What event happened during the reign of Justinian. Blue and green

Flavius ​​Peter Sabbatius Justinian (lat. Flavius ​​Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus, Greek. Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός), better known as Justinian I (Greek Ιουστ ινιανός Α) or Justinian the Great (Greek Μέγας Ιουστινιανός; 483, Tauresium, Upper Macedonia - November 14, 565 , Constantinople). Byzantine Emperor from August 1, 527 until his death in 565. Justinian himself in his decrees called himself Caesar Flavius ​​Justinian of Alaman, Gothic, Frankish, Germanic, Antian, Alanian, Vandal, African.

Justinian, a general and reformer, is one of the most prominent monarchs of late antiquity. His reign marks important stage the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages and, accordingly, the transition from Roman traditions to the Byzantine style of government. Justinian was full of ambition, but he failed to accomplish the “restoration of the empire” (Latin: renovatio imperii). In the West, he managed to take possession of most of the lands of the Western Roman Empire, which collapsed after the Great Migration, including the Apennine Peninsula, the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula and part of North Africa. One more important event is Justinian's order to revise Roman law, which resulted in a new set of laws - the Justinian Code (lat. Corpus iuris civilis). By decree of the emperor, who wanted to surpass Solomon and the legendary Temple of Jerusalem, the burnt Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was completely rebuilt, striking in its beauty and splendor and remaining for a thousand years the most grandiose temple in the Christian world.

In 529 Justinian closed the Platonic Academy in Athens, and in 542 the emperor abolished the post of consul, possibly for financial reasons. Increasing worship of the ruler as a saint finally destroyed the illusion of the principate that the emperor was first among equals (Latin primus inter pares). During the reign of Justinian, the first plague pandemic in Byzantium and the largest riot in the history of Byzantium and Constantinople took place - the Nika uprising, provoked by tax oppression and the emperor's church policies.

There are various versions and theories regarding the origins of Justinian and his family. Most sources, mainly Greek and Eastern (Syrian, Arabic, Armenian), as well as Slavic (entirely based on Greek), call Justinian a Thracian; some Greek sources and the Latin chronicle of Victor Tonnennesis call him an Illyrian; finally, Procopius of Caesarea claims that the homeland of Justinian and Justin was Dardania. There is no contradiction in all these three definitions. At the beginning of the 6th century, the civil administration of the Balkan Peninsula was divided between two prefectures. Praefectura praetorio per Illyricum, the smaller of them, included two dioceses - Dacia and Macedonia. Thus, when sources write that Justin was an Illyrian, they mean that he and his family were residents of the Illyrian prefecture. In turn, the province of Dardania was part of the diocese of Dacia. The Thracian theory of the origin of Justinian can also be confirmed by the fact that the name Sabbatius most likely comes from the name of the ancient Thracian deity Sabazius.

Up to late XIX century, the theory of the Slavic origin of Justinian, based on the work of a certain abbot Theophilus (Bogumil) published by Niccolo Alamanni under the name Iustiniani Vita, was popular. It introduces special names for Justinian and his relatives that have a Slavic sound.

Thus, Justinian's father, called Savvatius according to Byzantine sources, was called Istokus by Bogomil, and the name of Justinian himself sounded like Upravda. Although the origins of Alleman's published book were in doubt, theories based on it were intensively developed until James Bryce conducted research on the original manuscript in the library of the Barberini Palace in 1883. In an article published in 1887, he argued that this document was of no historical value, and Bohumil himself hardly existed. Nowadays, Iustiniani Vita is considered as one of the legends linking the Slavs with great figures of the past such as Alexander the Great and Justinian.

Regarding the place of Justinian's birth, Procopius speaks out quite definitely, placing it in a place called Tauresium, next to the fort of Bederiana. About this place, Procopius further says that next to it the city of Justiniana Prima was subsequently founded, the ruins of which are now located in the south-east of Serbia. Procopius also reports that Justinian significantly strengthened and made numerous improvements in the city of Ulpiana, renaming it Justiniana Secunda. Nearby he built another city, calling it Justinopolis, in honor of his uncle.

Most of the cities of Dardania were destroyed during the reign of Anastasius by a powerful earthquake in 518. Justinopolis was built next to the destroyed capital of the province of Scupi, and a powerful wall with four towers was erected around Tauresia, which Procopius calls Tetrapyrgia.

The names “Bederiana” and “Tavresius” have come down to our time in the form of the names of the villages of Bader and Taor near Skopje. Both of these places were explored in 1885 by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans, who found rich numismatic material there confirming the importance of the settlements located here after the 5th century. Evans concluded that the Skopje area was the birthplace of Justinian, confirming the identification of old settlements with modern villages.

The name of Justinian's mother, Justin's sister, Biglenica, is given in Iustiniani Vita, the unreliability of which is stated above. Since there is no other information on this matter, we can assume that her name is unknown. The fact that Justinian's mother was Justin's sister is confirmed by numerous sources.

There is more reliable news about Father Justinian. In The Secret History, Procopius gives the following account: “They say that his [Justinian’s] mother used to tell someone close to him that he was not born from her husband Savvatius or from any other person. Before she became pregnant with him, she was visited by a demon, invisible, but leaving her with the impression that he was with her and had intercourse with her, like a man with a woman, and then disappeared, as in a dream..

From here we learn the name of Justinian's father - Savvaty. Another source where this name is mentioned is the so-called “Acts regarding Callopodium”, included in the chronicle of Theophanes and the “Easter Chronicle” and relating to the events immediately preceding the uprising of Nika. There, the Prasins, during a conversation with the emperor’s representative, utter the phrase “It would have been better if Savvaty had not been born, he would not have given birth to a murderer son”.

Savvaty and his wife had two children, Peter Savvaty (lat. Petrus Sabbatius) and Vigilantia (lat. Vigilantia). Written sources nowhere mention the real name of Justinian, and only on the consular diptychs of 521 do we see the inscription lat. Fl. Petr. Sabbat. Justinian. v. i., com. mag. eqq. et p. praes., et c. od., meaning lat. Flavius ​​Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus, vir illustris, comes, magister equitum et peditum praesentalium et consul ordinarius.

The marriage of Justinian and Theodora was childless, however, he had six nephews and nieces, of whom Justin II became heir.

Justinian's uncle - Justin, among other Illyrian peasants, fleeing from extreme need, came on foot from Bederiana to Byzantium and hired a military service. Arriving at the end of the reign of Leo I in Constantinople and enlisting in the imperial guard, Justin quickly rose in service, and already during the reign of Anastasia he took part in the wars with Persia as a military leader. Further, Justin distinguished himself in suppressing the uprising of Vitalian. Thus, Justin won the favor of Emperor Anastasius and was appointed chief of the palace guard with the rank of comite and senator.

The time of Justinian's arrival in the capital is not known exactly. It is assumed that this happened around the age of twenty-five, and then Justinian studied theology and Roman law for some time, after which he was awarded the title of Lat. candidati, that is, the emperor's personal bodyguard. Somewhere around this time, the adoption and change of name of the future emperor took place.

After the death of Anastasius in 518, Justin was able to seize power with relative ease, despite the fact that there were a large number of richer and more powerful candidates. According to Procopius, this was the will of higher powers interested in the ultimate rise of Justinian. The election procedure is described by Peter Patricius. Among the reasons that ensured the election of Justin and the rise of Justinian is the support of Patriarch John II, who was assured that the new dynasty would be faithful to the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon, in contrast to the pro-Monophysite Anastasius. Probably, important role The theologically educated Justinian played a role in this. Immediately after the election of Justin as emperor, he appointed his nephew Lat. comes domesticorum as the head of a special corps of palace guards, as is known from a letter from Pope Hormizd, dated early 519.

In 521, as mentioned above, Justinian received a consular title, which he used to increase his popularity by staging magnificent shows in the circus, which grew so much that the Senate asked the aged emperor to appoint Justinian as his co-emperor. According to the chronicler John Zonara, Justin refused this offer. The Senate, however, continued to insist on Justinian's elevation, asking that he be given the title of Lat. nobilissimus, which happened until 525, when he was awarded the highest rank of Caesar. Although such a distinguished career was bound to have real influence, there is no reliable information about Justinian's role in the administration of the empire during this period.

Over time, the emperor's health deteriorated, and the illness caused by an old wound in the leg worsened. Feeling the approach of death, Justin responded to another petition from the Senate to appoint Justinian as co-emperor. The ceremony, which has come down to us in the description of Peter Patricius in the treatise lat. De ceremoniis of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, occurred on Easter, April 4, 527 - Justinian and his wife Theodora were crowned Augustus and Augustus.

Justinian finally gained full power after the death of Emperor Justin I on August 1, 527.

Few descriptions of Justinian's appearance have survived. Justinian was depicted on one of the largest (36 solidi or ½-pound) known medallions, stolen in 1831 from the Paris medal cabinet. The medallion was melted down, but its images and a cast were preserved, allowing copies to be made from it.

The Roman-German Museum in Cologne houses a copy of the statue of Justinian made of Egyptian marble. Some idea of ​​the emperor’s appearance is given by the surviving drawings of Justinian’s Column, erected in 542. Discovered in Kerch in 1891 and now kept in the Hermitage, the silver missorium was originally considered to be an image of Justinian. Perhaps Justinian is also depicted on the famous Barberini diptych, kept in the Louvre.

A large number of coins were issued during the reign of Justinian. Donative coins of 36 and 4.5 solidi are known, a solidi with a full-figure image of the emperor in consular vestments, as well as an exceptionally rare aureus weighing 5.43 g, minted on an Old Roman foot. Front side All these coins are occupied by either a three-quarter or profile bust of the emperor, with or without a helmet.

Vivid Image early career the future empress is given in numerous details in the "Secret History"; John of Ephesus simply notes that “she came from a brothel.” Despite the opinion of some scholars that all these claims are unreliable and exaggerated, the generally accepted view generally agrees with Procopius's account of the events of Theodora's early career.

Justinian's first meeting with Theodora took place around 522 in Constantinople. Then Theodora left the capital and spent some time in Alexandria. How their second meeting took place is not known for certain. It is known that, wanting to marry Theodora, Justinian asked his uncle to assign her the rank of patrician, but this caused strong opposition from Empress Euphemia, and until the latter’s death in 523 or 524, the marriage was impossible.

Probably related to Justinian's desire was the adoption of the law "On Marriage" (lat. De nuptiis) during Justin's reign, which repealed the law of Emperor Constantine I prohibiting a person who had reached the senatorial rank from marrying a harlot.

After marriage, Theodora completely broke with her turbulent past and was a faithful wife.

In foreign policy, the name of Justinian is associated primarily with the idea "restoration of the Roman Empire" or "Reconquista of the West". There are currently two theories regarding the question of when this goal was set. According to one of them, now more widespread, the idea of ​​​​the return of the West existed in Byzantium since the end of the 5th century. This point of view is based on the thesis that after the emergence of the barbarian kingdoms professing Arianism, there must have been social elements that did not recognize the loss of Rome's status as a great city and capital of the civilized world and did not agree with the dominant position of the Arians in the religious sphere.

An alternative point of view, which does not deny the general desire to return the West to the fold of civilization and orthodox religion, places the emergence of a program of specific actions after successes in the war against the Vandals. This is supported by various indirect signs, for example, the disappearance from legislation and state documentation of the first third of the 6th century of words and expressions that somehow mentioned Africa, Italy and Spain, as well as the loss of interest of the Byzantines in the first capital of the empire.

Perceiving himself as the heir of the Roman Caesars, Justinian considered it his duty to recreate the Roman Empire, while wanting the state to have one law and one faith. Based on the principle of absolute power, he believed that in a well-established state everything should be subject to the imperial attention. Understanding the importance of the church for government, he made every effort to ensure that it carried out his will. The question of the primacy of Justinian's state or religious interests is debatable. It is at least known that the emperor was the author of numerous letters on religious topics addressed to popes and patriarchs, as well as treatises and church hymns.

This is what the emperor’s contemporary, Procopius of Caesarea, wrote about his attitude towards the church and the Christian faith: “He seemed to be firm in the Christian faith, but this also turned out to be death for his subjects. Indeed, he allowed the clergy to oppress their neighbors with impunity, and when they seized the lands adjacent to their possessions, he shared their joy, believing that in this way he was demonstrating his piety. And when he judged such cases, he believed that he was doing a good deed if someone, hiding behind shrines, walked away, appropriating what did not belong to him.” (Procopius of Caesarea " Secret history» Ch. XIII, part 4.5).

In accordance with his desire, Justinian considered it his right not only to decide issues related to the leadership of the church and its property, but also to establish a certain dogma among his subjects. Whatever religious direction the emperor adhered to, his subjects had to adhere to the same direction. Justinian regulated the life of the clergy, filled the highest hierarchical positions at his discretion, and acted as a mediator and judge in the clergy. He patronized the church in the person of its ministers, contributed to the construction of churches, monasteries, and the increase in their privileges; finally, the emperor established religious unity among all subjects of the empire, gave the latter the norm of orthodox teaching, participated in dogmatic disputes and gave the final decision on controversial dogmatic issues.

Such a policy of secular predominance in religious and church affairs, right down to the hiding places of a person’s religious beliefs, especially clearly demonstrated by Justinian, received in history the name of Caesaropapism, and this emperor is considered one of the most typical representatives such a direction.

Justinian took steps to completely eradicate the remnants of paganism. In 529 he closed the famous philosophical school in Athens. This had a predominantly symbolic meaning, since by the time of the event this school had lost its leading position among the educational institutions of the empire after the University of Constantinople was founded in the 5th century under Theodosius II. After the school was closed under Justinian, Athenian professors were expelled, some of them moved to Persia, where they met an admirer of Plato in the person of Khosrow I; the school's property was confiscated. John of Ephesus wrote: “In the same year in which St. Benedict destroyed the last pagan national sanctuary in Italy, namely the temple of Apollo in the sacred grove on Monte Cassino, and the stronghold of ancient paganism in Greece was also destroyed." Since then, Athens has completely lost its former significance. cultural center and turned into a remote provincial town. Justinian did not achieve the complete eradication of paganism; it continued to hide in some inaccessible areas. Procopius of Caesarea writes that the persecution of pagans was carried out not so much out of a desire to establish Christianity, but rather out of a thirst to seize the gold of pagan temples.

In The Divine Comedy, having placed Justinian in Paradise, he trusts him to make a historical overview of the Roman Empire (The Divine Comedy, Paradise, canto 6). According to Dante, Justinian's main services to history were the reform of law, the renunciation of Monophysitism and the campaigns of Belisarius.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire and the fall of Rome, Byzantium was able to withstand the onslaught of the barbarians and continued to exist as an independent state. It reached the peak of its power under Emperor Justinian.

Byzantine Empire under Justinian

The Byzantine emperor ascended the throne on August 1, 527. The territory of the empire at that time included the Balkans, Egypt, the coast of Tripoli, the peninsula of Asia Minor, the Middle East and all the islands of the eastern Mediterranean Sea.

Rice. 1. The territory of Byzantium at the beginning of the reign of Justinian

The role of the emperor in the state was unusually enormous. He had absolute power, but it relied on the bureaucracy.

The basileus (as Byzantine rulers were called) built the basis of his internal policy on the foundation laid by Diocletian, who worked under Theodosius I. He created a special document that listed all the civil and military government officials of Byzantium. Thus, the military sphere was divided immediately between the five largest military leaders, two of whom were at court, and the rest in Thrace, in the east of the empire and in Illyria. Lower down in the military hierarchy were the duci, who controlled the military districts entrusted to them.

In domestic politics, the basileus relied on his ministers. The most powerful was the minister who ruled the largest prefecture - the eastern one. He had the greatest influence on the writing of laws, public administration, the judicial system and the distribution of finances. Below him was the city prefect, who ruled the capital. The state also had heads of various services, treasurers, police chiefs and, finally, senators - members of the imperial council.

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An important date in the life of the empire is 529. It was then that Justinian created his famous code - a set of laws based on Roman law. This was the best legal document of his time, including the laws of the empire.

Rice. 2. Fresco depicting Justinian.

The most important government reforms carried out by Justinian:

• combining civilian and military positions;
• a ban on officials acquiring land in their places of service;
• banning payments for positions and increasing salaries for officials, which was carried out as part of the fight against corruption.

Justinian's greatest achievement in the cultural sphere was the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople - the greatest Christian temple of its time.

In 532, the largest revolt in its history occurred in Constantinople - the Nika uprising. More than 35 thousand people, dissatisfied with high taxes and church policies, took to the streets of the city. It was only thanks to the loyalty of the emperor’s personal guard and his wife that Justinian did not flee the capital and personally suppressed the rebellion.

His wife, Theodora, played a prominent role in the life of the emperor. She was not an aristocrat, earning money before marriage in the theaters of Constantinople. However, she turned out to be a subtle politician who knows how to play on people’s feelings and build complex intrigues.

Foreign policy under Justinian

There was no other period in the history of the young empire when it experienced such a flourishing. Considering the reign of Justinian in the Byzantine Empire, one cannot help but mention the endless wars and conquests that he waged. Justinian was the only Byzantine emperor who dreamed of reviving the Roman Empire within its former borders.

Justinian's favorite general was Belisarius. He took part in many wars both in the east with the Persians and in the west - with the Vandals in North Africa, in Spain with the Visigoths and in Italy with the Ostrogoths. Even with smaller forces, he managed to achieve victories, and the capture of Rome is considered his greatest success.

Considering this issue briefly, the following achievements of the Roman army should be noted:

• endless wars in the east with the Persians did not allow the latter to occupy the Middle East;
• the kingdom of the Vandals in North Africa was conquered;
• southern Spain was freed from the Visigoths for 20 years;
• Italy, along with Rome and Naples, was returned to Roman rule.

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Justinian I the Great, whose full name sounds like Justinian Flavius ​​Peter Sabbatius, is a Byzantine emperor (i.e. the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire), one of the largest emperors of late antiquity, under which this era began to give way to the Middle Ages, and the Roman style of government gave way to the Byzantine . He remained in history as a major reformer.

Born around 483, he was a native of Macedonia, the son of a peasant. A decisive role in the biography of Justinian was played by his uncle, who became Emperor Justin I. The childless monarch, who loved his nephew, brought him closer to himself, contributed to his education and advancement in society. Researchers suggest that Justinian could have arrived in Rome at approximately 25 years of age, studied law and theology in the capital and began his ascent to the top of political Olympus with the rank of personal imperial bodyguard, head of the guard corps.

In 521, Justinian rose to the rank of consul and became a very popular personality, not least thanks to the organization of luxurious circus performances. The Senate repeatedly suggested that Justin make his nephew co-emperor, but the emperor took this step only in April 527, when his health deteriorated significantly. On August 1 of the same year, after the death of his uncle, Justinian became the sovereign ruler.

The newly-crowned emperor, harboring ambitious plans, immediately set about strengthening the power of the country. In domestic policy, this was manifested, in particular, in the implementation of legal reform. The 12 books of the Justinian Code and 50 of the Digest that were published remained relevant for more than a millennium. Justinian's laws contributed to centralization, expansion of the powers of the monarch, strengthening of the state apparatus and army, and strengthening of control in certain areas, in particular in trade.

The coming to power was marked by the onset of a period of large-scale construction. The Constantinople Church of St., which became a victim of fire. Sofia was rebuilt in such a way that among Christian churches for many centuries it had no equal.

Justinian I the Great carried out a rather aggressive foreign policy aimed at conquering new territories. His military leaders (the emperor himself did not have the habit of personally participating in hostilities) managed to conquer part of North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and a significant part of the territory of the Western Roman Empire.

The reign of this emperor was marked by a number of riots, incl. the largest Nika uprising in Byzantine history: this is how the population reacted to the harshness of the measures taken. In 529, Justinian closed Plato's Academy, and in 542, the consular post was abolished. He was given more and more honors, likening him to a saint. Justinian himself, towards the end of his life, gradually lost interest in state concerns, giving preference to theology, dialogues with philosophers and clergy. He died in Constantinople in the fall of 565.

JUSTINIAN I the Great(lat. Iustinianus) (c. 482 - November 14, 565, Constantinople), Byzantine emperor. Augustus and co-emperor of Justin I from April 1, 527, reigned from August 1, 527. Justinian was a native of Illyricum and nephew of Justin I; According to legend, he is of Slavic origin. He played a prominent role in the reign of his uncle and was proclaimed Augustus six months before his death. The epochal reign of Justinian was marked by the implementation of the principles of imperial universalism and the restoration of a unified Roman Empire. The entire policy of the emperor was subordinated to this, which was truly global in nature and made it possible to concentrate enormous material and human resources in his hands.

For the sake of the greatness of the empire, wars were fought in the West and East, legislation was improved, administrative reforms were carried out, and issues of church structure were resolved. He surrounded himself with a galaxy of talented advisers and commanders, remaining free from outside influences, inspired in his actions solely by faith in a single state, single laws and a single faith. “In the breadth of his political plans, clearly understood and strictly carried out, in his ability to take advantage of circumstances, and most importantly, in his art of identifying the talents of those around him and giving everyone a task appropriate to his abilities, Justinian was a rare and remarkable sovereign” (F. I. Uspensky).

Justinian's main military efforts were concentrated in the West, where colossal forces were sent. In 533-534, his best commander Belisarius defeated the state of the African Vandals, and in 535-555 the state of the Ostrogoths in Italy was destroyed. As a result, Rome itself and many of the western lands in Italy, North Africa, and Spain, which had been inhabited by Germanic tribes for a hundred years, returned to the rule of the Roman power. These territories, with the rank of provinces, were reunited with the empire, and Roman law was again extended to them.

The successful progress of affairs in the West was accompanied by a difficult situation on the Danube and eastern borders of the state, deprived of reliable protection. For many years (528-562, with interruptions), there were wars with Persia over disputed territories in Transcaucasia and influence in Mesopotamia and Arabia, which diverted huge amounts of money and did not produce any fruit. During the entire reign of Justinian, the tribes of the Slavs, Germans, and Avars ravaged the Transdanubian provinces with their invasions. The emperor sought to compensate for the lack of defensive resources through the efforts of diplomacy, concluding alliances with some nations against others and thus maintaining the necessary balance of power on the borders. However, such a policy was critically assessed by contemporaries, especially since the ever-increasing payments to the allied tribes excessively burdened the already upset state treasury.

The price of the brilliant “age of Justinian” was the difficult internal situation of the state, especially in the economy and finances, which bore the burden of colossal expenses. The lack of funds became the real scourge of his reign, and in search of money, Justinian often resorted to measures that he himself condemned: he sold positions and introduced new taxes. With rare candor, Justinian declared in one of his decrees: “The first duty of subjects and the best way for them to thank the emperor is to pay public taxes in full with unconditional selflessness.” The severity of tax collection reached its limit and had a disastrous effect on the population. According to a contemporary, “a foreign invasion seemed less scary to taxpayers than the arrival of fiscal officials.”

For the same purpose, Justinian sought to make a profit from the empire’s trade with the East, establishing high customs duties on all goods imported to Constantinople, as well as turning entire industries into government monopolies. It was under Justinian that silk production was mastered in the empire, which provided the treasury with huge revenues.

City life under Justinian was characterized by the struggle of circus parties, the so-called. Dimov. The suppression of the Nika 532 uprising in Constantinople, provoked by the rivalry of the Dims, destroyed opposition to Justinian among the aristocracy and population of the capital, and strengthened the authoritarian nature of the imperial power. In 534 the Code was published civil law(Corpus juris civilis or Codex Justiniani), which gave a normative presentation of Roman law and formulated the foundations of imperial statehood.

Justinian's church policy was marked by a desire to establish religious unity. In 529, the Athenian Academy was closed, and the persecution of heretics and pagans began, which filled the entire reign of Justinian. The persecution of the Monophysites, right up to the opening of hostilities, devastated the eastern provinces, especially Syria and the environs of Antioch. The papacy under him completely submitted to the imperial will. In 553, on the initiative of Justinian, the V Ecumenical Council was convened in Constantinople, at which the so-called "dispute about three chapters" and, in particular, condemned Origen.

Justinian's reign was marked by the scale of construction. According to Procopius, the emperor “increased the fortifications throughout the country, so that every landholding was turned into a fortress or a military post was located near it.” The temple of St. became a masterpiece of architectural art in the capital. Sophia (built in 532-37), which played a great role in shaping the special character of Byzantine worship and did more to convert the barbarians than wars and embassies. The mosaics of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, which had just been reunited with the empire, have preserved to us magnificently executed portraits of the Emperor Justinian himself, the Empress Theodora and the dignitaries of the court.

For 25 years, the burden of power was shared with the emperor by his wife Theodora, who had a strong will and statesmanship. The influence of this “great ambition” and “faithful empress” was not always beneficial, but the entire reign of Justinian was marked by it. She was given official honors on a par with the emperor, and subjects were henceforth given a personal oath to both royal spouses. During the uprising of Nike, Theodora saved the throne for Justinian. The words she said went down in history: “Whoever has once put on a diadem should not experience its death... As for me, I adhere to the old saying: purple is the best shroud!” Within 10 years of Justinian's death, many of his conquests were reduced to zero, and the idea of ​​a universal empire became a rhetorical figure for a long time. However, the reign of Justinian, who is called “the last Roman and first Byzantine emperor,” became a stage in the formation of the phenomenon of the Byzantine monarchy.

M. Butyrsky

The future emperor of Byzantium was born around 482 in the small Macedonian village of Taurisium, into the family of a poor peasant. He came to Constantinople as a teenager at the invitation of his uncle Justin, an influential courtier. Justin did not have his own children, and he patronized his nephew: he called him to the capital and, despite the fact that he himself remained illiterate, gave him a good education, and then found a position at court. In 518, the senate, guard and residents of Constantinople proclaimed the elderly Justin emperor, and he soon made his nephew his co-ruler. Justinian was distinguished by a clear mind, a broad political outlook, determination, perseverance and exceptional efficiency. These qualities made him the de facto ruler of the empire. His young, beautiful wife Theodora also played a huge role. Her life took an unusual turn: the daughter of a poor circus artist and a circus performer herself, as a 20-year-old girl she broke with her circle and went to Alexandria, where she fell under the influence of mystics and monks and was transformed, becoming sincerely religious and pious. Beautiful and charming, Theodora had an iron will and turned out to be an indispensable friend to the emperor in difficult times. Justinian and Theodora were a worthy couple, although evil tongues were haunted by their union for a long time.

In 527, after the death of his uncle, 45-year-old Justinian became autocrat - autocrat - of the Roman Empire, as the Byzantine Empire was then called.

He gained power in hard time: only the eastern part remained of the former Roman possessions, and barbarian kingdoms were formed on the territory of the Western Roman Empire: the Visigoths in Spain, the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Franks in Gaul and the Vandals in Africa. The Christian Church was torn by disputes about whether Christ was a “God-man”; dependent peasants (colons) fled and did not cultivate the land, the arbitrariness of the nobility ruined the common people, the cities were shaken by riots, the finances of the empire were in decline. The situation could only be saved by decisive and selfless measures, and Justinian, alien to luxury and pleasure, a sincerely believing Orthodox Christian, theologian and politician, was perfectly suited for this role.

Several stages clearly stand out in the reign of Justinian I. The beginning of the reign (527-532) was a period of widespread charity, distribution of funds to the poor, tax reduction, and assistance to cities affected by the earthquake. At this time, the position of the Christian Church in the fight against other religions was strengthened: the last stronghold of paganism - Plato's Academy - was closed in Athens, and opportunities for the open practice of the cults of other believers - Jews, Samaritans, etc. - were limited. This was a period of wars with the neighboring Iranian Sassanid power for influence in South Arabia, the goal of which was to gain a foothold in the ports Indian Ocean and thus undermine Iran's monopoly on the silk trade with China. It was a time of struggle against the tyranny and abuses of the nobility.

The main event of this stage is legal reform. In 528, Justinian established a commission of experienced jurists and statesmen. Main role it starred the legal specialist Trebonian. First, the commission prepared a kind of constitution - the "Code of Justinian", then sets of specific laws - "Digests", as well as a guide to the study of law - "Institutions". The legislative reform was based on the need to combine the norms of classical Roman law with the spiritual values ​​of Christianity. This was expressed primarily in the creation of a unified system of imperial citizenship and the proclamation of the equality of citizens before the law. Justinian's reform completed the process of creating legal regulation of the institution of private property, which began in the Old Roman period. In addition, Justinian's laws no longer considered the slave as a thing - a “speaking instrument”, but as a person. Although slavery was not abolished, many opportunities opened up for a slave to free himself: if he became a bishop, entered a monastery, became a soldier; It was forbidden to kill a slave, and the murder of someone else's slave entailed cruel execution. In addition, according to the new laws, the rights of women in the family were equal to the rights of men. Justinian's laws prohibited divorce, which was condemned by the church. At the same time, the era could not help but leave its mark on the law. Executions were frequent: for commoners - crucifixion, burning, devouring wild animals, beating with rods to death, quartering; nobles were beheaded. Insulting the emperor, even damaging his sculptural images, was punishable by death. The emperor's reforms were interrupted by the Nika popular uprising in Constantinople (532). It all started with a conflict between two parties of fans in the circus: the Veneti (“blue”) and the Prasin (“green”). These were not only sports, but partly also socio-political unions. Political grievances were added to the traditional struggle of fans: the Prasins believed that the government was oppressing them and patronizing the Veneti. In addition, the lower classes were dissatisfied with the abuses of Justinian's "Minister of Finance" - John of Cappadocia, while the nobility hoped to get rid of the upstart emperor. The Prasin leaders presented their demands to the emperor, and in a very harsh form, and when he rejected them, they called him a murderer and left the circus. Thus, the autocrat was inflicted an unheard-of insult. The situation was complicated by the fact that when, on the same day, the instigators of the clash from both parties were arrested and sentenced to death, two of the convicts fell from the gallows (“were pardoned by God”), but the authorities refused to release them. Then a single “green-blue” party was created with the slogan “Nika!” (circus cry “Win!”). An open riot and arson began in the city. The emperor agreed to concessions, dismissing the ministers most hated by the people, but this did not bring peace. An important role was also played by the fact that the nobility distributed gifts and weapons to the rebellious plebs, inciting rebellion. Neither attempts to suppress the uprising by force with the help of a detachment of barbarians, nor the public repentance of the emperor with the Gospel in his hands yielded anything. The rebels now demanded his abdication and proclaimed the noble senator Hypatius emperor. Meanwhile, the fires spread. “The city was a pile of blackening ruins,” wrote a contemporary. Justinian was ready to abdicate, but at that moment Empress Theodora declared that she preferred death to flight and that “the emperor’s purple is an excellent shroud.” Her determination played a big role, and Justinian decided to fight. Troops loyal to the government made a desperate attempt to regain control over the capital: a detachment of the conquering Persian commander Belisarius entered the circus, where a stormy meeting of the rebels was taking place, and carried out a brutal massacre there. They said that 35 thousand people died, but Justinian’s throne survived.

The terrible catastrophe that befell Constantinople - fires and deaths - did not, however, plunge either Justinian or the townspeople into despondency. In the same year, rapid construction began using treasury funds. The pathos of restoration captured wide sections of the townspeople. In a sense, we can say that the city rose from the ashes, like the fabulous Phoenix bird, and became even more beautiful. The symbol of this rise was, of course, the construction of a miracle of miracles - the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. It began immediately, in 532, under the leadership of architects from the province - Afmilia from Thrall and Isidore from Miletus. Externally, the building had little to amaze the viewer, but the real miracle of transformation took place inside, when the believer found himself under a huge mosaic dome, which seemed to be hanging in the air without any support. A dome with a cross hovered over the worshipers, symbolizing the divine cover over the empire and its capital. Justinian had no doubt that his power had divine sanction. On holidays, he sat on the left side of the throne, and the right side was empty - Christ was invisibly present on it. The autocrat dreamed that an invisible cover would be raised over the entire Roman Mediterranean. With the idea of ​​​​restoring the Christian empire - the "Roman house" - Justinian inspired the entire society.

When the dome of Constantinople Sophia was still being erected, the second stage of Justinian’s reign (532-540) began with the Great Liberation Campaign to the West.

By the end of the first third of the 6th century. The barbarian kingdoms that arose in the western part of the Roman Empire were experiencing a deep crisis. They were torn apart by religious strife: the main population professed Orthodoxy, but the barbarians, Goths and Vandals were Arians, whose teaching was declared a heresy, condemned in the 4th century. at the I and II Ecumenical Councils of the Christian Church. Within the barbarian tribes themselves, social stratification was occurring at a rapid pace, discord between the nobility and the common people was growing, which undermined the combat effectiveness of the armies. The elite of the kingdoms were busy with intrigues and conspiracies and did not care about the interests of their states. The indigenous population waited for the Byzantines as liberators. The reason for the outbreak of war in Africa was that the Vandal nobility overthrew the legitimate king - a friend of the empire - and placed his relative Gelimer on the throne. In 533, Justinian sent a 16,000-strong army under the command of Belisarius to the African shores. The Byzantines managed to secretly land and freely occupy the capital of the Vandal kingdom - Carthage. The Orthodox clergy and Roman nobility solemnly greeted the imperial troops. The common people also reacted sympathetically to their appearance, because... Belisarius severely punished robberies and looting. King Gelimer tried to organize resistance, but lost the decisive battle. The Byzantines were helped by an accident: at the beginning of the battle, the king’s brother died, and Gelimer left the troops to bury him. The Vandals decided that the king had fled, and panic gripped the army. All of Africa fell into the hands of Belisarius. Under Justinian I, grandiose construction began here - 150 new cities were built, close trade contacts with the Eastern Mediterranean were restored. The province experienced economic growth throughout the 100 years it was part of the empire.

Following the annexation of Africa, a war began for the possession of the historical core of the western part of the empire - Italy. The reason for the outbreak of the war was the overthrow and murder of the legitimate queen of the Ostrogoths, Amalasunta, by her husband Theodite. In the summer of 535, Belisarius with an 8,000-strong detachment landed in Sicily and in a short time, experiencing almost no resistance, occupied the island. The next year, his army crossed to the Apennine Peninsula and, despite the enemy’s huge numerical superiority, recaptured its southern and central parts. The Italians greeted Belisarius everywhere with flowers; only Naples offered resistance. The Christian Church played a huge role in this support of the people. In addition, chaos reigned in the Ostrogoth camp: the murder of the cowardly and treacherous Theodite, a riot in the troops. The army chose Witigis, a brave soldier but a weak politician, as the new king. He, too, was unable to stop the advance of Belisarius, and in December 536 the Byzantine army occupied Rome without a fight. The clergy and townspeople arranged a solemn meeting for the Byzantine soldiers. The population of Italy no longer wanted the power of the Ostrogoths, as evidenced by the following fact. When in the spring of 537 the 5,000-strong detachment of Belisarius was besieged in Rome by the huge army of Witigis, the battle for Rome lasted 14 months; Despite hunger and disease, the Romans remained loyal to the empire and did not allow Witigis into the city. It is also significant that the king of the Ostrogoths himself printed coins with the portrait of Justinian I - only the power of the emperor was considered legal. In the late autumn of 539, the army of Belisarius besieged the barbarian capital of Ravenna, and a few months later, relying on the support of friends in the city, the imperial troops occupied it without a fight.

It seemed that Justinian's power knew no bounds, he was at the apogee of his power, plans for the restoration of the Roman Empire were coming true. However, the main tests were still awaiting his power. The thirteenth year of the reign of Justinian I was a “black year” and began a period of difficulties that only the faith, courage and steadfastness of the Romans and their emperor could overcome. This was the third stage of his reign (540-558).

Even when Belisarius was negotiating the capitulation of Ravenna, the Persians violated the “Eternal Peace” they had signed 10 years ago with the empire. Shah Khosrow I invaded Syria with a huge army and besieged the capital of the province - the richest city of Antioch. The residents bravely defended themselves, but the garrison was unable to fight and fled. The Persians took Antioch, plundered the flourishing city and sold the inhabitants into slavery. The next year, the troops of Khosrow I invaded Lazika (Western Georgia), allied with the empire, and a protracted Byzantine-Persian war began. The thunderstorm from the East coincided with the Slavic invasion of the Danube. Taking advantage of the fact that the border fortifications were left almost without garrisons (there were troops in Italy and in the East), the Slavs reached the capital itself, broke through the Long Walls (three walls stretching from the Black Sea to Marmara, protecting the outskirts of the city) and began to plunder the suburbs of Constantinople. Belisarius was urgently transferred to the East, and he managed to stop the Persian invasion, but while his army was not in Italy, the Ostrogoths revived there. They chose the young, handsome, brave and intelligent Totila as king and, under his leadership, began a new war. The barbarians enlisted runaway slaves and colonists into the army, distributed church and noble lands to their supporters, and recruited those who had been offended by the Byzantines. Very quickly, Totila's small army occupied almost all of Italy; Only the ports remained under the control of the empire, which could not be taken without a fleet.

But probably the most ordeal For the power of Justinian I there was a terrible epidemic of plague (541-543), which killed almost half the population. It seemed that the invisible dome of Sophia over the empire had cracked and black whirlwinds of death and destruction poured into it.

Justinian understood well that his main strength in the face of a superior enemy was the faith and unity of his subjects. Therefore, simultaneously with the ongoing war with the Persians in Lazica, the difficult struggle with Totila, who created his fleet and captured Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, the emperor’s attention was increasingly occupied by issues of theology. It seemed to some that the elderly Justinian had lost his mind, spending days and nights in such a critical situation reading the Holy Scriptures, studying the works of the “Church Fathers” (the traditional name for the figures of the Christian Church who created its dogma and organization) and writing his own theological treatises. However, the emperor understood well that it was in the Christian faith of the Romans that their strength lay. Then the famous idea of ​​the “symphony of the Kingdom and the Priesthood” was formulated - the union of church and state as a guarantee of peace: the Empire.

In 543, Justinian wrote a treatise condemning the teachings of the mystic, ascetic and theologian of the 3rd century Origen, which denied the eternal torment of sinners. However, the emperor paid the main attention to overcoming the split between the Orthodox and Monophysites. This conflict has tormented the church for more than 100 years. In 451, the IV Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon condemned the Monophysites. The theological dispute was complicated by the rivalry between the influential centers of Orthodoxy in the East - Alexandria, Antioch and Constantinople. The split between supporters of the Council of Chalcedon and its opponents (Orthodox and Monophysites) during the reign of Justinian I became particularly acute, because Monophysites created their own separate church hierarchy. In 541, the activities of the famous Monophysite Jacob Baradei began, who, dressed as a beggar, went around all the countries inhabited by Monophysites, ordained bishops and even founded the patriarchate. Religious conflict complicated by the national: the Greeks and Romans, who considered themselves the ruling people in the Roman Empire, were predominantly Orthodox, and the Copts and many Arabs were Monophysites. For the empire, this was all the more dangerous because the richest provinces - Egypt and Syria - contributed huge sums to the treasury, and much depended on the support of the government by the trade and craft circles of these regions. While Theodora was alive, she helped mitigate the conflict by patronizing the Monophysites, despite the criticism of the Orthodox clergy, but in 548 the empress died. Justinian decided to bring the issue of reconciliation with the Monophysites to the V Ecumenical Council. The emperor's plan was to smooth out the conflict by condemning the teachings of the enemies of the Monophysites - Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Willow of Edessa and Feodor of Mopsuet (the so-called "three chapters"). The difficulty was that they all died in peace with the church. Is it possible to judge the dead? After much hesitation, Justinian decided that it was possible, but Pope Vigilius and the overwhelming majority of Western bishops did not agree with his decision. The Emperor took the Pope to Constantinople, kept him almost under house arrest, trying to achieve agreement under pressure. After a long struggle and hesitation, Vigilius surrendered. In 553, the V Ecumenical Council in Constantinople condemned the “three heads.” The pope did not participate in the work of the council, citing indisposition, and tried to oppose its decisions, but in the end he signed them. In the history of this council one should distinguish its religious meaning, which consists in the triumph of the Orthodox dogma that the divine and human nature united in Christ, unmerged and inseparable, and the political intrigues that accompanied him. Justinian's direct goal was not achieved: reconciliation with the Monophysites did not occur and there was almost a break with the Western bishops, dissatisfied with the decisions of the council. However, this cathedral played a big role in the spiritual consolidation of the Orthodox Church, and this was extremely important both at that time and for subsequent eras. The reign of Justinian I was a period of religious upsurge. It was at this time that church poetry, written in simple language, one of the most prominent representatives of which was Roman Sladkopevets. This was the heyday of Palestinian monasticism, the time of John Climacus and Isaac the Syrian.

There was also a turning point in political affairs. In 552 Justinian equipped new army for a trip to Italy. This time she set off by land, through Dalmatia, under the command of the eunuch Narses, a brave commander and cunning politician. In the decisive battle, Totila's cavalry attacked the troops of Narses, formed in a crescent, came under cross-fire from archers from the flanks, took to flight and crushed their own infantry. Totila was seriously wounded and died. Within a year, the Byzantine army restored its dominance over all of Italy, and a year later Narses stopped and destroyed the hordes of Lombards pouring into the peninsula. Italy was saved from terrible plunder. In 554, Justinian continued his conquests in the Western Mediterranean, attempting to capture Spain. It was not possible to do this completely, but the south of the country with the city of Cordoba and the Strait of Gibraltar came under the rule of Byzantium. The Mediterranean Sea once again became the "Roman Lake". In 555, imperial troops defeated a huge Persian army at Lazika. Khosrow I first signed a truce for six years, and then peace. It was also possible to cope with the Slavic threat: Justinian I entered into an alliance with the nomadic Avars, who took upon themselves the protection of the Danube border of the empire and the fight against the Slavs. In 558 this treaty came into force. The long-awaited peace has come for the “Rome Empire”.

The last years of the reign of Justinian I (559-565) passed quietly. The finances of the empire, weakened by a quarter-century of struggle and a terrible epidemic, were restored, the country healed its wounds. The 84-year-old emperor did not abandon his theological studies and hopes of ending the schism in the church. He even wrote a treatise close in spirit to the Monophysites on the incorruptibility of the body of Jesus. For resisting the emperor's new views, the Patriarch of Constantinople and many bishops ended up in exile. Justinian I was at the same time a continuer of the traditions of early Christians and the heir of the pagan Caesars. On the one hand, he fought against the fact that only priests were active in the church, and the laity remained only spectators, and on the other hand, he constantly interfered with the state and politics in church affairs, removing bishops at his discretion. Justinian carried out reforms in the spirit of the Gospel commandments - he helped the poor, alleviated the situation of slaves and colonists, restored cities - and at the same time subjected the population to severe tax oppression. He tried to restore the authority of the law, but was never able to eliminate the corruption and abuse of officials. His attempts to restore peace and stability in the territory of the Byzantine Empire turned into rivers of blood. And yet, despite everything, Justinian's empire was an oasis of civilization surrounded by pagan and barbarian states and captured the imagination of his contemporaries.

The significance of the great emperor's deeds goes far beyond his time. Strengthening the position of the church, the ideological and spiritual consolidation of Orthodoxy, the liberation of the Western church from the power of the Arian kings played a huge role in the formation of medieval society. Justinian's Code has survived centuries and became the basis of subsequent legal norms.

In 518, after the death of Anastasius, a rather dark intrigue brought the chief of the guard, Justin, to the throne. He was a peasant from Macedonia, who about fifty years ago came to Constantinople in search of his fortune, brave, but completely illiterate and a soldier who had no experience in state affairs. That is why this upstart, who became the founder of a dynasty at the age of about 70, would have been very difficult with the power entrusted to him if he had not had an adviser in the person of his nephew Justinian.

A native of Macedonia like Justin - the romantic tradition that makes him a Slav arose at a much later time and has no historical value - Justinian, at the invitation of his uncle, came to Constantinople as a youth, where he received a full Roman and Christian education. He had experience in business, had a mature mind, an established character - everything necessary to become an assistant to the new ruler. Indeed, from 518 to 527 he effectively ruled on behalf of Justin, awaiting an independent reign that lasted from 527 to 565.

Thus, Justinian controlled the destinies of the Eastern Roman Empire for almost half a century; he left a deep mark on the era dominated by his majestic appearance, for his will alone was enough to stop natural evolution, which carried the empire to the East.

Under his influence, from the very beginning of Justin's reign, a new political orientation was determined. The first concern of the Constantinople government was to reconcile with Rome and put an end to the schism; In order to cement the alliance and give the pope a pledge of his zeal in orthodoxy, Justinian for three years (518-521) fiercely persecuted the Monophysites throughout the East. This rapprochement with Rome strengthened the new dynasty. In addition, Justinian very far-sightedly managed to accept necessary measures to ensure the strength of the regime. He freed himself from Vitalian, his most terrible enemy; He gained particular popularity thanks to his generosity and love of luxury. From now on, Justinian began to dream of more: he perfectly understood the significance that an alliance with the papacy could have for his future ambitious plans; that is why, when in 525 Pope John, the first of the Roman high priests to visit, appeared in Constantinople new Rome, - he was given a ceremonial reception in the capital; Justinian felt how the West liked such behavior, how it inevitably led to comparisons between the pious emperors who ruled in Constantinople and the Arian barbarian kings who dominated Africa and Italy. Thus Justinian cherished great plans when, after the death of Justin, which followed in 527, he became the sole ruler of Byzantium.

II

CHARACTER, POLITICS AND ENVIRONMENT OF JUSTINIAN

Justinian is completely different from his predecessors, the sovereigns of the 5th century. This upstart, who sat on the throne of the Caesars, wanted to be a Roman emperor, and indeed he was the last great emperor of Rome. However, despite his undeniable diligence and hard work - one of the courtiers spoke of him: “the emperor who never sleeps” - despite his genuine concern for order and sincere concern for good administration, Justinian, due to his suspicious and jealous despotism, naive ambition, restless activity, combined with an unsteady and weak will, could seem on the whole to be a very mediocre and unbalanced ruler if he did not have a great mind. This Macedonian peasant was a noble representative of two great ideas: the idea of ​​empire and the idea of ​​Christianity; and because he had these two ideas, his name remains immortal in history.

Filled with memories of the greatness of Rome, Justinian dreamed of restoring the Roman Empire to what it had once been, strengthening the inviolable rights that Byzantium, the heir of Rome, retained over the western barbarian kingdoms, and restoring the unity of the Roman world. Heir to the Caesars, he wanted, like them, to be a living law, the most complete embodiment of absolute power and at the same time an infallible legislator and reformer, caring for order in the empire. Finally, proud of his imperial rank, he wanted to decorate it with all the pomp and splendor; the splendor of his buildings, the splendor of his court, the somewhat childish way of calling by his name (“Justinian’s”) the fortresses he built, the cities he restored, the magistrates he established; he wanted to perpetuate the glory of his reign and make his subjects, as he said, feel the incomparable happiness of being born in his time. He dreamed of more. The chosen one of God, the representative and vicegerent of God on earth, he took upon himself the task of being a champion of Orthodoxy, be it in the wars he undertook, the religious character of which is undeniable, be it in the enormous effort that he made to spread Orthodoxy throughout the world, be it in the way in which he ruled the church and destroyed heresies. He devoted his whole life to the realization of this magnificent and proud dream, and was fortunate to find intelligent ministers such as the legal advisor Tribonianus and the praetorian prefect John of Cappadocia, brave generals like Belisarius and Narses, and especially, an excellent adviser in the person of “the most honorable, God-given wife ”, the one whom he liked to call “his most tender charm”, in the Empress Theodora.

Theodora also came from the people. The daughter of a bear keeper from the hippodrome, she, according to the gossip of Procopius in The Secret History, infuriated her contemporaries with her life as a fashionable actress, the noise of her adventures, and most of all, because she won the heart of Justinian, forced him to marry her and with him took the throne.

There is no doubt that while she was alive - Theodora died in 548 - she exercised enormous influence on the emperor and ruled the empire to the same extent as he did, and perhaps even more. This happened because despite her shortcomings - she loved money, power and, in order to maintain the throne, often acted treacherously, cruelly and was adamant in her hatred - this ambitious woman had excellent qualities - energy, firmness, decisive and strong will, a cautious and clear political mind and, perhaps, saw many things more correctly than her royal husband. While Justinian dreamed of reconquering the West and restoring the Roman Empire in alliance with the papacy, she, a native of the East, turned her gaze to the East with a more accurate understanding of the situation and the needs of the time. She wanted to put an end to the religious quarrels there that were harming the peace and power of the empire, to return the apostate peoples of Syria and Egypt through various concessions and a policy of broad religious tolerance, and, at least at the cost of a break with Rome, to recreate the strong unity of the eastern monarchy. And one can ask oneself whether the empire she dreamed of would not have been better able to resist the onslaught of the Persians and Arabs - more compact, more homogeneous and stronger? Be that as it may, Theodora made her hand felt everywhere - in administration, in diplomacy, in religious politics; still to this day in the church of St. Vitaliy in Ravenna, among the mosaics decorating the apse, her image in all the splendor of royal grandeur flaunts as an equal to the image of Justinian.

III

FOREIGN POLICY OF JUSTINIAN

At the moment when Justinian came to power, the empire had not yet recovered from the serious crisis that had gripped it since the end of the 5th century. IN recent months During the reign of Justin, the Persians, dissatisfied with the penetration of imperial policy into the Caucasus, Armenia, and the borders of Syria, again started a war, and the best part of the Byzantine army found itself chained in the East. Within the state, the struggle between green and blue maintained an extremely dangerous political excitement, which was further aggravated by the deplorable corruption of the administration, which caused general discontent. Justinian's urgent concern was to remove these difficulties which were delaying the fulfillment of his ambitious dreams for the West. Not seeing or not wanting to see the extent of the eastern danger, at the cost of significant concessions, he signed peace with the “great king” in 532, which gave him the opportunity to freely dispose of his military forces. On the other hand, he mercilessly suppressed internal unrest. But in January 532, a formidable uprising, which retained the name “Nike” from the rebels’ cry, filled Constantinople with fires and blood for a week. During this uprising, when it seemed that the throne was about to collapse, Justinian found himself owing his salvation mainly to the courage of Theodora and the energy of Belisarius. But in any case, the brutal suppression of the uprising, which covered the hippodrome with thirty thousand corpses, resulted in the establishment of lasting order in the capital and the transformation of imperial power into more absolute than ever before.

In 532, Justinian's hands were untied.

Restoration of the Empire in the West. The situation in the West was favorable to his projects. Both in Africa and in Italy, the inhabitants under the rule of heretical barbarians had long called for the restoration of imperial power; the prestige of the empire was still so great that even the Vandals and Ostrogoths recognized the legitimacy of the Byzantine claims. That is why the rapid decline of these barbarian kingdoms made them powerless against the advance of Justinian's troops, and their differences did not give them the opportunity to unite against a common enemy. When, in 531, the seizure of power by Gelimer gave Byzantine diplomacy a reason to intervene in African affairs, Justinian, relying on the formidable strength of his army, did not hesitate, seeking at one blow to liberate the African Orthodox population from “Arian captivity” and force the Vandal kingdom to enter the fold. imperial unity. In 533, Belisarius sailed from Constantinople with an army consisting of 10 thousand infantry and 5-6 thousand cavalry; the campaign was swift and brilliant. Gelimer, defeated at Decimus and Tricamara, surrounded during the retreat on Mount Pappua, was forced to surrender (534). Within a few months, several cavalry regiments - for it was they who played the decisive role - destroyed the kingdom of Genseric against all expectations. The victorious Belisarius was given triumphal honors in Constantinople. And although it took another fifteen years (534-548) to suppress the Berber uprisings and the riots of the dissolute mercenaries of the empire, Justinian could still be proud of the conquest of most of Africa and arrogantly appropriated the title of Emperor of the Vandals and Africans.

The Ostrogoths of Italy did not move during the defeat of the Vandal kingdom. Soon it was their turn. The murder of Amalasuntha, daughter of the great Theodoric, by her husband Theodagatus (534) gave Justinian the occasion to intervene; this time, however, the war was more difficult and prolonged; despite the success of Belisarius, who conquered Sicily (535), captured Naples, then Rome, where he1 besieged the new Ostrogothic king Vitiges for a whole year (March 537-March 538), and then took possession of Ravenna (540) and brought the captive Vitiges to the feet emperor, the Goths recovered again under the leadership of the clever and energetic Totilla, Belisarius, sent with insufficient forces to Italy, was defeated (544-548); it took the energy of Narses to suppress the resistance of the Ostrogoths at Tagina (552), crush the last remnants of the barbarians in Campania (553) and liberate the peninsula from the Frankish hordes of Leutaris and Butilinus (554). It took twenty years to reconquer Italy. Again, Justinian, with his characteristic optimism, too quickly believed in the final victory, and perhaps that is why he did not make the necessary effort in time to break the power of the Ostrogoths with one blow. After all, the subjugation of Italy to imperial influence was begun with a completely insufficient army - with twenty-five or barely thirty thousand soldiers. As a result, the war dragged on hopelessly.

Likewise, in Spain, Justinian took advantage of the circumstances to intervene in the dynastic feuds of the Visigothic kingdom (554) and reconquer the southeast of the country.

As a result of these successful campaigns, Justinian could flatter himself with the thought that he had succeeded in realizing his dream. Thanks to his stubborn ambition, Dalmatia, Italy, all East Africa, southern Spain, the islands of the western Mediterranean - Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands - again became parts of a single Roman Empire; The territory of the monarchy almost doubled. As a result of the capture of Ceuta, the power of the emperor extended all the way to the Pillars of Hercules and, if we exclude the part of the coast preserved by the Visigoths in Spain and Septimania and the Franks in Provence, it can be said that the Mediterranean Sea again became a Roman lake. Without a doubt, neither Africa nor Italy entered the empire in its former size; Moreover, they were already exhausted and devastated by long years of war. However, as a result of these victories, the influence and glory of the empire undeniably increased, and Justinian took every opportunity to consolidate his successes. Africa and Italy formed, as once upon a time, two praetorian prefectures, and the emperor tried to return to the population their former idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe empire. Restoration measures partially smoothed over the war devastation. The organization of defense - the creation of large military commands, the formation of border marks (limites), occupied by special border troops (limitanei), the construction of a powerful network of fortresses - all this guaranteed the security of the country. Justinian could be proud that he had restored that perfect world, that “perfect order” that seemed to him a sign of a truly civilized state.

Wars in the East. Unfortunately, these large enterprises exhausted the empire and forced it to neglect the East. The East took revenge for itself in the most terrible way.

The First Persian War (527-532) was only a harbinger of the danger that threatened. Since neither opponent went very far, the issue of the struggle remained undecided; Belisarius's victory at Dara (530) was offset by his defeat at Callinicus (531), and both sides were forced to conclude an unstable peace (532). But the new Persian king Khosroy Anushirvan (531-579), active and ambitious, was not one of those who could be satisfied with such results. Seeing that Byzantium was busy in the West, especially concerned about the projects of world domination, which Justinian did not hide, he rushed to Syria in 540 and took Antioch; in 541, he invaded the Laz country and captured Petra; in 542 he destroyed Commagene; in 543 he defeated the Greeks in Armenia; in 544 he devastated Mesopotamia. Belisarius himself was unable to defeat him. It was necessary to conclude a truce (545), which was renewed many times, and in 562 a peace was signed for fifty years, according to which Justinian undertook to pay tribute to the “great king” and abandoned any attempt to preach Christianity on Persian territory; but although at this price he preserved the country of the Laz, ancient Colchis, the Persian threat after this long and devastating war did not become less terrifying for the future.

At the same time, in Europe, the border on the Danube succumbed to the pressure of the barbarians. In 540, the Huns put Thrace, Illyria, Greece to fire and sword up to the Isthmus of Corinth and reached the approaches to Constantinople; in 547 and 551. the Slavs devastated Illyria, and in 552 they threatened Thessalonica; in 559 the Huns again appeared before the capital, saved with great difficulty thanks to the courage of old Belisarius.

In addition, Avars appear on the stage. Of course, none of these invasions established lasting foreign domination of the empire. But still, the Balkan Peninsula was brutally devastated. The Empire paid dearly in the east for Justinian's triumphs in the west.

Protection measures and diplomacy. Nevertheless, Justinian sought to ensure the protection and security of the territory in both the west and the east. By organizing large military commands entrusted to the masters of the army (magist ri militum), creating military lines (limites) on all borders, occupied by special troops (l imitanei), in the face of the barbarians, he restored what was once called the “cover of the empire” (praetentura imperii). . But chiefly he erected on all the frontiers a long line of fortresses, which occupied all important strategic points and formed several successive barriers against invasion; The entire territory behind them was covered with fortified castles for greater security. To this day, in many places one can see the majestic ruins of the towers, which rose in hundreds in all the imperial provinces; they serve as magnificent evidence of the colossal effort by which, in the words of Procopius, Justinian truly “saved the empire.”

Finally, Byzantine diplomacy, in addition to military action, sought to secure the prestige and influence of the empire throughout the outside world. Thanks to the deft distribution of favors and money and the skillful ability to sow discord among the enemies of the empire, she brought the barbarian peoples who wandered on the borders of the monarchy under Byzantine rule and made them safe. She included them in the sphere of influence of Byzantium by preaching Christianity. The activities of missionaries who spread Christianity from the shores of the Black Sea to the plateaus of Abyssinia and the oases of the Sahara were one of the most characteristic features of Byzantine politics in the Middle Ages.

In this way the empire created for itself a clientele of vassals; among them were Arabs from Syria and Yemen, Berbers from North Africa, Laz and Tsani on the borders of Armenia, Heruli, Gepids, Lombards, Huns on the Danube, right up to the Frankish sovereigns of distant Gaul, in whose churches they prayed for the Roman emperor. Constantinople, where Justinian solemnly received the barbarian sovereigns, seemed to be the capital of the world. And although the aged emperor, in the last years of his reign, indeed allowed the military institutions to decline and was too carried away by the practice of ruinous diplomacy, which, due to the distribution of money to the barbarians, aroused their dangerous lusts, it is nevertheless certain that as long as the empire was strong enough to defend itself, its diplomacy , operating with the support of weapons, seemed to contemporaries a miracle of prudence, subtlety and insight; Despite the heavy sacrifices that Justinian's enormous ambition cost the empire, even his detractors admitted that “the natural desire of an emperor with a great soul is the desire to expand the boundaries of the empire and make it more glorious” (Procopius).

IV

THE INTERNAL RULE OF JUSTINIAN

The internal administration of the empire gave Justinian no less concern than the defense of the territory. His attention was occupied by urgent administrative reform. A terrible religious crisis insistently demanded his intervention.

Legislative and administrative reform. Troubles continued in the empire. The administration was corrupt and corrupt; disorder and poverty reigned in the provinces; the legal proceedings, due to the uncertainty of the laws, were arbitrary and biased. One of the most serious consequences of this state of affairs was the very poor collection of taxes. Justinian's love of order, desire for administrative centralization, and concern for the public good were too developed for him to tolerate such a state of affairs. Besides this, he constantly needed money for his great endeavors.

So he undertook a double reform. To give the empire “firm and immutable laws,” he entrusted his minister Tribonian with great legislative work. A commission convened in 528 to reform the code collected and classified into a single body the main imperial regulations promulgated since the era of Hadrian. This was the Code of Justinian, published in 529 and reprinted in 534. It was followed by the Digests or Pandects, in which a new commission appointed in 530 collected and classified the most important extracts from the works of the great jurists of the second and third centuries, - a huge work completed in 533, the Institutions - a manual intended for students - summarized the principles of the new law. Finally, the collection of new decrees published by Justinian between 534 and 565 was supplemented by an impressive monument known as the Corpus juris civilis.

Justinian was so proud of this great legislative creation that he forbade it to be touched in the future or altered by any comments, and in the schools of law reorganized at Constantinople, Beirut and Rome, he made it the inviolable basis for legal education. And indeed, despite some shortcomings, despite the haste in work, which caused repetitions and contradictions, despite the pitiful appearance of the excerpts from the most beautiful monuments of Roman law included in the code, it was a truly great creation, one of the most fruitful for the progress of mankind. If Justinian's law provided the justification for the absolute power of the emperor, it later preserved and recreated in the medieval world the idea of ​​the state and social organization. In addition, it infused into the harsh old Roman law a new spirit of Christianity and thus introduced into the law a hitherto unknown concern for social justice, morality and humanity.

In order to transform the administration and court, Justinian promulgated two important decrees in 535, establishing new duties for all officials and requiring them, above all, to be scrupulously honest in governing their subjects. At the same time, the emperor abolished the sale of positions, increased salaries, destroyed useless institutions, and united a number of provinces in order to better ensure order and civil and military authority there. This was the beginning of a reform that was to have significant consequences for the administrative history of the empire. He reorganized the judicial administration and police in the capital; throughout the empire he carried out extensive public Works, forced the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters, churches and with unheard-of luxury he rebuilt Constantinople, partially destroyed by the uprising of 532. Finally, through skillful economic policies, Justinian achieved the development of rich industry and trade in the empire and, as was his habit, boasted that “with his magnificent undertakings he gave the state a new flourishing.” However, in reality, despite the good intentions of the emperor, the administrative reform failed. The enormous burden of expenditure and the resulting constant need for money established a cruel fiscal tyranny that exhausted the empire and reduced it to poverty. Of all the great transformations, only one succeeded: in 541, for reasons of economy, the consulate was destroyed.

Religious politics. Like all the emperors who succeeded Constantine to the throne, Justinian was involved in the church as much because the interests of the state required it as because of his personal inclination to theological disputes. To better emphasize his pious zeal, he severely persecuted heretics, in 529 ordered the closure of the Athenian University, where a few pagan teachers still secretly remained, and fiercely persecuted schismatics. In addition, he knew how to rule the church like a master, and in exchange for the patronage and favors with which he showered it, he despotically and rudely prescribed his will to it, openly calling himself “emperor and priest.” Nevertheless, he repeatedly found himself in difficulty, not knowing what line of conduct he should follow. For the success of his Western enterprises it was necessary for him to maintain the established harmony with the papacy; in order to restore political and moral unity in the East, it was necessary to spare the Monophysites, very numerous and influential in Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. Often the emperor did not know what to decide in the face of Rome, which demanded the condemnation of dissenters, and Theodora, who advised a return to the policy of unity between Zinon and Anastasius, and his wavering will tried, despite all the contradictions, to find the basis for mutual understanding and find a means to reconcile these contradictions. Gradually, to please Rome, he allowed the Council of Constantinople in 536 to anathematize dissidents, began to persecute them (537-538), attacked their stronghold - Egypt, and to please Theodora, he gave the Monophysites the opportunity to restore their church (543) and tried to Council of 553 to obtain from the Pope an indirect condemnation of the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. For over twenty years (543-565), the so-called “case of the three heads” worried the empire and gave rise to schism in the Western Church, without establishing peace in the East. Justinian's rage and arbitrariness directed at his opponents (his most famous victim was Pope Vigilius) did not bring any useful results. The policy of unity and toleration that Theodora advised was, without a doubt, cautious and reasonable; The indecision of Justinian, who wavered between the disputing parties, led, despite his good intentions, only to the growth of the separatist tendencies of Egypt and Syria and to the exacerbation of their national hatred of the empire.

V

BYZANTINE CULTURE IN THE 6TH CENTURY

In the history of Byzantine art, the reign of Justinian marks an entire era. Talented writers, historians such as Procopius and Agathius, John of Ephesus or Evagrius, poets such as Paul the Silentiary, such theologians as Leontius of Byzantium, brilliantly continued the traditions of classical Greek literature, and it was at the dawn of the 6th century. Roman Sladkopevets, “the king of melodies,” created religious poetry - perhaps the most beautiful and most original manifestation of the Byzantine spirit. Even more remarkable was the splendor of the visual arts. At this time, a slow process that had been prepared for two centuries in Constantinople was being completed. local schools East. And since Justinian loved buildings, since he was able to find outstanding craftsmen to carry out his intentions and put inexhaustible resources at their disposal, the result was that the monuments of this century - miracles of knowledge, courage and splendor - marked the pinnacle of Byzantine art in perfect creations.

Never has art been more varied, more mature, more free; in the 6th century all architectural styles, all types of buildings are found - basilicas, for example St. Apollinaria in Ravenna or St. Demetrius of Thessalonica; churches that represent polygons in plan, for example the Church of St. Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople or St. Vitaliy in Ravenna; buildings in the shape of a cross, topped with five domes, like the Church of St. Apostles; churches such as Hagia Sophia, built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus in 532-537; Thanks to its original plan, light, bold and precisely calculated structure, skillful solution of problems of balance, harmonious combination of parts, this temple remains an unsurpassed masterpiece of Byzantine art to this day. The skillful selection of multi-colored marble, the fine sculpting of sculptures, and the mosaic decorations on a blue and gold background inside the temple represent incomparable splendor, an idea of ​​which can still be obtained today, in the absence of the mosaic destroyed in the church of St. Apostles or barely visible under the Turkish painting of St. Sofia, - from the mosaics in the churches of Parenzo and Ravenna, as well as from the remains of the wonderful decorations of the church of St. Demetrius of Thessalonica. Everywhere - in jewelry, in fabrics, in ivory, in manuscripts - the same character of dazzling luxury and solemn grandeur is manifested, which marks the birth of a new style. Under the combined influence of the East and ancient tradition, Byzantine art entered its golden age in the era of Justinian.

VI

DESTRUCTION OF JUSTINIAN'S CASE (565 - 610)

If we consider Justinian's reign as a whole, it is impossible not to admit that he was able to return the empire to its former greatness for a short period of time. However, the question arises whether this greatness was not more apparent than real, and whether, on the whole, these great conquests did not do more harm than good, stopping the natural development of the Eastern empire and exhausting it in favor of the extreme ambition of one man. In all of Justinian's enterprises, there was always a discrepancy between the goal pursued and the means for its implementation; lack of money was a constant ulcer that corroded the most brilliant projects and the most laudable intentions! Therefore, it was necessary to increase fiscal oppression to the extreme limit, and since in the last years of his reign the aging Justinian increasingly left the course of affairs to the mercy of fate, the position of the Byzantine Empire when he died - in 565, at the age of 87 years - was absolutely deplorable. Financially and militarily, the empire was exhausted; a formidable danger was approaching from all borders; in the empire itself government weakened - in the provinces due to the development of large feudal property, in the capital as a result of the incessant struggle between the green and blue; Deep poverty reigned everywhere, and contemporaries asked themselves in bewilderment: “Where did the wealth of the Romans disappear?” Policy change has become an urgent need; it was a difficult undertaking, fraught with many disasters. It fell to the lot of Justinian's successors - his nephew Justin II (565-578), Tiberius (578-582) and Mauritius (582-602).

They made a decisive start new policy. Turning away from the West, where, moreover, the Lombard invasion (568) took half of Italy from the empire, Justinian's successors limited themselves to organizing a solid defense, founding the African and Ravenna exarchates. At this price, they again gained the opportunity to take care of the situation in the East and take a more independent position in relation to the enemies of the empire. Thanks to the measures they took to reorganize the army, the Persian war, renewed in 572 and lasting until 591, ended with a favorable peace, according to which Persian Armenia was ceded to Byzantium.

And in Europe, despite the fact that the Avars and Slavs brutally devastated the Balkan Peninsula, capturing fortresses on the Danube, besieging Thessalonica, threatening Constantinople (591) and even beginning to settle on the peninsula for a long time, nevertheless, as a result of a series of brilliant successes, the war was transferred to that side of the borders, and the Byzantine armies reached Tissa (601).

But the internal crisis ruined everything. Justinian too firmly pursued the policy of absolute rule; When he died, the aristocracy raised its head, the separatist tendencies of the provinces began to appear again, and the circus parties became agitated. And since the government was unable to restore the financial situation, discontent grew, facilitated by administrative collapse and military rebellions. Religious politics further aggravated the general confusion. After a brief attempt at religious toleration, fierce persecution of heretics began again; and although Mauritius put an end to these persecutions, the conflict that broke out between the Patriarch of Constantinople, who claimed the title of ecumenical patriarch, and Pope Gregory the Great, increased the ancient hatred between West and East. Despite its undoubted merits, Mauritius was extremely unpopular. The weakening of political authority facilitated the success of the military coup, which placed Phocas on the throne (602).

The new sovereign, a rude soldier, could only hold on through terror (602 - 610); with this he completed the ruin of the monarchy. Khosroes II, taking upon himself the role of avenger of Mauritius, renewed the war; the Persians conquered Mesopotamia, Syria, and Asia Minor. In 608 they found themselves in Chalcedon, at the gates of Constantinople. Within the country, uprisings, conspiracies, and rebellions succeeded each other; the entire empire was calling for a savior. He came from Africa. In 610, Heraclius, the son of the Carthaginian exarch, deposed Phocas and founded a new dynasty. After almost half a century of unrest, Byzantium again found a leader capable of leading its destiny. But during this half-century, Byzantium gradually returned to the East. The transformation in the Eastern spirit, interrupted by the long reign of Justinian, was now to be accelerated and completed.

It was during the reign of Justinian that two monks brought from China, around 557, the secret of breeding silkworms, which allowed the industry of Syria to produce silk, partially freeing Byzantium from foreign imports.

This name is due to the fact that the dispute was based on excerpts from the works of three theologians - Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus and Willow of Edessa, whose teaching was approved by the Council of Chalcedon, and Justinian, to please the Monophysites, forced them to condemn.