Army in ancient Rome. Army of the Roman Empire

Ancient Roman warriors fought in cohesive and disciplined units. A group of 80 warriors was called a century. Several centuries were part of a cohort, and ten cohorts made up a legion.

A Roman legionnaire (foot soldier) wore an iron helmet on his head. In his left hand he held a shield made of wood and leather, in his right hand a throwing spear or sword, which was kept in a sheath on his belt. The Roman warrior's breastplate was made of metal plates. A peculiar ancient Roman tunic hung from the waist. The feet of the ancient Roman legionnaire were wearing leather sandals, which were padded with nails.

The Romans were determined warriors, they conquered even well-defended cities. The Romans surrounded the city with a tight ring, and then, using ingenious technology, broke into it.

To approach the besieged city, Roman soldiers moved under a canopy of shields. This formation is called a “turtle”. It effectively protected attackers from arrows fired from the walls by the city's defenders. Also, to get closer to the walls, soldiers built a covered passage. Along it, without endangering their lives, they could approach the wall.

When the Roman army attacked a walled city, the soldiers used special mobile wooden siege towers. The tower was sheathed with durable metal sheets. The warriors erected an inclined plane on an uneven piece of land, then rolled the siege tower to the wall. Then the ancient Roman soldiers climbed up the internal stairs of the siege tower. Afterwards, they lowered the drawbridge onto the wall and burst into the city.

At the same time as using the siege tower, the ancient Romans used a battering ram to break through the wall, and also dug under the wall to destroy it. The warriors operating the ram were inside it.

At long distances, the ancient Romans used catapults. Large catapults threw heavy stones at the walls. Smaller catapults fired metal arrows at the enemy. Skilled Roman archers, who were considered one of the best in the Middle East, fired from the same distance.

Having burst into the city, the ancient Romans set houses on fire with flaming arrows so that the entire city was engulfed in flames. All surviving townspeople were captured and sold into slavery. Material from the site

The Roman Empire had to be kept in subjection, and therefore military units had to move quickly to get to where they were needed. A network of good roads was built along which one could reach any corner of the empire. Warriors walked along such roads more than 50 km a day.

Camps and forts

After a long forced march, the soldiers set up camp for the night. The temporary camp of the ancient Roman soldiers was surrounded by a fence and surrounded on the perimeter by a defensive rampart (earthen hill), in front of which a ditch was dug. The camp itself consisted of leather tents. The next morning the camp was cleared and the army continued on its way. On the borders of the empire, where the constant presence of garrisons was necessary, stone forts were built.

Civil War 49-45 BC e.
Second triumvirate

Ancient Roman army, Roman army(lat. exercitus, formerly - classis) - regular army of Ancient Rome, one of the main elements of Roman society and state.

Octavian Augustus reduced the army to 28 legions by 14 AD. During the heyday of Ancient Rome, the total number of the army was usually up to 100 thousand people, but could increase to 250-300 thousand people. and more. According to other sources, in the era of Honorius, the total number of troops of both parts of the Roman Empire was 900,000-1,000,000 soldiers. After the reforms of Diolectian and Constantine, the size of the Roman army amounted to 600-650 thousand people, of which 200 thousand were a mobile army, and the rest were garrisons. The ethnic composition of the Roman army changed over time: in the 1st century. n. e. it was predominantly an army of the Romans, at the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century. army of the Italics, but already at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 3rd century. n. e. turned into an army of Romanized barbarians, remaining “Roman” only in name. The Roman army had the best weapons for its time, an experienced and well-trained command staff, and was distinguished by strict discipline and high military skill of commanders who used the most advanced methods of warfare, achieving the complete defeat of the enemy.

The main branch of the army was infantry. The fleet provided action ground forces in coastal areas and the transfer of armies to enemy territory by sea. Military engineering, the establishment of field camps, the ability to make rapid transitions over long distances, and the art of siege and defense of fortresses received significant development.

The main organizational and tactical unit of the army was legion. From the second half of the 4th century BC. e. the legion consisted of 10 maniple(infantry) and 10 turm(cavalry), from the first half of the 3rd century BC. e. - out of 30 maniple(each of which was divided into two centuries) and 10 turm. All this time, its number remained unchanged - 4.5 thousand people, including 300 horsemen. The tactical division of the legion ensured high maneuverability of troops on the battlefield. From 107 BC. e. in connection with the transition from a militia to a professional mercenary army, the legion began to be divided into 10 cohorts(each of which combined three maniples). The legion also included battering and throwing machines and a convoy. In the 1st century AD e. The legion's strength reached approx. 7 thousand people (including about 800 horsemen).

Organizational structure

In almost all periods there existed simultaneously:

Under the concept signum either maniples or centuries were understood.

Auxiliary troops were divided into cohorts and als (in the Late Empire they were replaced by wedges - cunei). The irregular troops (numeri) did not have a clear numerical composition, as they corresponded to the traditional preferences of the peoples who composed them, for example the mauri (Moors). Vexillations were the name given to individual units that were separated from a unit, such as a legion. So, the vexillation could be sent to help another unit or to build a bridge.

Armament

• 1st class: offensive - gladius, hasta and darts ( tela), protective - helmet ( galea), shell ( lorica), bronze shield ( clipeus) and leggings ( ocrea);
• 2nd class - the same, without a shell and a scutum instead clipeus;
• 3rd class - the same, without leggings;
• 4th class - hasta and pike ( verutum).

• offensive - Spanish sword ( gladius hispaniensis)

• offensive - pilum (special throwing spear);
• protective - iron chain mail ( lorica hamata).

• offensive - dagger ( pugio).

At the beginning of the Empire:

• protective - carapace of Lorica Segmentata, segmented lorica, late plate armor from individual steel segments. Comes into use starting from the 1st century. The origin of the plate cuirass is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the weapons of the crupellarian gladiators who participated in the rebellion of Florus Sacrovir in Germany (21). Chain mail also appeared during this period ( lorica hamata) with double chain mail covering on the shoulders, especially popular among cavalrymen. Lightweight (up to 5-6 kg) and shorter chain mail are also used in auxiliary infantry units. Helmets of the so-called imperial type.

• offensive - “Pompeian” sword, weighted pilums.

• protective - scale armor ( lorica squamata)

A uniform

• paenula(short dark woolen cloak with a hood).

• tunic with long sleeves, sagum ( sagum) - a cloak without a hood, previously incorrectly considered a classic Roman military one.

Build

Manipulative tactics

It is almost generally accepted that during the period of their dominance the Etruscans introduced the phalanx to the Romans, and subsequently the Romans deliberately changed their weapons and formation. This opinion is based on reports that the Romans once used round shields and formed a phalanx like the Macedonian, however, in descriptions of battles of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. the dominant role of the cavalry and the auxiliary role of the infantry are clearly visible - the former was often even located and acted ahead of the infantry.

If you want to be a tribune, or if, simply put, you want to live, then restrain your soldiers. Let none of them steal someone else's chicken, let none of them touch someone else's sheep; Let no one take away a bunch of grapes, an ear of grain, or demand oil, salt, or firewood for himself. Let everyone be content with their rightful portion... Let their weapons be cleaned, sharpened, their shoes strong... Let the soldier's salary remain in his belt, and not in the tavern... Let him take care of his horse and not sell his feed; let all the soldiers follow the centurion's mule together. Let the soldiers... give nothing to fortune tellers... let the scoundrels be beaten...

Medical service

At different periods there were 8 positions of military medical personnel:

• medicus castrorum- camp doctor, subordinate to the camp prefect ( praefectus castrorum), and in his absence - to the legionary tribune;
• medicus legionis, medicus cohortis, optio valetudinarii- the last one is the head of a military hospital (valetudinary), all 3 positions existed only under Trajan and Hadrian;
• medicus duplicarius- a doctor with double salary;
• medicus sesquiplicarius- a doctor on time and a half salary;
• capsarius (deputatus, eques capsariorum) - a mounted orderly with a first aid kit ( capsa) and with a saddle with 2 stirrups on the left side for the evacuation of the wounded, was part of a detachment of 8-10 people; presumably they could be recruited from among the so-called. immunes;
• medicus ordinarius (miles medicus) - an ordinary doctor or staff surgeon, there were 4 of them in each cohort.

The student was called discens capsariorum.

The recruitment could be ordinary, from recruits, from qualified doctors under a contract, from slaves who were then released, or, in emergency cases, mandatory, from civilians.

see also

Notes

Primary sources

• Flavius ​​Vegetius Renatus. "A summary of military affairs."
• Caesar. "Notes on the Gallic War". "Notes on the Civil War".
• Appian. " Civil wars». « Syrian wars" "Punic Wars". "Mithridates Wars". "Illyrian Wars", "Macedonian Wars".
• Josephus Flavius. "The Jewish War".
• Lucius Annaeus Florus. "Two Books of Roman Wars."
• Gaius Sallust Crispus. "Yugurthine War".
• Flavius ​​Arrian. "Disposition against the Alans."
• Sextus Julius Frontinus. "Stratagems".
• Anonymous. "Alexandrian War".
• Anonymous. "African War".
• Anonymous. "Notes on the War in Spain."
• Tabulae Vindolandae

For non-specialized primary sources, see.

The emperor ruled the lands under his control by appointing legates who had the power of Legatus Augusti pro praetore (Legate of Augustus propraetor) Commander of two or more legions. The imperial legate also served as governor of the province in which the legions he commanded were stationed. From the senatorial class, the Imperial Legate was appointed by the emperor himself and usually held the position for 3 or 4 years. Each legate was the highest military and civil authority in his area. He was in charge of the troops stationed in his province and could not leave it until his term of service expired. The provinces were divided into those where people were appointed before the consulate, and those where former consuls were appointed. The first category included provinces where there were no legions or where there was only one legion. They were controlled by people in their late forties who had already commanded legions. In the provinces that the former consuls received, there were usually from two to four legions, and the legates who ended up there were usually over forty or under fifty. During the imperial era, people received high positions relatively young.

Senior officers:

Legatus Legionis (Legate of the Legion)
Commander of the legion. The emperor usually appointed the former tribune to this post for three to four years, but the legate could hold his post for much longer. In the provinces where the legion was stationed, the legate was also the governor. Where there were several legions, each of them had its own legate, and they were all under the general command of the governor of the province.

Tribunus Laticlavius
This tribune was appointed to the legion by the emperor or the senate. He was usually young and less experienced than the five military tribunes (Tribuni Angusticlavii), yet his position was the second most senior in the legion, just after legate. The name of the position comes from the word laticlava, which refers to the two wide purple stripes on the tunic worn by officials of senatorial rank.

Praefectus Castrorum(Camp Prefect)
The third most senior post in the legion. It was usually occupied by a promoted veteran soldier who had previously held the post of one of the centurions.

Tribuni Angusticlavii (Tribunes of Angustiklavii)
Each legion had five military tribunes from the equestrian class. Most often, these were professional military men who occupied high administrative positions in the legion, and during hostilities they could, if necessary, command the legion. They were given tunics with narrow purple stripes (angusticlava), hence the name of the position.

Middle officers:

Primus Pilus (Primipil)
The highest-ranking centurion of the legion, who led the first double century. In the 1st-2nd centuries AD. e. upon dismissal from military service Primipil was included in the class of horsemen and could civil service achieve a high equestrian position. The name literally means “first rank”. Due to the similarity between the words pilus (line) and pilum (pilum, throwing spear), the term is sometimes incorrectly translated as "centurion of the first spear." Primipilus was an assistant commander of the legion. He was entrusted with the protection of the legionary eagle; he gave the signal for the legion to move and ordered the sound signals concerning all cohorts; on the march he was at the head of the army, in battle he was on the right flank in the first row. His century consisted of 400 selected warriors, whose direct command was exercised by several commanders of the lowest rank. In order to reach the rank of primipile, it was necessary (in the normal order of service) to go through all the centurion ranks, and usually this status was achieved after 20 or more years of service, by the age of 40-50.

Centurio
Each legion had 59 centurions, commanders of centuries. Centurions represented the basis and backbone of the professional Roman army. These were professional warriors who lived the daily lives of their subordinate soldiers and commanded them during battle. Typically, this post was given to veteran soldiers, but one could become a centurion by direct decree of the emperor or other high-ranking official. The cohorts were numbered from the first to the tenth, and the centuries within the cohorts were numbered from the first to the sixth (the first cohort had only five centuries, but the first century was double) - thus, there were 58 centurions and primipiles in the legion. The number of the century each centurion commanded directly reflected his position in the legion, that is, the highest position was occupied by the centurion of the first century of the first cohort, and the lowest by the centurion of the sixth century of the tenth cohort. The five centurions of the first cohort were called "Primi Ordines". In each cohort, the centurion of the first century was called "Pilus Prior".

Junior officers:

Optio
Assistant to the centurion, replaced the centurion in battle if he was wounded. He was chosen by the centurion himself from among his soldiers.

Tesserarius (Tesserary)
Assistant option. His duties included organizing guards and transmitting passwords to the sentries.

Decurio
He commanded a cavalry detachment of 10 to 30 horsemen as part of the legion.

Decanus
The commander of 10 soldiers with whom he lived in the same tent.

Special honorary positions:

Aquilifer
An extremely important and prestigious post (the literal translation of the name is “eagle bearer.” The loss of the symbol (“eagle”) was considered a terrible dishonor, after which the legion was disbanded. If the eagle could be recaptured or returned in another way, the legion was re-formed with the same name and number.

Signifer
Each century had a treasurer who was responsible for paying the soldiers' salaries and safeguarding their savings. He also carried the battle badge of the century (Signum) - a spear shaft decorated with medallions. At the top of the shaft there was a symbol, most often an eagle. Sometimes - an image of an open palm.

Imaginifer
In battle he carried an image of the emperor (Latin imago), which served as a constant reminder of the army’s loyalty to the head of the Roman Empire.

Vexillarius (Vexillarius)
In battle he carried the standard (vexillum) of a certain infantry or cavalry unit of the Roman troops.

Immunes
The immuns were legionnaires who had special skills that gave them the right to receive increased salaries and exempted them from labor and guard duty. Engineers, artillerymen, musicians, clerks, quartermasters, weapons and drill instructors, carpenters, hunters, medical personnel and military police— were all immune. These men were fully trained legionnaires, and were called upon to serve in the line of battle when needed.

Cornicen
Legionnaire trumpeters playing the brass horn. They were next to the standard bearer, giving commands to gather to the battle badge and transmitting the commander’s orders to the soldiers with bugle signals.

Tubicen
Trumpeters played the “tuba,” which was a copper or bronze tube. The Tubitceni, who were with the legate of the legion, called on the soldiers to attack or trumpeted retreat.

Bucinator
Trumpeters playing the bucina.

Evocatus
A soldier who has served his term and retired, but returned to service voluntarily at the invitation of the consul or other commander. Such volunteers enjoyed a particularly honorable position in the army, as experienced, seasoned soldiers. They were assigned to special detachments, most often attached to the commander as his personal guard and especially trusted guard.

Duplicarius
A distinguished ordinary legionnaire who received double pay.

The core of the officer staff was the beneficiary, literally “the beneficiary,” because this position was considered a sinecure. Every officer had a beneficiary, but only senior officers, starting with the camp prefect, had a cornicularius. Cornicularius headed the office that dealt with the endless stream of official documents characteristic of the Roman army. The army produced countless documents. Many such documents written on papyrus have been discovered in the Middle East. From this mass we can single out those that contain the results of medical examinations of recruits, assignments of recruits to units, duty schedules, daily lists of passwords, lists of sentries at headquarters, records of departures, arrivals, and lists of connections. Annual reports were sent to Rome indicating permanent and temporary assignments, casualties, and the number of soldiers fit to continue serving. Each soldier had a separate file, where everything was recorded, from his salary and the amount of savings to absences from the camp on errands. The offices, of course, had scribes and archivists (librarii). Many legionnaires were probably sent to the office of the provincial governor, where they served as executioners (speculatores), interrogators (quaestionaries) and intelligence officers (frumentarii). An escort (singulares) was recruited from the legionnaires. The hospital (valetudinarium) had its own staff, headed by optio valetudinarii. The hospital staff included people who did dressings and orderlies (capsarii and medici). There were specialist officers, doctors (also medici) and architecti. The latter performed the duties of surveyors, builders, sappers and commanders of siege weapons. “Architects,” like “medics,” were of different ranks, although they all had the same name.
In addition, the legion had many merchants and artisans: masons, carpenters, glass blowers and tile tile workers. The Legion possessed big amount siege weapons, but the people assigned to them did not have special titles. The manufacture and repair of siege weapons was the work of the architect and his assistants. And finally, the legion had veterinary officers who took care of the animals.

This issue is made on the basis of the three-volume “Military History” by Razin and the book “On Seven Hills” by M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdalsky. The issue is not a special historical study and is intended to help those who are engaged in the production of military miniatures.

Brief historical background

Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Britain. Roman soldiers were famous throughout the world for their iron discipline (but it was not always iron) and brilliant victories. The Roman commanders went from victory to victory (there were also severe defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean found themselves under the weight of the soldier’s boot.

Roman army in different time had different numbers, number of legions, different formations. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.

In Rome there was universal conscription. Young men began to serve in the army from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempt from service. Service life also changed over time.

At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in the light infantry (weapons were cheap and purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into categories. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who owned property valued at no less than 100,000 copper asses, the 2nd - at least 75,000 asses, the 3rd - 50,000 asses, the 4th - 25,000 asses, the 5th -mu – 11,500 asses. All poor people were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only their offspring ( proles). Each property category exhibited certain number military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; only 98 centuries; 2nd – 22; 3rd – 20; 4th – 22; 5th - 30 lightly armed centuries and 6th category - 1 century, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as baggage servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed infantry and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve because they were not trusted.

Over time, the state took upon itself not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from his salary for food, weapons and equipment.

After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.

Continuous wars required many soldiers, changes in weapons, construction, and training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla came to power (1st century BC).

Organization of the Roman army

After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy came under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of “divide and conquer.”

And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;

b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's combat ranks.

Consul Marcus Claudius changed the structure of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.

The legion was divided into maniples (Latin for a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decurii (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads.

Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in a loose formation and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.

Hastati (from the Latin “gast” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) – 120 people in the manipula. Second line. Triarii (third) – 60 people in a maniple. Third line. The triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”

Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.

The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

At the very beginning of the use of the manipular order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a gap in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the maniple from the second line took the place of the maniple from the third line . During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.

Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve that decided the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion would face death. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort formation of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.

Command structure of the Roman army

In tsarist times, the commander was the king. During the Republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, as opposed to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with separate parts of the army.

Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right of a soldier for misconduct. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod; this weapon was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus talked about one centurion, whom the entire army knew by the nickname: “Pass over the other!” After the reform of Marius, a companion of Sulla, the centurions of the triarii received big influence. They were invited to a military council.

As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, kettledrums, trumpets, and horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which hung a panel of one-color material. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (wolf, elephant, horse, boar...). If a unit accomplished a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has survived to this day.

The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver or bronze eagle. Under the emperors it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In difficult times, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies in order to encourage the soldiers to return it back and disperse the enemies.

The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. Standard bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and were held in high esteem and respect.

According to the description of Titus Livy, the banners were a square panel laced to a horizontal crossbar mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.

Until the Allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects chosen from among Roman citizens.

Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service was the quaestor, who was in charge of forage and food for the army. He ensured that everything needed was delivered. In addition, each century had its own foragers. A special official, like a captain in modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, accountants, cashiers who issued salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, and trumpeter-signal players.

All signals were sent through a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. When changing the guard, a futsin trumpet was blown. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for a general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander’s tent.

Training in the Roman Army

The training of the soldiers of the Roman manipular legion primarily consisted of teaching the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, and to rush to merge into the general mass. Performing these maneuvers required more complex training than that of a warrior fighting in a phalanx.

The training also consisted of the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.

The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver, required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Mary, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced into the Roman army new system training, reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained (trained) soldiers could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack a huge mass of the enemy from the rear, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like this. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting light infantry, and from 300 to 900 horsemen.

Fig. 3 – Cohort battle formation.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely at the mercy of the commander.

The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as was failure to comply with orders. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, during reconnaissance without orders from the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in camp with delight. However, the consul condemned him death penalty. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.

Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fasciae, fascines). IN war time an ax was inserted into them. A symbol of the consul's power over his men. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then his head was cut off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem in Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.

If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor offenses they could be flogged, demoted in rank, transferred to hard work, reduce wages, deprive of citizenship, sell into slavery.

But there were also rewards. They could promote them in rank, increase their salary, reward them with land or money, exempt them from camp work, and award them with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award ceremony was carried out by the commander himself.

The usual awards were medals (faleres) with the image of a god or commander. By higher signs The differences were the wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen - in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden bows of ships - to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege of a city or fortress or liberated it. But the highest reward - triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, in which at least 5,000 enemies had to be killed.

The triumphant rode on a gilded chariot wearing a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four snow-white horses. In front of the chariot they carried spoils of war and led prisoners. The triumphant man was followed by relatives and friends, songwriters, and soldiers. Triumphant songs were sung. Every now and then there were shouts of “Io!” and “Triumph!” (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurray!”). The slave standing behind the triumphant chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and not to become arrogant.

For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, making fun of him and laughing at his baldness.

Roman camp

The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army, as they said, carried the fortress with it. As soon as a halt was made, construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even if it was defeated only for a short time, it differed from a one-day one with more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army remained in camp for the winter. This type of camp was called a winter camp; instead of tents, houses and barracks were built. By the way, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose on the site of some Roman camps. Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew out of the Roman camps... Cities ending in “...chester” or “...castrum” arose on the site of the Roman camps. “Castrum” - camp.

The camp site was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for the transport's livestock, as well as fuel.

The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the location of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which is 50 meters. The commander's tents, altars, and a platform for addressing the commander's soldiers were placed here; The trial and the gathering of troops took place here. To the right was the tent of the quaestor, to the left - the legates. There were tribune tents on both sides. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide ran through the entire camp; the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. At the ends of the streets there were gates and towers. There were ballistas and catapults on them (one and the same throwing weapon, got its name from the projectile thrown, ballista, metal cannonballs, catapult - arrows). Legionnaires' tents stood in regular rows on the sides. From the camp the troops could set out on a campaign without fuss or disorder. Each century occupied ten tents, and each maniple occupied twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof, and were covered with leather or rough linen. Tent area from 2.5 to 7 square meters. m. A decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and cavalry were large sizes. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the legionnaires' tents. This was done so that the enemy could not set fire to the tents. In front of the camp, an obstacle course was set up consisting of several countervailing lines and barriers made of sharpened stakes, wolf pits, trees with sharpened branches and intertwined, forming an almost impassable obstacle.

Leggings have been worn by Roman legionnaires since ancient times. They were abolished under the emperors. But the centurions continued to wear them. The leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, and were sometimes painted.

In the time of Mary the banners were silver, in the times of the empire they were gold. The panels were multi-colored: white, blue, red, purple.

Rice. 7 – Weapons.

A cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than an infantry sword. The swords were double-edged, the handles were made of bone, wood, and metal.

A pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. The shaft is wooden. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly turn to turn with cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the shaft were made of soft forged iron, before the iron was made of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear that dug into the shield pulled it to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to throw the shield, since the spear weighed 4-5 kg ​​and dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod were bent.

Rice. 8 – Scutums (shields).

Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made from light, well-dried, tightly fitted aspen or poplar boards, covered with linen, and on top with cowhide. The edge of the shield was bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and the strips were placed in a cross across the center of the shield. In the center was a pointed plaque (umbon) - the top of the shield. The legionnaires kept a razor, money and other small things in it (it was removable). On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal bracket, the owner's name and the number of the century or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. The hand was inserted into the belt loop and grasped by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.

The helmet in the center is earlier, the one on the left is later. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated with snakes on the sides, which at the top formed a place where feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. On the top of the head the Roman helmet had a ring into which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or lower back, like a modern helmet.

Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. The velites were dressed in tunics; later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires also began to wear trousers. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones hanging on their right side, over their left shoulder. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of clothing could be any color except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or walk barefoot. Archers appeared in the Roman army after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus at Brundisium.

Fig 12 – Centurion.

The centurions had silver-plated helmets, did not have shields and carried the sword on the right side. They had greaves and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, had an image on the chest grapevine, rolled into a ring. During the times of manipular and cohort formation of legions, centurions were on the right flank of centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.

Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not shod. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.

References

1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 t. t., Moscow, 1987

2. On seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.

3. Hannibal. Titus Livy; Moscow, 1947.

4. Spartak. Raffaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.

5. Flags of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.

6. History of ancient Rome, under general edition IN AND. Kuzishchina; Moscow, 1981.

Publication:
Library of the Military Historical Commission - 44, 1989

For many decades, the army of Rome had no equal. The external enemies of the republic, and then the empire, one after another collapsed under the ramming blow of the cohorts, overshadowed by the shadow of the golden eagle. The Romans thought through everything to the smallest detail and created an organizational masterpiece of their time, deservedly called the “war machine.”

During the years of the empire, the army of Rome consisted of praetorian cohorts, legions, auxiliaries (auxiliary troops), numeri and several other types of armed units.

To begin with, a few words about the praetorians, in fact, the emperor’s personal guard. Their cohorts were called aquitatae and were approximately 80% foot soldiers. Each consisted of 10 centuries, commanded by a tribune. The number of cohorts and their numbers could vary, but on average the Roman Empire had 9–10 cohorts of 500 people each. Overall command of the praetorians was exercised by two praetorian prefects. The identifying mark of the cohorts was a scorpion. Their main location was a military camp in the vicinity of Rome. Three cohorts urbanae were also located there. As the name suggests, these units were responsible for security and order within Rome.

Praetorians. Column of Marcus Aurelius

Also present in the capital of the empire were the emperor's personal cavalry - eqiuites singulars Augusti (from 500 to 1000 people) and his personal bodyguards - Germans from the Batavian tribe. The latter were called corporis custodes and numbered up to 500 soldiers.

The most numerous and at the same time the most famous part of the Roman army are the legions (legio). During the period of reforms of Emperor Octavian Augustus (31 BC - 14 AD), there were 25 legions. Each had its own number and name, originating from the place of formation or from the name of the one who formed the legion. The common emblem of the largest military formations in Rome were golden eagles, which the soldiers treated as sacred relics.

Each legion consisted of approximately 5,000 men (mostly infantry) and included 10 cohorts. The cohort was divided into six centuries, approximately 80 people each. The only exception was the first cohort. It consisted of five centuries of double strength, that is, of approximately 800 people.

Centuria - cohort - legion

Each legion consisted of 120 horsemen. This has been the standard amount for a very long time. It was not until the time of Emperor Gallienus (253–268 AD) that the legion's cavalry numbers grew to 726 men.

Among the 59 centurions of the legion, the highest in rank was the primipile, who commanded the first century of the first cohort. The legion also included five tribunes angusticlavia from among the equestrian class of Rome and one or more six-month tribunes who commanded the cavalry. One person served as camp prefect. The Senate aristocracy, or even the emperor himself, was represented in the legion by one tribune laticlavius. The commander of the legion until the time of Emperor Gallienus was the legate.

For about 200 years, from 28 BC. and until the end of the 2nd century AD, Rome lost various reasons eight legions, but formed twice as many instead. This brought the total number of legions to 33.

List of destroyed or disbanded legions of the Roman Empire

List of newly formed legions of the Roman Empire

	Number and name	Year of creation of the legion
	Legio XV Primigenia
	Legio XXII Primigenia
	Legio I Adjutrix
	Legio VII Gemina
	Legio II Adiutrix	69−79 AD
	Legio IV Flavia Felix	69−79 AD
	Legio XVI Flavia Firma	69−79 AD
	Legio I Minervia
	Legio II Traiana Fortis
	Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix
	Legio II Italica
	Legio III Italica
	Legio I Partica
	Legio II Parthica
	Legio III Parthica

The second component of the Roman army, comparable in size to legions, were auxiliary troops - auxiliaries. As a rule, equal numbers of auxiliary troops marched with the legions on a military campaign. Each auxiliary unit consisted of 500 to 1,000 infantry or cavalry. The units into which the auxiliary troops were divided were in turn divided into cohorts, als and numeri (units).

The most privileged among the auxiliaries were the mounted units - aly. Each of them consisted of 16–24 turmas with 30–32 horsemen each. Scarlet was commanded by a prefect or tribune. The unit could include both heavily armed horsemen, like cataphracts, and light cavalry, unprotected and armed only with a shield and javelins. Among other things, there were exotic ala dromedarii - camel riders for war in the deserts.

Ala auxiliaries. Trajan's Column

The infantry cohorts of the auxiliary troops were divided into six or ten centuries, depending on whether they were five hundred or thousand strong. They, like the cavalry alai, were commanded by tribunes or prefects. The status of auxiliary cohorts depended on who recruited them. For example, some of the cohorts were recruited on a voluntary basis from citizens of Rome and were equated in status to legionnaires. In the cohorts whose status was less honorable, free residents of the Roman Empire who did not have the rank of citizen served. Citizenship, along with the benefits due to him, was a reward for 25 years of service in the auxiliaries.

The infantry cohorts of the auxiliary troops varied greatly in both armament and functional tasks. They could be heavy, as close as possible to legions. They could be “medium” in terms of the severity of their weapons - as a rule, such units were recruited in different regions of the empire. The light infantry of the auxiliaries were armed with various throwing devices (Balearic slingers, Cretan and Syrian archers).

There could even be mixed cohorts of auxiliaries - they included both infantry and cavalry. If this was a cohort of five hundred, then it included six centuries of foot and three cavalry. If the thousandth, then 10 centuries of infantry and six turmoil of horsemen.

An auxiliary with a severed head in his teeth. Trajan's Column

Auxiliary units were called by the name of the people from which their original composition was recruited (cohorts Afrorum, Thracum, Dalmatorum, ala Hispanorum, Pannoniorum), or by the name of the unit commander (the most famous example is ala Siliana). Often the name of the emperor by whose will the cohort was created (cohorts Augusta, Flavia, Ulpia), honorary titles (Faithful, Pious, Victorious) and clarifications (sagittariorum - archers, veteran - veteran) were added to the name. Cohorts often moved around the Roman Empire fighting, and could completely lose their original ethnic composition, as losses were replenished right where the unit was located at that moment.

A separate phenomenon in the Roman army were numeri. This unit name was used in two meanings. The first is any detachment that was not a legion, scarlet or cohort. An example would be the legate's personal bodyguards. The second meaning referred to a group of warriors who were not Romans and retained their ethnic characteristics. This category appeared during the reign of Emperor Domitian (81–96 AD).

Horse ala and numeri. Trajan's Column

Numeri could be mounted, on foot, mixed and varied in number. Researchers explain the appearance of such units by the fact that in the 2nd century a stream of Roman citizens and Romanized stateless residents of the empire poured into the ranks of the auxilaries. It was considered undesirable to combine barbarians and Romans in one unit, so something new had to be created.

Essentially, in the 2nd century, numeri became what auxiliaries had been before. These varied units not only gave Roman tactics flexibility and variety. They performed a social function, contributing to the process of Romanization of the provinces.

If you evaluate the total number of troops that the Roman Empire had in the 1st–2nd centuries AD, you will see that it was constantly growing. At the beginning of the reign of Octavian Augustus, the army consisted of approximately 125 thousand legionaries, approximately the same number of auxiliaries, a ten thousand Roman garrison and a fleet (most likely up to 40 thousand people). Total - approximately 300 thousand soldiers. By the end of the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus (193–211 AD), researchers estimate that the number of troops had grown to approximately 450 thousand people.

Legion diagram. From P. Connolly’s encyclopedia “Greece and Rome”

The legions were stationed in different provinces of the Roman Empire. Troops based in the interior ensured security in the region. And if the legion stood on the border, then the territory of war invariably stretched around it, where wars and skirmishes did not stop. When the peace of the Pax Romana was once again violated, the time came for a new military campaign.

To be continued

Sources and literature:

1. Vegetius Flavius ​​Renat. Brief summary of military affairs/Trans. from lat. S. P. Kondratyeva. - VDI, 1940, No. 1.
2. Tacitus Cornelius. Annals. Small works. History/Edition prepared by A. S. Bobovich, Y. M. Borovsky, G. S. Knabe and others. M., 2003.
3. Flavius ​​Joseph. Jewish War/Trans. from Greek Ya. L. Chertka. St. Petersburg, 1900.
4. Le Boek Ya. The Roman army of the era of the early empire / Transl. from fr. M., 2001.
5. Makhlayuk A.V. Army of the Roman Empire. Essays on traditions and mentality. N. Novgorod., 2000.
6. Makhlayuk A.V. Roman legions in battle. Moscow., 2009.
7. Connolly P. Greece and Rome. The evolution of military art over 12 centuries: Encyclopedia military history: Per. from English M., 2001.
8. Boltinskaya L.V. On the question of the principles of recruiting the Roman army under the Julius-Claudians (according to military diplomas) // Questions of General History. Vol. 3. Krasnoyarsk, 1973. p. 18–23.