 pounds), caliber - 4.76 inches (121 mm), barrel length - 16.5 caliber, harness - 6 horses.
Firing range: cannonball - 2.8 km (1300 fathoms), grenade - 1.1 km (500 fathoms), buckshot - more than 300 meters (150 fathoms).

12-pounder gun of smaller proportion:

12-pounder small proportion gun

Gun weight - 480 kg (30 pounds), system weight - 1210 kg (75.6 pounds), caliber - 4.76 inches (121 mm), barrel length - 13 calibers, harness - 6 horses.
Firing range: cannonball - 2.6 km (1300 fathoms), grenade - 1.1 km (500 fathoms), buckshot - more than 300 meters (150 fathoms).

6-pounder gun

Model 1805 6-pounder gun

Gun weight - 355 kg (22.2 pounds), system weight - 980 kg (61 pounds), caliber - 3.76 inches (95 mm), barrel length - 17 calibers, harness - 6 horses for cavalry and 4 for foot artillery .
Firing range: cannonball - 2.2 km (1 thousand fathoms), grenade - about 900 m (400 fathoms), buckshot - more than 300 meters (150 fathoms).

1/2 pound unicorn
Gun weight - 680 kg (42.5 pounds), system weight - 1810 kg (113 pounds), caliber - 6.1 inches (155 mm), barrel length - 10.5 caliber, harness - 6 horses.
Firing range: cannonball - 2.2 km (1 thousand fathoms), grenade - 1.3 km (600 fathoms), buckshot - 550 meters (250 fathoms).

1/4 pound unicorn:

Gun weight - 345 kg (21.6 pounds), system weight - 950 kg (59.3 pounds), caliber - 4.84 inches (123 mm), barrel length - 10.5 caliber, harness - 4 horses (6 - equestrian).
Firing range: cannonball - 1.3 km (600 fathoms), grenade - about 900 m (400 fathoms).
If we take into account the number of guns in the army and their superiority in rate of fire over small arms (up to 9 rounds/min. versus 4 rounds/min. for smoothbore guns and 1–2 rounds/min. for rifled guns), then it becomes clear that exactly artillery pieces determined the firepower of the army.

Markevich quadrant

Sight (diopter) of the Markevich system

Kabanov's sight

1/4 – pound unicorn model 1805

Unicorn breech with wingguard and scope mount

As the main tactical system, Russian artillery used those developed by Count Kutaisov " General rules for artillery in a field battle,” approved by Emperor Alexander I and sent to the troops as instructions. Here is the content of these “Rules”.
"1. In a field battle, shots at 500 fathoms are doubtful, at 300 fathoms they are quite accurate, and at 200 and 100 fathoms they are fatal; for the last three distances our new buckshots can also be used. Consequently, when the enemy is still at first range, you should shoot at him rarely, in order to have time to aim your gun more accurately and make it difficult for him to move with your shots; at the second distance, shoot more often in order to stop or at least prolong his approach, and finally strike with all possible speed in order to knock him over and destroy him.
2. From the beginning of the battle, hide the number of your artillery, but increase it as the case continues, so that your point of attack will be hidden from the enemy, and if he were attacking, he would meet artillery where he might not have expected it.
3. When the real intention of the enemy has not yet been noticed, the batteries should consist of a small number of guns and be scattered in different places. In this situation, you are a small target, and you yourself have more means of harming him with indirect and cross shots and complicating his enterprises.
4. Batteries of a large number of guns should be placed in such cases when it is necessary to make a breach in the enemy’s line or to stop his strong desire to reach some point, or when it is necessary to knock him out of some position.
5. Avoid placing batteries on very elevated, steep places; on the contrary, batteries of unicorns can be placed with great benefit behind small elevations, which would only cover them, for almost all of their shots, except grapeshot, are mounted.

Shotgun AN-IX

French 6-pounder gun and 6-inch howitzers

However, even such a magnificent gun had drawbacks, such as insufficient reliability and a tendency to corrosion of some components. But the main thing was some difference in caliber of the guns produced and the need for individual fitting of parts. This created certain difficulties in creating and arming a mass army. Therefore, in 1801 the French adopted the AN-IX gun, which became the main one by the time of the invasion of Russia. This gun was almost identical to the gun of the 1777 model and differed from the old one by greater unification of parts and the replacement of corroded, but not load-bearing, iron parts with copper ones. In addition, it was possible to slightly reduce the weight of the gun.

Perhaps the excellent capabilities of the 1777 model gun had an effect, but less attention was paid to rifled weapons in France. The main type of rifled weapon was the "Carbine de Versailles" model 1793 in infantry and cavalry versions. It was only in 1804 that a slightly improved AN-XII carbine was developed, which differed only slightly from the Carbine de Versailles. Saturation of the French army rifled weapons was slightly lower than the Russian one. Non-commissioned officers, sergeants and sappers from light infantry and 6 riflemen in a voltigeur company were mainly armed with rifled carbines.

The characteristics of the main guns in service with the French army were as follows.

Shotgun AN-IX. Its weight (without bayonet) is 4.375 kg, length 151.5 cm (bayonet length 46.5 cm). Caliber – 17.5 mm, bullet weight – 27.2 g, gunpowder weight – 12.24 g. Maximum firing range is 300–400 steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) – more than 100 steps.

Rifled carbine "Carbine de Versailles": Its weight (without bayonet) is 3.45 kg, length is 102.5 cm. Caliber is 13.5 mm, bullet weight is 17.5 g, gunpowder weight is 4 g. Maximum range is approximately 1 thousand steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) - more than 500 steps.

In the field of artillery, the French army held a leading position for a long time, which was not lost in the quarter century that passed after Gribeauval's reform. But Napoleon, himself an excellent artilleryman, noted the presence of excessive calibers in the Gribeauval system. For example, Napoleon pointed out that in most cases, when firing, commanders do not make a difference between 8-pounder and 4-pounder guns. At the same time, the 8-pounders are too heavy, and the 4-pounders have weak ammunition. As a result, it was decided to settle on a 6-pound gun, which should replace both calibers.

It was also decided to switch to a new howitzer with a longer barrel length and a smaller caliber. This made it possible to increase the flatness of the trajectory and more effectively use these weapons in maneuverable field combat. In addition, this made it possible to unify the ammunition with the 24-pound siege gun.

Finally, Colonel Villentroy created heavy long-range howitzers with an increased powder charge and barrel length. These howitzers had calibers of 8, 9 and 11 inches. At the same time, the most powerful 11-inch howitzer could fire at a distance of up to 5.8 versts. The 8-inch howitzer was also used in field battles. In addition to changes in the calibers used and barrel lengths, the guns of the new models were lightweight and simplified in design.

The reform was supposed to bring French artillery to a new qualitative level. In fact, it was not carried out as decisively and effectively as in Russia. The reason was the slight superiority of French artillery over the artillery of most opponents, which already existed at the time the reform began. The “patchwork” nature of Napoleon’s empire and the lack of clear management of military production also had a negative impact. Many factories of Napoleon's empire, especially in conquered territories such as the Confederation of the Rhine, produced according to old models and in the old caliber system. So, in the end, the reform not only did not reduce, as required, the number of calibers in the army, but, on the contrary, increased it. Of the new guns, only the 6-pounder gun and the 24-pounder howitzer were fired in significant quantities. The “Grand Army” entered the war with more than two dozen artillery systems.

The characteristics of the main guns in service with the French army were as follows.

12-pounder gun of the Gribeauval system:

Gun weight - 860 kg (54 pounds), system weight - 2160 kg (135 pounds), caliber - 4.76 inches (121 mm), barrel length - 16.5 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 2.7–3 km, grenade – about 1.2 km, buckshot – up to 600 meters.

8-pounder Gribeauval gun

Gun weight - 580 kg (36 pounds), system weight - 1760 kg (110 pounds), caliber - 4.1 inches (104 mm), barrel length - 16.5 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 2.7 km, grenade – about 1 km, buckshot – up to 500 meters.

4-pounder Gribeauval gun

Gun weight - 280 kg (18 pounds), system weight - 1120 kg (70 pounds), caliber - 4.76 inches (121 mm), barrel length - 16.5 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 2.6 km, grenade – about 1.1 km, buckshot – up to 400 meters.

6-pounder gun of the new system

Gun weight - 400 kg (25 pounds), system weight - 1440 kg (90 pounds), caliber - 3.9 inches (96 mm), barrel length - 16.5 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 2.3 km, grenade – about 1 km, buckshot – up to 400 meters.

6-inch extended howitzer

Gun weight - 320 kg (20 pounds), caliber - 6 inches (164 mm), barrel length - 4 1/3 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 3 km, grenade – about 3 km, buckshot – up to 400 meters.

24-pound howitzer of the new system

Gun weight – 320 kg (20 pounds), caliber – 6 inches (155 mm), barrel length – 5 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 3 km, grenade – about 3 km, buckshot – up to 500 meters.

Although in general French artillery looked inferior to Russian due to the wide variety of calibers and the large number of low-power regimental guns, it had an advantage when fighting fortifications and manpower at long distances due to the presence of large-caliber howitzers and with a steep trajectory that made it possible to hit the enemy behind fortifications .

When comparing the characteristics of Russian and French weapons, you need to take into account several general points related to their use.

During the Napoleonic Wars, volley rifle and artillery fire dominated. Only rangers and voltigeurs in loose formation could fire differently. This was caused, among other things, by the black powder used. When there was a discrepancy in the salvo, the latecomers fired into the smoky cloud, which after each salvo clouded the battle formations.

The maximum rate of fire largely depended not on the characteristics of the weapon, but on the training of the soldiers. A well-trained soldier, as practical shooting has shown even today, could easily ensure a rate of fire of 3-4 rounds per minute from a smoothbore gun using a cartridge. This pace could not be maintained for long, but allowed 10–12 salvoes to be fired at a battalion column attacking briskly, 7–9 for attacking running and 2–3 for attacking cavalry at a gallop. Given the low accuracy of fire even against close battle formations, rifle fire alone was usually not able to stop the attack of battalion columns or cuirassiers.

Field artillery had a longer firing range than smooth-bore shotguns. At the same time, the field gun had a maximum rate of fire thanks to cap loading of 7–9 rounds per minute. At the same time, the accuracy of artillery fire at equal distances was also higher. Here, too, the high tempo could not be maintained for long, but it made it possible to fire 25–35 volleys of grapeshot at a battalion column attacking at a fast pace, 15–20 against an attacking run and 7–10 against a cavalry attacking at a gallop. This rate of fire was a powerful stopping force against both infantry and cavalry, provided there were a sufficient number of guns along the length of the attacked front. Such superiority of artillery usually made it possible to win a firefight with infantry even at short distances. The power of artillery on the battlefield in relation to other types of troops was, perhaps, greatest precisely at the beginning of the 19th century.

The first fast-firing 18-pounder Mk I gun entered service with the Royal Artillery in 1904, and by 1914 it had become the standard field gun in service with British and Commonwealth armies. Some of its samples were even produced in India. The design of the 18-pounder gun was based on designs from the Woolwich plant, Elswick and Vickers workshops. The gun barrel was wrapped in wire, had a simple breech and was mounted on a carriage with a trunk. A regular shield was provided. Shrapnel was used as ammunition.

Very soon the basic model of the gun was modified. Firstly, the inner tube of the gun barrel became removable, although when this gun went to war in 1914, it was practically no different from the basic version. The return springs of the gun, which returned the barrel to its original position after recoil, could not withstand prolonged firing and broke, which turned the gun into a pile of iron. All the gunsmiths could do was change the springs, which took a lot of time and effort. This continued until a modification of this gun appeared in the army. A completely new hydropneumatic recoil mechanism was developed, which was mounted inside the existing spring housing, making the gun more reliable.

During the First World War, the gun was subjected to another modernization. The original carriage included a trunk that was suitable for horse-drawn traction. However, this trunk went under the breech, which limited the elevation angle, and therefore the firing range. The result was the 18-pounder Mk IV gun (modifications were designated by numbers). In fact it was new development. First of all, the Mk IV was equipped with a box-shaped frame, which ensured that the barrel was raised at a greater angle and increased the firing range, in addition, a new bolt mechanism of the Asbury model was proposed.
The new recoil mechanism, located under the gun barrel, used the free piston principle, using oil and compressed air for smoother and more reliable movement. The cradle has been changed. The result was a fully rotating gun. It not only had an increased firing range, but was also more stable and had a high rate of fire - for a trained crew, 30 rounds per minute was common.

By the time the 18-pounder Mk IV entered production the war had already ended, but it was the weapon of choice for the Royal Artillery between the wars. By that time, the gun began to be supplied not only to the troops of Britain and the Commonwealth countries. Since 1917, a large batch of these guns was acquired by the US Army. Later they appeared in Ireland, the Baltic countries and China. Most of the 18-pounder guns found their use during the Second World War, and the last gun was removed from service with the Irish Army only in the 70s of the twentieth century.