Alexander 2 foreign policy scheme. Abstract: Foreign policy of Alexander II success or failure

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Federal state budget educational institution higher professional education

Togliatti State University

Department of History and Philosophy

Test

On the topic: “Foreign policy of Alexander II”

Completed by student gr. ELbz-1231:

Kondulukov Ilya Sergeevich

Checked by: Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor Bezgina O.A.

Tolyatti 2015

Introduction

After graduation Crimean War Alexander II's main focus was on carrying out internal reforms. Their success depended to a large extent on the external situation: a new war could disrupt the transformation. The Emperor appointed consistent supporters of his course as ambassadors to the largest states of the world. Prince A. M. Gorchakov was appointed head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1856. In a letter to Alexander II, he defined the main foreign policy goal of the country as follows: “With current situation of our state and Europe in general, Russia’s main attention must be persistently directed towards the implementation of the cause of our internal development, and all foreign policy must be subordinated to this task.”

Based on this goal, the main directions of foreign policy were identified: breaking out of international isolation and restoring Russia’s role as a great power, repealing the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace Treaty that prohibited having a fleet and military fortifications on the Black Sea. In addition, it was necessary to secure borders with neighboring states in Central Asia and the Far East through treaties. These complex tasks were entrusted to the diplomatic talent of A. M. Gorchakov.

Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov (1798-1883), after graduating from the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum in 1817, where he studied with A. S. Pushkin, entered the diplomatic service. Before the start of the Crimean War, at the Vienna Conference of Ambassadors, he made a lot of efforts to keep Austria and a number of other powers from entering the war against Russia. A. M. Gorchakov was distinguished by his independence of character, high morality, and had extensive connections among political figures of foreign countries. He enjoyed great confidence from Emperor Alexander II not only in matters of foreign policy, but also in matters of carrying out reforms within the country. For services to the Fatherland, Gorchakov was awarded the highest honors, including the title of His Serene Highness Prince and the highest civilian rank in the Table of Ranks - State Chancellor of the Russian Empire.

Gorchakov, skillfully using the contradictions between the European powers, achieved the agreements necessary for his state. Being a supporter of a cautious foreign policy, he showed restraint in Central Asian affairs, trying to counteract the aggressive plans of the War Ministry.

The reign of Alexander II, so rich in terms of internal reforms, was also marked in terms of foreign policy by a series of military actions, which ultimately again raised the temporarily diminished importance of Russia after the Crimean War and again gave it its rightful position in the host of European powers. As a matter of fact, despite the fact that the matter of internal renewal absorbed almost all the attention of the government, especially in the first half of the reign of Alexander II, the war with external enemies went on almost continuously on the outskirts of the state.

First of all, upon his accession to the throne, Alexander II had to end another war, which he inherited from his previous reign along with the Crimean one. It was a war with the Caucasian highlanders. This struggle, which has been going on for a long time, costing Russia a lot of effort and resources, has not yet produced any decisive results.

Russia's foreign policy under Alexander II was aimed primarily at resolving the eastern question. The defeat in the Crimean War undermined Russia's international authority and led to its loss of predominant influence in the Balkans. Neutralization of the Black Sea made the country's southern sea borders defenseless, hampered the development of the South and slowed down expansion foreign trade.

The main task Russian diplomacy was the abolition of the articles of the Paris Treaty. For this, reliable allies were needed. England continued to be Russia's most dangerous adversary due to rivalry in the Transcaucasus and Central Asia. Austria itself tried to gain a foothold in the Balkans.

Türkiye in its policy was guided by England. Prussia was still weak. To the greatest extent, Russia's interests were served by rapprochement with France, which competed with England in the Mediterranean. To strengthen its position in the East, Russia continued to rely on the liberation struggle of Christian peoples against Turkey.

European politics

The main efforts of Russian diplomacy were aimed at finding allies in Europe, breaking out of isolation and the collapse of the anti-Russian bloc, which included France, England and Austria. The situation that developed in Europe at that time was to Russia's advantage. The former allies in the anti-Russian coalition were torn apart by sharp disagreements, sometimes leading to wars.

Russia's main efforts were aimed at rapprochement with France. In September 1857, Alexander II met with the French Emperor Napoleon III, and in February 1859, an agreement on Franco-Russian cooperation was signed. However, this union did not become long-lasting and durable. And when the war between France and Austria began in April 1859, Russia avoided French help, thereby seriously undermining Franco-Russian relations. But relations between Russia and Austria have improved significantly. With these actions, Gorchakov actually destroyed the anti-Russian alliance and brought Russia out of international isolation.

Polish uprising 1863-1864 and the attempts of England and France to intervene, under the pretext of this uprising, in the internal affairs of Russia caused an acute crisis, ending in a rapprochement between Russia and Prussia, which allowed the Polish rebels to be pursued on its territory. Subsequently, Russia took a position of benevolent neutrality towards Prussia during its wars against Austria (1866) and France (1870-1871).

Having secured the support of Prussia, Gorchakov launched an attack on the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 that were unfavorable for Russia. In October 1870, at the height of the Franco-Prussian War, he declared that Russia no longer considered itself bound by the obligations of the Paris Treaty regarding “neutralization” Black Sea, which were repeatedly violated by other powers. Despite the protests of England, Austria and Turkey, Russia began to create a navy in the Black Sea, restore destroyed ones and build new military fortifications. Thus, this foreign policy task was resolved peacefully.

The defeat of France in the war with Prussia and the subsequent unification of Germany changed the balance of power in Europe. A powerful warlike power emerged on the western borders of Russia. The alliance between Germany and Austria (since 1867 - Austria-Hungary) posed a particular threat. In order to prevent this union and at the same time neutralize England, irritated by Russia’s successes in Central Asia, Gorchakov organized a meeting of the emperors of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1873. According to the agreement signed by the three monarchs, they pledged to provide each other with assistance, including military assistance. But when, 2 years after the signing of the agreement, Germany again intended to attack France, Russia, alarmed by the excessive strengthening of the Germans, opposed a new war. The “Union of Three Emperors” finally collapsed in 1878.

Thus, Alexander II managed to fulfill the main foreign policy task in the main European direction. Russia achieved the repeal of the most humiliating articles of the Treaty of Paris and peacefully restored its former influence. This had a beneficial effect on the implementation of reforms and the end of wars in the Caucasus and Central Asia.

Eastern crisis of the 70s. XIX century

Since 1864, the Porte began to settle Circassians here in Bulgaria, who were evicted from the Caucasus in order to avoid Russian domination. Accustomed to living by robbery and robbery in their homeland, they were called bashi-bazouks, and began to oppress the Bulgarian peasants, forcing them to work for themselves, like serfs. The ancient hatred between Christians and Muslims flared up with new strength. The peasants took up arms. And so, to take revenge for this uprising, Turkey unleashed thousands of Circassians and others on Bulgaria regular troops. In Batak alone, out of 7,000 inhabitants, 5,000 people were beaten. An investigation undertaken by the French envoy revealed that 20,000 Christians had died within three months. All of Europe was gripped by indignation. But this feeling had the strongest impact in Russia and in all Slavic lands. Russian volunteers from all classes of society flocked to help the rebels; Society's sympathy was expressed through all sorts of voluntary donations. Serbia was unsuccessful due to the numerical superiority of the Turks.

Russian public attention loudly demanded war. Emperor Alexander II, due to his characteristic peacefulness, wanted to avoid it and reach an agreement through diplomatic negotiations. But neither the Constantinople Conference (November 11, 1876) nor the London Protocol led to any results. Türkiye refused to fulfill even the mildest demands, counting on the support of England. War became inevitable. On April 12, 1877, Russian troops stationed near Chisinau were given the order to enter Turkey. On the same day, the Caucasian troops, of which Prince Mikhail Nikolaevich was appointed commander-in-chief, entered the borders of Asian Turkey. The Eastern War of 1877-1878 began, covering the Russian soldier with such loud, unfading glory of valor.

(24) April 1877, Russia declared war on Turkey: after the parade of troops in Chisinau, at a solemn prayer service, Bishop of Chisinau and Khotyn Pavel (Lebedev) read the Manifesto of Alexander II on the declaration of war on Turkey.

Only a war in one campaign made it possible for Russia to avoid European intervention. According to reports from a military agent in England, London needed 13-14 weeks to prepare an expeditionary army of 50-60 thousand people, and another 8-10 weeks to prepare the Constantinople position. In addition, the army had to be transported by sea, skirting Europe. In none of the Russian-Turkish wars did the time factor play such a significant role. Türkiye pinned its hopes on a successful defense.

The war plan against Turkey was drawn up back in October 1876 by General N. N. Obruchev. By March 1877, the project was corrected by the Emperor himself, the Minister of War, the Commander-in-Chief, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich the Elder, his assistant to the staff, General A. A. Nepokoichitsky, and the assistant chief of staff, Major General K. V. Levitsky. In May 1877, Russian troops entered the territory of Romania.

The troops of Romania, which acted on the side of Russia, began to act actively only in August.

During the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force the best Turkish army of Osman Pasha to capitulate in Plevna. The subsequent raid through the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the Ottoman Empire's withdrawal from the war. At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which recorded the return to Russia of the southern part of Bessarabia and the annexation of Kars, Ardahan and Batum. The statehood of Bulgaria (conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) was restored as the vassal Principality of Bulgaria; The territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

The Treaty of San Stefano on February 19, 1878, in addition to its direct goal - the liberation of the Balkan Slavs, brought brilliant results to Russia. The intervention of Europe, which jealously followed Russia's successes, with the Treaty of Berlin significantly narrowed the size of the occupied territory, but they still remain very significant. Russia acquired the Danube part of Bessarabia and the Turkish regions bordering Transcaucasia with the fortresses of Kars, Agdagan and Batum, converted into a free port.

Expansion of Russia's geopolitical space and annexation of Central Asia

In the early 60s. The voluntary acceptance of Russian citizenship by the Kazakhs was completed. But their lands were still subject to raids from neighboring states: the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva and Kokand Khanates. Kazakhs were captured and then sold into slavery. To prevent such actions, fortification systems began to be created along the Russian border. However, the raids continued, and the governors-general of the border regions, on their own initiative, made retaliatory campaigns.

These trips, or expeditions as they were called, caused discontent in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It did not want to aggravate relations with England, which considered Central Asia an area of ​​its influence. But War Department, trying to restore the authority of the Russian army, shaken after the Crimean War, secretly supported the actions of its military leaders. And Alexander II himself was not averse to expanding his possessions in the east. Central Asia was of not only military but also economic interest for Russia, both as a source of cotton for the textile industry and as a place to sell Russian goods. Therefore, actions to annex Central Asia found wide support in industrial and merchant circles.

In June 1865, Russian troops under the command of General M.G. Chernyaev, taking advantage of the war between Bukhara and Kokand, captured the largest city in Central Asia, Tashkent, and a number of other cities almost without losses. This caused a protest from England, and Alexander II was forced to dismiss Chernyaev for “arbitrariness.” But all the conquered lands were annexed to Russia. The Turkestan Governor-General (Turkestan Territory) was formed here, the head of which was appointed by the tsar General K. P. Kaufman.

The arrogant behavior of the Bukhara emir, who demanded the cleansing of the conquered Kokand territory by Russia and confiscated the property of Russian merchants living in Bukhara, as well as the insult to the Russian mission sent for negotiations to Bukhara, led to the final break. On May 20, 1866, General Romanovsky with a 2,000-strong detachment inflicted the first crushing defeat on the Bukharans. However, small Bukhara detachments continued constant raids and attacks on Russian troops. In 1868, General Kaufman captured the famous city of Central Asia, Samarkand. According to the peace treaty of June 23, 1868, the Bukhara Khanate was supposed to cede border territories to Russia and become a vassal of the Russian government, which, in turn, supported it during times of unrest and unrest.

Since 1855, the Kyrgyz and Kazakh tribes subordinate to the Khanate began to transfer to Russian citizenship, unable to tolerate the arbitrariness and lawlessness of the Kokand governors. This led to armed conflicts between the Khanate and Russian troops, for example, in 1850, an expedition was undertaken across the Ili River, with the goal of destroying the Touchubek fortification, which served as a stronghold for K. gangs, but it was only possible to capture it in 1851, and in 1854, the Vernoye fortification was built on the Almaty River (see .) and the entire Trans-Ili region became part of Russia. In order to protect the Kazakhs, Russian subjects, the Orenburg military governor Obruchev built the Raimskoye (later Aral) fortification in 1847, near the mouth of the Syr Darya, and proposed to occupy Ak-Mosque. In 1852, on the initiative of the new Orenburg governor Perovsky, Colonel Blaramberg, with a detachment of 500 people, destroyed two K. fortresses Kumysh-Kurgan and Chim-Kurgan and stormed Ak-Mosque, but was repulsed. In 1853, Perovsky personally with a detachment of 2,767 people, with 12 guns, moved to Ak-Mosque, where there were 300 Kokands with 3 guns, and took it by storm on July 27; Ak-Mosque was soon renamed Fort Perovsky. In the same 1853, the Kokands twice tried to recapture Ak-Mosque, but on August 24, military foreman Borodin, with 275 people with 3 guns, scattered 7,000 Kokands at Kum-suat, and on December 14, Major Shkup, with 550 people with 4 guns, defeated on the left bank of the Syr there were 13,000 Kokands who had 17 copper guns. After this, a number of fortifications were erected along the lower Syr (Kazalinsk, Karamakchi, and from 1861 Dzhyulek). In 1860, the West Siberian authorities equipped, under the command of Colonel Zimmerman, a small detachment that destroyed the K. fortifications of Pishpek and Tokmak. The Kokand people declared a holy war (gazavat) and in October 1860 concentrated, numbering 20,000 people, at the fortification of Uzun-Agach (56 versts from Verny), where they were defeated by Colonel Kolpakovsky (3 companies, 4 hundreds and 4 guns), who then took and Pishpek, resumed by the Kokands, where this time a Russian garrison was left; At the same time, the small fortresses of Tokmak and Kostek were also occupied by the Russians. The construction of a chain of fortifications from the Orenburg side along the lower reaches of the Syrdarya, and from the side western Siberia along Alatau, the Russian border gradually closed, but at that time a huge space of about 650 versts remained unoccupied and served as a gateway for the Kokand invasion of the Kazakh steppes. In 1864, it was decided that two detachments, one from Orenburg, the other from western Siberia, would go towards each other, the Orenburg one - up the Syr Darya to the city of Turkestan, and the West Siberian one - along the Kyrgyz ridge. The West Siberian detachment, 2500 people, under the command of Colonel Chernyaev, left Verny, took the Aulie-ata fortress by storm on June 5, 1864, and the Orenburg detachment, 1200 people, under the command of Colonel Verevkin, moved from Fort Perovsky to the city of Turkestan, which was taken using trench work on June 12. Leaving a garrison in Aulie-ata, Chernyaev, at the head of 1,298 people, moved to Chimkent and, attracting an Orenburg detachment, took it by storm on July 20. Then an assault was launched on Tashkent (114 versts from Chimkent), but it was repulsed. In 1865, from the newly occupied region, with the annexation of the territory of the former Syrdarya line, the Turkestan region was formed, of which Chernyaev was appointed military governor. Rumors that the Bukhara emir was going to capture Tashkent prompted Chernyaev to occupy on April 29 the small K. fortification of Niaz-bek, which dominated the waters of Tashkent, and then he and a detachment of 1951 people, with 12 guns, camped 8 versts from Tashkent, where, under the command of Alim-kul, up to 30,000 Kokandans were concentrated, with 50 guns. On May 9, Alim-kul made a sortie, during which he was mortally wounded. His death gave the defense of Tashkent an unfavorable turn: the struggle of parties in the city intensified, and the energy in defending the fortress walls weakened. Chernyaev decided to take advantage of this and after a three-day assault (May 15-17), he took Tashkent, losing 25 people killed and 117 wounded; The losses of the Kokand people were very significant. In 1866, Khojent was also occupied. At the same time, Yakub Beg, the former ruler of Tashkent, fled to Kashgar, which became temporarily independent from China.

Cut off from Bukhara, Khudoyar Khan accepted (1868) the trade agreement proposed to him by Adjutant General von Kaufmann, by virtue of which Russians in the K. Khanate and Kokands in Russian possessions acquired the right of free stay and travel, establishment of caravanserais, maintenance trading agencies (caravan bashi), duties could be levied in the amount of no more than 2 ½ % of the cost of the goods. A commercial agreement with Russia in 1868 actually made Kokand a dependent state on it.

Population dissatisfaction internal politics Khudayar led to an uprising (1873-1876). In 1875, the Kipchak Abdurakhman-Avtobachi (son of the Muslim Kul executed by Khudoyar) became the head of those dissatisfied with Khudoyar, and all opponents of the Russians and the clergy joined him. Khudoyar fled and his eldest son Nasr-Eddin was proclaimed khan. At the same time, a holy war was declared, and numerous bands of Kipchak invaded Russian borders and occupied the upper reaches of Zeravshan and the outskirts of Khojent. Abdurakhman-Avtobachi, having gathered up to 10 thousand people, made the center of his operations K. the fortification of Mahram on the left bank of the Syr Darya (44 versts from Khojent), but on August 22, 1875, General Kaufman (with a detachment of 16 companies, 8 hundreds and 20 guns ) took this fortress and completely defeated the Kokand people, who lost more than 2 thousand killed; Damage on the Russian side was limited to 5 killed and 8 wounded. On August 29, he occupied Kokand without firing a shot, on September 8, Margelan; on September 22, an agreement was concluded with Nasr-Eddin, by virtue of which he recognized himself as a servant of the Russian Tsar and pledged to pay an annual tribute of 500 thousand rubles. and ceded all the lands north of Naryn; Of the latter, the Namangan department was formed.

But as soon as the Russians left, an uprising broke out in the Khanate. Abdurakhman-Avtobachi, who fled to Uzgent, deposed Nasr-Eddin, who fled to Khojent, and proclaimed the impostor Pulat-bek khan. The unrest was also reflected in the Namangan department. Its chief, the later famous Skobelev, suppressed the uprising that took place in Tyurya-Kurgan Batyr-Tyurey, but the residents of Namangan, taking advantage of his absence, attacked the Russian garrison, for which the returning Skobelev subjected the city to severe bombardment.

Then Skobelev, with a detachment of 2800 people, moved to Andijan, which he stormed on January 8, and on January 10 the Andijan residents expressed their submission. On January 28, 1876, Abdurakhman surrendered to prisoners of war and was exiled to Yekaterinoslavl, and the captured Pulat-bek was hanged in Margelan. Nasr-Eddin returned to his capital, but due to the difficulty of his position, he decided to win over to his side a party hostile to Russia and the fanatical clergy. As a result, Skobelev hastened to occupy Kokand, where he captured 62 guns and huge reserves of ammunition (February 8), and on February 19, the Highest decree was issued to annex the entire territory of the Khanate and form the Fergana region from it.

In the summer of 1876, Skobelev undertook an expedition to Alai and forced the leader of the Kirghiz, Abdul-bek, to flee to the Kashgar possessions, after which the Kirghiz were finally brought to submission.

The lands of the Kokand Khanate entered the Fergana region of Russian Turkestan.

By the 70s. XIX century The Russian Empire conquered the two largest states in Central Asia - the Bukhara and Kokand Khanates. Significant territories of these states were annexed. Last independent state The Khanate of Khiva remained in Central Asia. It was surrounded on all sides by Russian territories and the territories of the Russian vassal Bukhara Khanate.

The conquest of the Khiva Khanate was carried out by the forces of four detachments that set out at the end of February and beginning of March 1873 from Tashkent (General Kaufman), Orenburg (General Veryovkin), Mangyshlak (Colonel Lomakin) and Krasnovodsk (Colonel Markozov) (2-5 thousand people each) with a total number of 12-13 thousand people and 56 guns, 4600 horses and 20 thousand camels. The command of all detachments was entrusted to the Turkestan Governor-General, General Kaufman K.P.

Having set out on February 26 from the Emba post, the Orenburg detachment of General Veryovkin headed through the steppes covered with deep snow to Khiva. The campaign was extremely difficult: it began in the harsh winter, it ended in scorching heat in the sands. During the journey, skirmishes with the enemy occurred almost every day and the Khiva cities of Khojeyli, Mangit and others were taken. On May 14, the vanguard of the Orenburg detachment linked up with the Mangyshlak detachment of Colonel Lomakin. On May 26, the united Orenburg and Mangyshlak detachments approached Khiva from the north, and on May 28, both detachments settled in a position opposite the Shakhabad Gate of Khiva; On May 28, the united detachments stormed the gate, General Verevkin was wounded in the head during the assault, and command passed to Colonel Saranchov. On May 29, the Turkestan detachment of Adjutant General Kaufman approached Khiva from the southeast and entered Khiva from the south, a truce was declared and the Khivans capitulated. However, due to the anarchy that prevailed in the city, the northern part of the city did not know about the capitulation and did not open the gates, which caused an assault on the northern part of the wall. Mikhail Skobelev with two companies stormed the Shakhabat Gate, was the first to get inside the fortress, and although he was attacked by the enemy, he held the gate and rampart behind him. The assault was stopped by order of General K.P. Kaufman, who at that time was peacefully entering the city from the opposite side.

The Krasnovodsk detachment of Colonel Markozov was forced to return to Krasnovodsk due to lack of water and did not take part in the capture of Khiva.

To protect these lands from the east, Semirechenskoe was formed in 1867 along the border with China. Cossack army. In response to the “holy war” declared by the Bukhara emir, Russian troops captured Samarkand in May 1868 and forced the emir to admit dependence on Russia in 1873. In the same year, the Khan of Khiva also became dependent. The religious circles of the Kokand Khanate called for a “holy war” against the Russians. In 1875, Russian troops under the command of General M.D. Skobelev, in the course of rapid actions, defeated the Khan’s troops. In February 1876, the Kokand Khanate was abolished, and its territory was included in the Fergana region of the Turkestan Governor-General.

The conquest of Central Asia also took place from the Caspian Sea. In 1869, Russian troops under the command of General N. G. Stoletov landed on its eastern bank and founded the city of Krasnovodsk. Further advance to the east, towards Bukhara, met stubborn resistance from the Turkmen tribes. The Geok-Tepe oasis became a stronghold of resistance for the large Tekin tribe. Repeated attempts by Russian troops to take possession of it failed.

Later, M.D. Skobelev was appointed commander of the Russian troops in western Turkmenistan. For uninterrupted supply of Russian troops, a railway line was built from Krasnovodsk towards Geok-Tepe. On January 12, 1881, after a fierce battle, Russian troops captured Geok-Tepe, and a week later - Ashgabat.

Russia's conquest of Central Asia deprived the peoples who inhabited it of statehood. But at the same time, internecine wars stopped, slavery and the slave trade were eliminated, and part of the lands confiscated from the feudal lords who fought against the Russian troops was transferred to the peasants. Cotton growing and sericulture began to develop quickly, railway construction, and the extraction of oil, coal, and non-ferrous metals began.

In the annexed lands, the Russian government pursued a flexible policy, avoiding disruption of the usual way of life, without interfering in national culture and religious relations.

Far Eastern politics

Until the middle of the 19th century. Russia had no officially recognized borders with its neighbors in the Far East. Russian pioneers continued to settle in these lands, as well as in Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Great not only scientific, but also political significance had the expeditions of Admiral G.I. Nevelsky on the coast of the Tatar Strait and Sakhalin (1850-1855) and the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia N.N. Muravyov, who explored the shores of the Amur (1854-1855). To consolidate, develop and protect lands along the Amur, the Transbaikal Cossack Army was created in 1851, and in 1858 - the Amur Cossack Army.

Untied in the late 50s. England and France's "opium war" against China was not supported by Russia, which caused a favorable response in Beijing. N.N. Muravyov took advantage of this. He invited the Chinese government to sign an agreement on establishing the border between the countries. The presence of settlements of Russian pioneers in the Amur region served as a compelling argument to justify Russia’s rights to these lands. In May 1858, N.N. Muravyov signed the Aigun Treaty with representatives of the Chinese government, according to which the border with China was established along the Amur River until the confluence of the Ussuri River. The Ussuri region between this river and the Pacific Ocean was declared a joint Russian-Chinese possession. In 1860, a new Treaty of Beijing was signed, according to which the Ussuri region was declared the possession of Russia. On June 20, 1860, Russian sailors entered the Golden Horn Bay and founded the port of Vladivostok.

Negotiations to determine the border between Russia and Japan were difficult. According to the agreement concluded in the Japanese city of Shimoda in 1855, at the height of the Crimean War, the Kuril Islands were recognized as the territory of Russia, and Sakhalin Island as the joint possession of the two countries. After the signing of the treaty, a significant number of Japanese settlers rushed to Sakhalin. In 1875, to avoid complications with Japan, Russia agreed to sign new agreement. Sakhalin completely went to Russia, and the Kuril Islands went to Japan.

April (May 7), 1875 in St. Petersburg, Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov from Russia and Enomoto Takeaki from Japan signed an agreement on the exchange of territories (St. Petersburg Treaty).

According to this treatise, the ownership of the Russian Empire in exchange for 18 Kuril Islands (Shumshu, Alaid, Paramushir, Makanrushi, Onekotan, Kharimkotan, Ekarma, Shiashkotan, Mussir, Raikoke, Matua, Rastua, the islands of Sredneva and Ushisir, Ketoi, Simusir, Broughton, the islands of Cherpoy and Brat Cherpoev, Urup) the island of Sakhalin was completely transferred.

(22) August 1875, an additional article to the treaty was adopted in Tokyo, regulating the rights of residents remaining in the ceded territories.

The Russo-Japanese Treaty of 1875 evoked mixed reactions in both countries. Many in Japan condemned him, believing that the Japanese government had exchanged an important political and economic importance Sakhalin to the “small ridge of pebbles” as they imagined the Kuril Islands. Others simply stated that Japan had exchanged "one part of its territory for another." Similar assessments were heard from the Russian side: many believed that both territories belonged to Russia by right of discoverer. The 1875 treaty did not become the final act of territorial demarcation between Russia and Japan and could not prevent further conflicts between the two countries.

By the middle of the 19th century. American entrepreneurs, traders, and poachers began to penetrate into Russian America - Alaska. Protecting and maintaining this remote territory became increasingly difficult, with costs far outpacing Alaska's income. American possessions have become a burden for the state.

At the same time, the government of Alexander II sought to eliminate possible contradictions and strengthen the friendly relations that had developed between the United States and Russia. The Emperor decided to sell Alaska to the American government for an insignificant amount for a transaction of this scale - 7.2 million dollars.

The sale of Alaska in 1867 showed that the Russian government had underestimated the economic and military importance of its possessions in the Pacific Ocean. One cannot ignore the fact that Russia's main opponents in Europe - England and France - were at that time on the brink of war with the United States. The sale of Alaska was a demonstration of Russian support for the United States.

Conclusion

During the reign of Alexander II, Russia acquired significant areas of land in the Far East and Central Asia. Taking advantage of the difficult situation of China, to which France and England declared war in 1857, the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia Muravyov-Amursky occupied the Amur region (on the left bank of the Amur), and according to the Aigun Treaty (1858) it was ceded by China to Russia ; in 1860, according to an agreement concluded by gr. Ignatiev in Beijing, the Ussuri region (Primorsky region) was also annexed to Russia; In the newly acquired region, a number of Russian cities soon arose - Blagoveshchensk, Khabarovsk, Nikolaevsk, Vladivostok, and a wide field opened up for the future agricultural colonization of Russian "settlers". In exchange for the Kuril Islands, the southern part of the island was acquired from Japan. Sakhalin. But the deserted northwestern part of the American continent, the Alaska Peninsula, was sold in 1867 to the United States of America (for $7 million, and many Americans believed that it was not worth it).

In the 60s and 70s. Russian possessions were widely spread in Central Asia. Before the Russian conquest, there were three Muslim khanates - Kokand (on the right bank of the Syr Darya River), Bukhara (between the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers) and Khiva (on the left bank of the Amu Darya River). Russian possessions in Southern Siberia and the Steppe region (between the Caspian and Aral seas) often experienced raids and robberies by the Turkmens, who sometimes also captured Russian trade caravans. Border misunderstandings and clashes led to the fact that in 1860 the Kokand Khanate declared a “holy war” against Russia; Generals Verevkin and Chernyaev, who commanded the Russian troops, took the most important cities of the Kokand Khanate, Turkestan and Tashkent, and in 1866 the conquered regions were annexed to Russia, forming the Turkestan Governor-General; in 1867, General Kaufman, an energetic military administrator who successfully pursued the further conquest and pacification of the region, was appointed governor-general of Turkestan. As a result of the wars of 1868-1876. the entire Kokand Khanate was annexed to Russia, and Khiva and Bukhara lost part of their possessions and recognized the Russian protectorate over themselves. In order to ensure the safety of the new Russian possessions from attacks by native tribes roaming in the area south of the river. Amu Darya, detachments of Russian troops advanced further to the south, to the borders of Persia and Afghanistan; in 1881, General Skobelev took the Tekin fortress of Geok-Tepe, and in 1884, Russian troops occupied Merv. The approach of Russian possessions close to the borders of Afghanistan, beyond which British India was located, caused great alarm in England. British diplomacy and English public opinion demanded a stop to Russian advance in Central Asia and hotly attacked this manifestation of “Russian imperialism.”

In the Caucasus, under Alexander II, half a century of struggle with the highlanders ended. After a long heroic resistance to the Russian conquerors in the mountains of Dagestan, the leader of the Caucasian Muslim mountaineers Shamil was forced to surrender to the Russian commander-in-chief, Prince Baryatinsky (in 1859, in the village of Gunib). This completed the conquest of the Caucasus. In 1864, the conquest of the Western Caucasus was also completed. The entire Caucasus was divided into administrative districts of the Russian type and subordinated to the management of the Russian administration.

Territorial acquisitions in the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Far East completed the political unification of the vast Eurasian Plain. The multinational state, called the All-Russian Empire, covered the space from the Vistula and Baltic Sea to the shores of the Pacific Ocean and from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the borders of Persia and Afghanistan. The peoples who inhabited this space were connected not only politically, but also economically and cultural ties.

If in the government’s attitude towards “foreigners” “biases” of nationalism and chauvinism sometimes appeared, then the Russian people as a whole and its best representatives in literature never suffered from the disease of national conceit and did not consider their neighbors as “inferior races.” Back in the 17th century. The Orthodox church authorities in Siberia complained to the secular authorities that Russian settlers in Siberia were becoming too quickly, easily and closely related to the natives, and this ability and desire to establish good neighborly relations with other peoples living under the same roof remained characteristic feature and the Russian people and the Russian intelligentsia, multinational in their ethnic origin, but united in their spirit - the spirit of broad tolerance and lack of chauvinism.

Khanate of Khiva crisis uprising

List of sources and literature used

1. Arefieva A.A. Story Russian state- M., 2003

Vorontsova E.N. History Reader - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005

Zakharova L.G. Alexander II. 1855-1881 // Romanovs. Historical portraits. - M., 1997

Zakharova L.G. The Great Reforms of the 1860s and 1870s: a turning point Russian history? // National history, 2005 - №4

Klyuchevsky V.O. History of Russia: a complete course of lectures, vol. 2 - Minsk: Harvest, 2003

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The personality of Alexander II stands out from other emperors of Russia in the 19th century. He inherited the throne immediately after the defeat of the empire in the Crimean War. The son of the conservative Nicholas I carried out a series of liberal reforms in the country. For the abolition of serfdom, Alexander II was called the Emperor-Liberator. Judicial, zemstvo, city and other reforms of 1860-1870. gave impetus to the development of the country.

In foreign policy, the emperor and his associates had to face a series of challenges. The main task was to eliminate the consequences of the lost Crimean War and overcome the international isolation of the empire. In 1863-1864. There was an uprising in the Kingdom of Poland. During the reign of Alexander II, a victorious war against Turkey took place, and the peoples of the Balkans were liberated.

The logical conclusion of the foreign and domestic political undertakings of Alexander II was an attempt at constitutional reform of the Russian Empire. The tragic death of the emperor interrupted the liberal course. Emperor Alexander III returned to conservative politics and curtailed the constitutional initiatives of his father and his associates.

Polish uprising of 1863

Conference in London 1871 - a convention was signed that abolished the articles on neutralization of the Black Sea. Russia received the right to have a navy in the Black Sea and strengthen the southern border. The revival of Sevastopol as the main naval base began (the abolition of the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty)

“Union of Three Emperors” (Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary) 1872. - an agreement of dynastic monarchs who united to fight republican and revolutionary socialist ideas. The isolation of Paris, which had recently dominated European affairs, was emphasized.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878. Progress of the war

June 1877	Russian troops crossed the Danube and entered Bulgaria. The detachment of General I.V. Gurko crossed the Balkans and occupied the Shipkinsky Pass. The attempts of the Russian army to capture the strong Turkish fortress of Plevna ended in failure.
August-December 1877	Russian troops and Bulgarian militias defended their positions at the Shipka Pass in fierce and bloody battles.
August 1877	A systematic siege of Plevna began, which led to the surrender of the Turkish garrison (November 28, 1877)
	I.V. Gurko defeated the 42,000-strong Turkish group and occupied Sofia.
	In the battle of Sheinovo, troops under the command of generals F.F. Radetsky and M.D. Skobelev defeated the thirty-thousand-strong Turkish army.
Beginning of January 1878	Pali cities of Philippopolis (Plovdiv) and Adrianople

• Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained independence
• the autonomy of Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina was proclaimed
• autonomous Bulgaria received a Christian government and a prince, who was approved by the Porte with the consent of the European powers
• Southern Bessarabia was returned to Russia, and the fortresses in the Caucasus - Kars, Ardahan, Bayazet and Batum - were withdrawn.
• Türkiye was obliged to pay a significant indemnity.

Berlin Congress 1878 – England and Austria-Hungary, under the pretext of protecting Turkey, refused to accept the terms of the Peace of San Stefano and achieved their revision:

• The territory of the autonomous Bulgarian principality was reduced threefold
• Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, and England occupied the island of Cyprus
• the amount of indemnity decreased

Internal crisis at the turn of the 1870s-1880s. M.T. Loris-Melikov and his program:

The appearance of the program (which was called the “Loris-Melikov Constitution”) dates back to the beginning of 1881. It was due to:

• political crisis at the turn of the 70-80s.
• intensification of the socio-political movement, including the zemstvo-liberal movement
• activities populist organization"People's Will", which deployed terror tactics

To overcome “sedition” it is necessary and useful to call on society to develop the necessary measures, that is, cooperation between the government and society

• create temporary preparatory commissions to prepare bills
• create an elected body under the tsar from representatives of zemstvos and cities (“General Commission”)
• both preparatory and general commissions were supposed to have a legislative advisory nature

The Loris-Melikov project was the first step towards building a constitutional system in Russia, the beginning of preparations for the creation of a parliament. The project was approved by Alexander II, but on the same day - March 1, 1881. - the emperor was killed. The project was rejected Alexander III, as a result of which M.T. Loris-Melikov was forced to resign.

Trends in foreign policy were dictated by the Crimean War, which introduced huge contradictions into the international relations of the Russian Empire. The military confrontation, which lasted virtually a century, brought not only military defeat to Russia, but also the loss of positions in the international political arena.

During the reign of Alexander II, the state was opposed by three powerful empires at that time: Ottoman, French and British. The Austrian Empire tried to maintain diplomatic neutrality.

European policy of Alexander II

The Russian emperor had the primary task of initiating a revision of the provisions of the Treaty of Paris. To do this, it was necessary to break the political blockade and restore dialogue with European states. Alexander II's foreign policy towards Europe was unusually subtle and flexible. Realizing that after the Polish uprising it would be very difficult to get out of isolation, Russian diplomacy, led by the emperor, played on the internal contradictions of the European empires.

Alexander II managed to improve relations with France and Prussia and even maintain neutrality during the war of these states. After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War, the Russian Empire lost its main enemy, who limited the influence of the Russian crown on the Crimean Peninsula. Major success in diplomatic relations was achieved thanks to the efforts of Gorchakov: Russia gained access to the Black Sea, the waters of which were declared neutral.

In 1873, the rapprochement between Europe and the Russian Empire was consolidated as a result of the creation of the “Union of Three Emperors” - German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian. The end of European isolation allowed Alexander II to come to grips with Turkish issue, which by 1873 had become unusually pungent.

Confrontation in the Balkans

In April 1877, hostilities were unleashed between the Russian Empire and Turkey, the reason for which was the infringement of rights Slavic peoples by the Ottoman authorities. In a relatively short period of time, the Russian army was able to win a number of victories and capture the main military bases of the Turks.

The result of the war was the signing of the San Stefano Peace Agreement, according to which the states of the Balkan Peninsula received political independence from Turkey, and the Russian Empire returned the coast of Crimea, Bessarabia and the Caucasian military fortresses under its crown.

Selling Alaska

Plans for the possible sale of Alaska to the United States arose from Alexander II during the Crimean War. Such a bold step was logically justified: the territory was very remote from the center, the highest power belonged to the governor-general, who could practically carry out his own policies in Alaska without control.

This situation did not suit the emperor. Ultimately, in the spring of 1867, an agreement was signed in the US capital, according to which the Russian Empire transferred the ownership of the lands of Alaska to the state. The cost of the territory was symbolic at that time - $7 million.

Main directions of foreign policy

1) the struggle for the abolition of the Paris treaty and a way out of international isolation

2)territorial expansion in Central Asia and Far East

3) development of relations with the USA and establishment of diplomatic relations with Japan

Western direction

In 1871, Russia remained neutral in the Franco-German war and announced a unilateral withdrawal from the Paris Treaty and the restoration of the Black Sea Fleet. Grateful for Russian neutrality, Prussia, which also counts on Russia's non-interference in the process of German unification under its leadership, did not object to this step of the Russian leadership. Defeated France had no time for the Black Sea. Great Britain and Austria-Hungary formally protested, but did not show much zeal, hoping to reach an agreement with Russia on the Central Asian and Balkan issues, respectively.

In 1873 it was concluded “ union of three Emperors" between Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary with the obligation to hold meetings on foreign policy issues. Practical significance This agreement was small, but it marked Russia’s exit from diplomatic isolation - Russia had official partners. Good neighborly relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary were important for Russia by ensuring security on the western border, which made it possible to more confidently pursue policies in other directions (Central Asia, the Far East).

East direction

Due to the defeat in the Crimean War, Russia's position in Europe weakened and a certain reorientation of its foreign policy took place from West to East.

1860 Treaty of Beijing. China recognized the Primorsky Territory as Russian in exchange for Russia's protection from becoming a colony of Great Britain and France after the second Opium War (1856-1860).

1867. Sale of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the United States. Alaska was a remote region of Russia, communication with which was difficult, and the costs of its maintenance and defense exceeded the income from it. American and Anglo-Canadian poachers ruled the territory with almost impunity (there were not enough troops and ships to protect against them). At the same time, there was a danger that it would be captured by Great Britain (whose Canadian possessions were already close to Russian borders) or the United States. The vulnerability of Russia's Pacific possessions became especially obvious during the Crimean War of 1853-1856, when the Anglo-French fleet shelled Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. The loss of Alaska was more a matter of time and the Russian leadership decided to take this process into your own hands and get at least some financial return. A series of events catalyzed this process. Firstly, in 1860 Russia received Primorsky Krai from China. Korean and then Chinese illegal immigrants began to move there. There were almost no people to guard the border. There were not enough resources to control both Alaska and Primorye at the same time, and something would inevitably have to be left behind. After long discussions in the State Council, they decided to place their bets on Primorye. The logic was simple - without Primorye, without access to Pacific Ocean There will be no normal connection with Alaska along the navigable Amur River and it will still be lost. A proposal was made to sell North American possessions and to direct all resources (human, monetary, technical) to the defense and development of Primorye. Secondly, in 1861, serfdom was abolished in Russia, the land was purchased by the state from the landowners, and money for this operation borrowed from foreign banks. The debt had to be repaid as soon as possible. Thirdly, in 1865, the civil war ended in the United States, in which Russia supported the central government, saving the country from collapse (Russian squadrons guarded the American coast from the British, who supported the southerners), for which the Americans were grateful. Alaska could be transferred to a friendly state, blocking the British from accessing other Russian possessions that they had plans for - Chukotka and Kamchatka. Fourthly, in the early 1860s. gold began to be found in Alaska and people began to come there, incl. illegally, American and Canadian gold miners. There was a real danger that this territory would soon be lost, like California, which belonged to Mexico, but after the discovery of gold there, it was filled with American gold miners, who proclaimed their republic there and then joined the United States. Sale negotiations have begun. The Russian leadership set a goal for Ambassador Eduard Stekl to achieve at least five million dollars. He managed to reach the amount of seven million, and at the last moment even seven million two hundred thousand dollars. The proceeds went, incl. for the technical modernization of Russia, for example, for the construction of the Moscow-Ryazan and Kursk-Kyiv railways.

Due to the influx of American settlers, Russia had previously been forced to sell its colony of Fort Ross in California in 1841.

1875 Treaty of St. Petersburg with Japan on the division of the disputed Pacific islands. Russia handed over to Japan Kurile Islands, and in return it recognized Sakhalin as Russian (previously a “joint possession”). Sakhalin was important to Russia for its coal reserves, necessary for the steam-powered Pacific fleet being created in connection with the acquisition of the Primorsky Territory and the construction of the port of Vladivostok.

Annexation of Central Asia (1864-1885).

By the middle of the 19th century. on the territory of Central Asia there were three large states - the Khiva and Kokand khanates, the Bukhara Emirate, which were constantly at enmity with each other, regularly worried internal conflicts(since they were not strictly centralized, representing rather a conglomerate of tribes under the leadership of khans and emirs), as well as independent Turkmen tribes, who similarly suffered from civil strife. Kazakh lands voluntarily became part of Russia back in the 18th century. for protection from militant neighbors. Prosperity and peace among the Kazakhs, ensured by Russia, were attractive to many Central Asian residents, and stable access to Russian market– desirable for Central Asian merchants. Caravan routes to Persia, Afghanistan, and India passed through Central Asia. Russia constantly sought to establish normal trade and diplomatic relations with the Central Asian states. However, Russian merchants were periodically killed and arrested, and Kazakh lands were raided, despite the peace agreements. By the 1860s Great Britain began to penetrate into Central Asia as part of its policy of “defense of India” - British emissaries appeared in the cities, the rulers negotiated with English ambassadors. Raids on Russian possessions became more frequent, but at the same time internecine struggle intensified. Not wanting the border areas to come under the control of a hostile power, Russia began a gradual expansion.

The first enemy was the Kokand Khanate, which had previously tried to conquer the Kazakh and Kyrgyz lands, but by 1864 had slipped into civil war. One of those who fought for power, emirlyashker (general) Alymkul, trying to rally the Kokand people around himself, declared war on Russia with the official goal of “liberating the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz” (who had previously voluntarily joined Russia due to their reluctance to live under the domination of the Kokand people). In 1864, Russian troops took Shymkent, in 1865 - Tashkent, in 1866 - Khojent. In 1867, the Turkestan Governor-General was formed with its center in Tashkent, which became the capital of the Russian Central Asian possessions.

In 1866, the Emir of Bukhara Muzaffar, counting on help from Great Britain, declared war on Russia, demanding the transfer of Kokand lands to himself and confiscating the property of all Russian merchants in Bukhara. A few weeks later, the Bukhara boys were defeated at Istaravshan. The British did not provide active assistance. The emir asked for peace, but the Bukhara raids continued. In 1868, after an attack on a Russian detachment near Jizzakh, the war resumed. In 1868, the Russian army took Samarkand without a fight, whose residents themselves opened the gates, and then assisted in the fight against the emir’s troops, who were soon completely defeated, and the emir again asked for peace. In 1868, Bukhara became a vassal of the Russian Empire.

In 1873, due to constant raids by Khivans on Russian merchant caravans, a military detachment was sent to Khiva. The Khiva troops did not offer significant resistance, the residents themselves opened the gates, the khan initially fled from the city, but then surrendered and concluded an agreement with Russia, according to which the Khiva Khanate became a vassal Russian Empire, which was beneficial to him - this status protected him from the strengthening of Afghanistan. The Russians freed fifteen thousand Persian captive slaves, which improved Russian-Persian relations.

In 1870-80 her. Russian citizenship was also recognized by other small principalities and tribes, incl. Turkmen who wanted to protect themselves from the expansion of Persia and Afghanistan. In 1885, residents of Merv, who were afraid of Afghan conquest, sent a request to join Russia. The Russian detachment protected the dead, but the Russian-Afghan armed conflict worried the British government, which accused Russia of colonialism and the desire to conquer Afghanistan and India. The English press, which had previously praised the British colonial conquest of India, condemned Russia. Britain, which had previously unsuccessfully tried to conquer Afghanistan, said that it was a defender of the independence of this country. The “war alarm of 1885” arose, but the idea of ​​a war with Russia over Central Asia did not receive support in British society, and Russian diplomats managed to convince the British that the Russians did not plan to conquer Afghanistan, much less India.

The borders of Russian Central Asian possessions were finally formalized by Russian-Chinese (1881), Russian-English (1895) treaties.

Peace reigned in Central Asia, civil wars ceased, and slavery was abolished. Infrastructure development began, schools, hospitals, railways, bridges, irrigation canals, etc. were built. At the same time, the residents of Central Asia preserved their culture, religion, and language, which received support from the Russian leadership.

Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878

Despite international obligations, the Turkish leadership did not provide equal rights to Christians. The abuses of tax collectors and the lawlessness of Turkish officials and security forces caused outrage in society and led to uprisings - in 1875 in Bosnia, and in 1876 in Bulgaria. The Turkish government unleashed mass terror against the civilian population, information about which gradually leaked abroad. The governments of France and Great Britain, which turned a blind eye to the genocide that was taking place (for the sake of maintaining lucrative contracts and because Turkey was used as a counterweight to Russia), were subject to increasing criticism from the public and the opposition. Outrage at the government's inaction also grew in Russia.

In 1876, Serbia declared war on Turkey, wanting to drag Russia into the conflict and at its expense to expand its territory, especially wanting to annex Kosovo. In response to warnings from Russian diplomacy about the consequences of this step, the Serbian leadership stated that Russia would not have the moral right to abandon the Serbs to their fate and was obliged to protect the interests of the Slavs. That same year, the Serbian army was defeated. The Serbian ruler, Prince Milan Obrenovic, telegraphed Emperor Alexander II, begging him to save Serbia. Russia declared an ultimatum to Turkey, demanding a cessation of hostilities, threatening war if it refused. Türkiye agreed. But despite the actual salvation of the country and the Serbian people, in Serbia Russia’s actions were perceived as a betrayal, because it did not get involved in the war and did not help the Serbs annex Kosovo, which strengthened the diplomatic rapprochement between Serbia and Austria-Hungary.

In 1876, the secret Reichstadt Agreement (named after the castle) was concluded between Russia and Austria-Hungary, according to which the Austrians promised to remain neutral in the Russian-Turkish conflict in exchange for receiving Bosnia. Fearing Russian military intervention, Great Britain convinced the Turkish leadership to agree to participate in an international conference on the issue of overcoming the internal political crisis. At the Constantinople Conference in January 1877, under pressure from Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy, the Sultan agreed to end repressions against civilians, to adopt a constitution and provide equal rights to Christians. But in practice, the terror continued. Hoping that the diplomatic fiasco of the great powers and public pressure would ensure the neutrality of France and Great Britain and being under pressure from its people (which threatened a coup or revolution), Russia declared war on Turkey in April 1877. Russian army was still in the process of reform and rearmament, finances did not allow long war, but the desire to save the Bulgarians from extermination turned out to be stronger. Serbian, Romanian, Montenegrin troops, Greek and Bulgarian militias joined the fight. Bulgaria was liberated, the Russian army approached Constantinople, the possible capture of which worried England, which sent a large squadron of the latest ships to the Bosphorus and put pressure on Russia. On February 19, 1878, the San Stefano (named after the suburb of Constantinople) peace treaty was concluded. According to it, Bulgaria was declared independent and received territory from Aegean Sea in the south to the Danube in the north, from the Black Sea in the east, to Lake Ohrid in the west (along the borders of church dioceses that were previously part of the Bulgarian Ohrid Patriarchate). But Great Britain, not wanting the emergence of a large state friendly to Russia in the Balkans and the weakening of Turkey, demanded a revision of this treaty (not disinterestedly - in return for this support, the Ottoman Empire gave Cyprus to the British, which strengthened their position in the Mediterranean). France joined this ultimatum, offended by Russia for its inaction in the Franco-German war of 1870-1871. and Germany, offended by Russia for its reluctance to support the project of the final defeat of France in 1875 (Germany was then planning a war, but Russia dissuaded it, wanting to leave France as a geopolitical counterbalance to an overly strengthened Germany) and no longer interested in Russia's diplomatic support in the unification of Germany which has already taken place. The Russian leadership was forced to agree, realizing that Russia does not have the strength to fight a second war like the Crimean one. In 1880, a new Berlin Treaty (Treaty) was concluded. According to it, the territory of Bulgaria was reduced three times and it became not completely independent, but autonomous. Austria-Hungary received the right to control Bosnia. Turkey once again promised to carry out reforms and ensure equal rights and protection for Christians (and again this was not implemented). Russia refused to give up the Bayazet region in the Caucasus, but managed to achieve Turkish recognition of the complete independence of Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro and the receipt of royal titles by their rulers. According to Russian society, the military victory ended in diplomatic defeat. The foreign policy consequences also turned out to be negative - the Balkan states began to focus on Western countries. Bulgaria, offended that Russia did not protect its territorial acquisitions, made friends with Austria-Hungary and Germany, a representative of the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha dynasty was elected to the Bulgarian throne, and the First world war The Bulgarian army fought against the Russian one. Serbia, offended that Russia did not achieve the annexation of Kosovo, finally went into the orbit of Austro-Hungarian influence. Romania, offended by Russia for the fact that it achieved the annexation of only northern Dobruja to it (providing the Romanians with access to the sea), and not the entire region, and also because Russia did not give Romania Bessarabia, entered the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria -Hungary (1883). Greece, offended by Russia for not achieving its acquisition of Crete, also did not take a position friendly to Russia. Russia's financial losses were severe, the consequences of which had to be dealt with by obtaining unprofitable foreign loans. But nevertheless, Russia was able to achieve the preservation of peaceful relations with the great powers, which ensured the successful implementation of internal reforms in Russia during the reign of Alexander II.

Question 1. What were the main goals and directions of Russian foreign policy during the reign of Alexander II?

Answer. The main goals were to overcome international isolation after the Crimean War and foreign policy calm to carry out domestic political reforms, for which peace was necessary. Main directions:

1) relations with European powers;

2) relations with the Ottoman Empire;

3) the annexation of Central Asia to Russia;

4) Far Eastern policy.

Question 2. Give a description of Russia's European policy. What were Russia's main achievements in this area?

Answer. The head of the Russian Foreign Ministry, Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov (by the way, a classmate of A.S. Pushkin at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum) used the contradictions between the European powers, of which there were many at that time, to strengthen Russia’s position in the international arena. Over time, it also turned out that Russia and some European states also have common interests. As a result, the following was achieved:

1) managed to overcome Russia’s international isolation;

2) a joint suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863-1864 was agreed upon;

3) relations with France improved, and after their further deterioration, with Austria;

4) it was possible to recreate the Black Sea Navy without European opposition;

5) after the unification of Germany, it was possible to establish further rapprochement between Russia and Austria and Germany.

Question 3. Tell us about Russia's policy in Central Asia. Can we consider that Russia pursued a colonial policy in this area?

Answer. Most of Central Asia was conquered, only some peoples (for example, the Kazakhs) came under Russian rule voluntarily. Conquests were usually carried out with small forces, in which the Cossacks played a great role. Russia captured states that were at a much lower stage of development, and began to control vast new lands. This could well be called a colonial takeover.

Question 4. How did Russia’s relations with China and Japan develop?

Answer. Russia signed several treaties with these states that finally defined the boundaries between them. At that time, both China and Japan tried to follow the path of modernization, albeit with different results. Wherein strongest countries the world, including Russia, considered them backward and prepared colonial conquests on their territory.

Question 5. What were the features of the annexation of the Far Eastern territories?

Answer. These lands were annexed peacefully through the signing of treaties with China and Japan. The justification for the annexation of some of them, for example, the Amur region, to Russia, was the Russian settlers who had already penetrated there. Some territories were for some time the joint possession of two states.