What happened under Ivan 3. Great Sovereign Ivan III Vasilievich

Ivan III Vasilievich. Engraving from “Cosmography” by A. Teve, 1575

Ivan III (1440 – 1505) – one of prominent figures Russian history. Five centuries separate us.

A brief description of the “ruler of Great White Rus'” was left by the Venetian Ambrogio Contarini, who was in Moscow in 1476: “The Emperor is 35 years old, ... he is tall, but thin; In general, he is a very beautiful person." The Italian recorded that the sovereign showed the greatest courtesy, courtesy and even consideration towards him.

Contemporaries called him Terrible, Justice, Sovereign. His descendants called him the Great.

What was he like who had to take on the difficult challenges of the time? He did not leave us a single document written in his own hand: no letters, no diaries, no notes, no memoirs. In those days, rulers did not write with their own hands. The Chronicles that remain are Nikonovskaya, Lvovskaya, Arkhangelskaya, Sofia II. Acts, Agreements, Charters, Orders of Discharge, diplomatic documents, and certificates of foreigners have been preserved. They made it possible to study the era and allowed us to come to an understanding of the problems of the 15th century. By reading them, you can understand how Prince Ivan achieved his goals. Actions, decisions, deeds, accomplishments allow descendants to imagine the figure of a historical figure in a more comprehensive way.

N.M. left his thoughts about the “Sovereign of All Rus'”. Karamzin, N.I. Kostomarov, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov. And also M.I. Pokrovsky, A.A. Zimin, V.B. Kobrin, R.G. Skrynnikov.

And now historians are appearing who read already known material in a new way, find new documents, evidence, artifacts and add new colors to the existing historical image.

The reign of Ivan III began in 1462. However, by this time he was no longer a novice in politics, since he had been involved in government through his blind father from the age of ten.

According to the will of Vasily the Dark, Ivan III received 16 cities, part of Moscow, which he initially ruled together with his brothers. They also received fiefdoms. The last will of Vasily II was politically vulnerable. Threat civil war again hung over the country. Ivan Vasilyevich’s great merit was that he managed to avoid this misfortune and prevent large-scale strife between the Rurikovichs. That is why he limited their rights to dispose of their inheritances. The four brothers were sure that they should jointly rule the entire Russian land. They lived by the norms of the “old times”. And the world was changing. The eldest, Ivan III, did not think so. He continued the course of his predecessors towards centralization. The appanages became an obstacle to the creation of a unified state. Everyone, without exception, had to recognize themselves as subjects. Modern scientists are sure that compromises would lead to inhibition on the path of unification. Ivan Vasilyevich acted harshly. But the brothers also fought desperately for the “old times.” “The appanage prince was a seditionist, if not by nature, then by position: every intrigue clung to him...” The most restless relative, Prince Andrei Vasilyevich the Bolshoi, was declared a traitor for disobeying the Grand Duke in 1491 and not sending his commanders on a military campaign against the Horde. Andrei Goryai was imprisoned, where he soon died. Such isolation of the enemy is a completely ordinary (and not the most cruel) method of medieval warfare.

From the heights of past centuries, it is clear that the brothers of the Grand Duke lost to him in the confrontation between the “old” and the “new”. But it is also clear that the road to this new one was difficult and bloody. Similar stories can be found in the history of any ruling house.

At the same time, the Moscow Grand Duke was not a pathological torturer. His cruelty had certain political goals. Ivan Vasilyevich, first of all, sought to unite the Russian lands. The “gathering” of Rus' met the interests of broad sections of society. Family ties did not become an obstacle on this path. The sovereign acted different ways. However, historians believe that the issue has not been fully studied; the mechanism of inheritance of Moscow power is still waiting for its thoughtful researcher.

The lands of North-Eastern Rus' were absorbed almost bloodlessly. Back in 1471, the Yaroslavl principality was finally annexed, and in 1474, the Rostov principality. In 1472, the annexation of Perm the Great began. In 1485, Tver passed to Moscow. In 1489 - Vyatka land. Relations with the Pskov land took place in line with the gradual restriction of its statehood.

It was an objective process, the essential points were thoroughly analyzed in the scientific literature. The Grand Duchy and the Appanage Principality had the same governance structure. A.Yu. Dvornichenko came to the conclusion that not only the territory was united, the power was also united, since the specific power was similar to the central one. In relation to Novgorod, the policy turned out to be different.

Unification of Russian lands under Ivan III

The rivalry between Novgorod and Moscow intensified under Dmitry Donskoy. In defiance of the Moscow title "Grand Duke", the Novgorodians began to call their city Veliky Novgorod.

The confrontation between Novgorod and Moscow intensified from decade to decade. Already in the middle of the 15th century, it was clear that the end of republican independence was a matter of the near future. Having learned about the desire of the Novgorodians to come under the rule of Catholic Lithuania, Ivan III, under the slogan of defending Orthodoxy, made two military campaigns against the Novgorodians (1471; 1477) and one peaceful one (1475). The boyar power had no defenders, and “Novgorod fell into the hands of the Moscow prince, who asserted full power over the Novgorodians in January 1478.”

Grand Duke called on Novgorodians not to deviate from the “old times,” recalled Rurik and Vladimir the Saint. “Old time” in the eyes of Ivan Vasilyevich is the primordial unity of the Russian land under the rule of the Grand Duke. This is a fundamentally important point, it should be especially noted, since for the first time a historical substantiation of a new political doctrine was undertaken. Ivan III sought to exclude the appanage tradition, on which Novgorod separatism actually relied. In January 1478, having heard from the vanquished that they did not know the peculiarities of Moscow rule, the Grand Duke gave an explanation: “our state of great people is like this: there will be no bell in our fatherland in Novgorod, there will be no mayor, but we will keep our dominion.” Yanin spoke very definitely about those events: “There is no need to talk about any manifestations of democracy in the 15th century, and when the decisive moment of the final clash between Moscow and Novgorod comes, it turns out that the ordinary population of the Novgorod land has nothing to defend in the order that had developed by that time... There was no clash between despotism and democracy. There was a clash of homogeneous forces of feudalism, in which the Novgorod boyar power did not receive support from the population." All experts are unanimous in their opinion: Russia gained its power by uniting Moscow and Novgorod. The political influence of Rus' extended all the way to the Northern Urals. The Novgorod “contribution” to the fund for the creation of a unified Russian state turned out to be decisive.

Export of the Novgorod veche bell to Moscow in 1478. Miniature from the Front Vault.

The Grand Duke did not seek to completely destroy the losers. Modern historians believe that the end of the boyar republic on the Volkhov was not equivalent to the collapse of Novgorod. The city has become the most important element in the system of the Moscow state. The oath of Novgorod residents to the Russian state, the removal of the veche bell to Moscow did not eliminate Novgorod independence, liberties and economic activity. This was led to by the Livonian War (1558 - 1583), as a result of which they lost access to Baltic Sea.

Ivan the Great - key person our history. He can rightfully be called the creator of the Russian state. The symbol of this new country became the Moscow Kremlin. Behind the white stone Kremlin walls, which remembered Dmitry Donskoy, there were grand-ducal and metropolitan palaces, houses of the nobility, government offices, monasteries, monastic courtyards, and church churches. The oldest of them is the Assumption Cathedral. Like everything else in the Kremlin, it was dilapidated and required restructuring. Metropolitan Philip thought about renovating the temple back in 1471. According to tradition, tenders were announced for the construction of the cathedral.

Most low price Moscow masters Myshkin and Krivtsov announced. A lot of money was allocated from the metropolitan's treasury for the construction of the temple. In 1472, work began to boil. But in May 1474, the already erected walls collapsed. The chronicle names the cause as an earthquake. Pskov craftsmen invited for consultation explained that “lime is not glue-free” and could not hold the building together. Obviously, the failure of construction was associated with the loss of large-scale construction skills by Russian craftsmen. Muscovites saw in what happened a sign from above. And Metropolitan Philip stopped his efforts. Ivan III looked at the dilapidated cathedral for a year. Of course, he understood how important new architecture was for his capital. Modern buildings would clearly demonstrate Russia’s sovereignty to its neighbors. The Grand Duke made a decision: to restore the temple using advanced construction techniques and technologies. This was the point of inviting Italian specialists to Russia. It was under Ivan Vasilyevich that foreigners began to be called to serve in the Muscovite kingdom. The first of them appeared in Moscow after the marriage of Ivan III to Sophia Paleologus. They arrived in the retinue of the Byzantine bride and became courtiers of Ivan Vasilyevich Foma and Dmitry Ivanovich Rale (Larevs in the Russian tradition), Nikula and Emmanuil Ivanovich Angelov, the Trakhaniotov family. In addition to the Greeks, Italians appeared in the service, “fryazis,” as they were called at that time, separating them from other “Germans.” Aristotle Fiorovanti, Anton Fryazin, Marco Fryazin, Aleviz Fryazin the Old, Pietro Antonio Solari created and built what can rightfully be considered a synthesis of European and Russian culture. The famous Aristotle Fiorovanti was officially invited, offering a very significant sum for his services. An experienced engineer and builder from Bologna, he needed orders. They were also very interested in him. Having simultaneously received an offer from the Turkish Sultan and from the Moscow sovereign, he chose the second. In 1475, an Italian came to Moscow. In the Orthodox capital he was greeted kindly. They commissioned the creation of the main Russian shrine, the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. Researchers are confident that while studying Russian architecture, Aristotle made two trips - one to Vladimir, the second to the north, to Novgorod and Pskov. And only after that he got down to business. He used engineering practices unfamiliar to Russians, brickwork, and used compasses and rulers.

Assumption Cathedral

In August 1479, the Assumption Cathedral was solemnly consecrated. For the inhabitants of the Moscow kingdom, the construction of the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Mother of God had a special meaning. After all, the Mother of God promised to take care of all Christians after death. According to biblical legend, the Jewish high priest Athos, who tried to interfere with the funeral procession and the farewell of the Mother of God, was severely punished by an unknown force. He lost both arms. And therefore, the Orthodox Russian people praying in the Assumption Cathedral believed that this sanctuary was the key to their success in victories over all the enemies of the Russian land, that the Mother of God would help the only one remaining Orthodox country defend your faith. The new Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin was a kind of appeal from the Grand Duke to his subjects. Ivan Vasilyevich, thus, called for resistance to the Horde. The old thinking whispered: you cannot resist the khan. The new thing, the bearer of which was the Moscow ruler, declared: we must fight the khans, we must not give up, we must win! Thus, combining the art of the Renaissance and the traditions of ancient Russian architecture, Aristotle Fiorovanti realized the dream of the Russian ruler about the main temple of the country. The Resurrection Chronicle accurately conveys the impression of contemporaries: “That church was wonderful in majesty and height and lightness and sonority and space; This has never happened before in Rus', except for the Vladimir Church...” The impact of the Italian Renaissance revolutionized Russian architecture, changed the identity of Moscow architecture and created new stylistic forms. At the same time, of course, historical features Russian architecture, coinciding in time with the Renaissance in Italy, turn out to be very unusual. In Muscovite Rus', the ideas of the Renaissance never freed themselves from the features of the Middle Ages. They were a combination of old and new. The majestic Moscow Assumption Cathedral surpassed Vladimir's. Now, until the very end of the 17th century, everywhere in Rus' he became a model, an ideal that should be imitated. The paintings of the cathedral were carried out in 1482-1515. Among the icon painters was Dionysius, who continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev. It was in this temple that there was a Russian shrine revered by the people - the “Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God”.

The Assumption Cathedral became a symbolic image of the Muscovite kingdom and the Orthodox Church. He demonstrated Ivan III's aspirations for the unity of the country and the transformation of Moscow into the capital of the united Russian lands under the hand of the Moscow Grand Duke.

At this time, the strengthening of the power of the Sovereign Ruler and the development of an ideology that sought to give a new character to the Russian state continued.

The formation of the territory of a single state was basically completed by the 1480s. And all neighboring countries - Poland, Lithuania, the Livonian Order, Sweden, the Great Horde, the Kazan Khanate - took this extremely hostilely.

The Great Horde - a fragment of the Golden Horde - laid claim to all the latter's possessions. The ambitious Khan Akhmat, who occupied the throne, felt himself to be the heir of Genghis Khan. However, from the beginning of the 1470s, Ivan III did not send “exit” to the Horde; he did not go there himself, limiting himself to gifts. A.A. Gorsky notes:

Ivan III tears up the Khan's letter. Hood. HELL. Kivshenko.

“It seems that it was in the early to mid-70s that an “ideological understanding” of the need to gain independence from the Horde took place.” He comes to the conclusion that then a fundamentally new stage began in relations between Rus' and the Horde. And a serious group had formed in the ruler’s circle, advocating non-recognition of the khan’s suzerainty. Akhmat made his first attempt to punish Moscow in 1472. Then, for the first time, the Tatars retreated before the Russian regiments. Later, in 1476, the Khan's ambassador demanded in the form of an ultimatum to pay the debts. Ivan III refused. The denouement was approaching quickly.

In 1480, the Horde moved to Rus', stopped at a tributary of the Oka - Ugra, where the border between Lithuania and Russia lay. The famous “stand on the Ugra” began: the Horde tried to cross the river, but Russian guns did not allow them to do this.

Standing on the Ugra River. Hood. A. Serov.

The success of the Russian army was ensured by the use field artillery, firearms, the correct disposition of troops, their skillful maneuvering. The regiments of Ivan III were armed modern weapons, the Russian gunners fired accurately and accurately, destroyed and scattered the Horde, who did not dare to go on the offensive.

The campaign of 1480 is an example of a strategic defensive operation with a decisive result in a war on two fronts, in the most difficult foreign and domestic political conditions. The sovereign's headquarters was located in the immediate rear and had real opportunity for effective operational command of troops.

Under Ivan III, a whole galaxy of outstanding military figures appeared. Worthy of mention are the books. Semyon Fedorovich Vorotynsky, Prince. Boris Ivanovich Gorbaty (Suzdal), Prince. Semyon Ivanovich Ryapolovsky, Prince. Semyon Danilovich Kholmsky prince. Vasily Fedorovich, Shuisky, Dmitry Vasilyevich Shein, Prince. Danilo Vasilievich Shchenya.

It is worth recalling that Ivan III carried out a successful military reform, which led to the creation of a unified military system of the Russian state. The army received reliable combat armor, modern firearms, especially guns. Ivan Vasilyevich knew how to listen to his military specialists, understand the essence of their thoughts and proposals, and make (in most cases) the right decision. And he won. The acquisition of sovereignty is a key moment not only in the history of the reign of Ivan the Great, but also in the history of Russia as a whole.

The political successes of Ivan III required changes in the capital. The gains of independence made the Kremlin a center state power. And the ruler thought about rebuilding his residence. The knowledge and talents of Aristotle Fiorovanti were again in demand, and he drew up a plan for the upcoming work. The start date for work is known. On July 19, 1485, the Italian architect Anton Fryazin laid the archery instead of the old white stone gate. This is how the Taynitskaya Tower appeared (at its base there was a secret passage to the river). Experienced Italian fortifiers erected a first-class fortress, the walls of which stretched for two kilometers, their height ranged from 19 to 8 m, and their width was 3-6 m. Along the perimeter there were 18 powerful towers with 3-5 tiers of loopholes. The corner towers were made round (with the exception of the multifaceted Dog Tower). Vodovoznaya hid a well that supplied the Kremlin with water, Troitskaya became a prison for especially important criminals, Nabatnaya gave danger signals to Muscovites with its bell, and gathered people to the square. Along the upper edge of the wall there was a wide battle platform, which was covered from the outside by thousands of battlements. The famous Milanese swallowtail miraculously fits into the Russian landscape. The travel towers were carefully strengthened with diversion archers, descending gers, and supplemented with drawbridges and bridgeheads. The fortress was practically impregnable. Art critics admire the integrity and completeness of the architectural ensemble and note its desire for geometricism.

Moscow Kremlin under Ivan III. Hood. A. Vasnetsov.

Thus, they believe, the genius of Fiorovanti established order in architecture, as opposed to the chaos of the Middle Ages. The plan of the genius of the European Renaissance found the full support of the Orthodox ruler. It is worth emphasizing that while solving the problem of the struggle for independence, Ivan Vasilyevich began to look closely at Europe. The Moscow prince discovered that when communicating with Europeans, Russians were sometimes significantly inferior, and decided to begin to overcome the gap. And he began the Europeanization of the country. Neither the Turkish sultans, nor the Chinese gods, nor the shahs and padishahs, nor the great Moguls, noticed the European “novelties”. And the Moscow ruler showed great interest in them. However, he was careful and acted gradually. He concentrated on weapons and technical skills (mainly gunsmithing and stone construction), as well as on the organization of the diplomatic service. He was not afraid of foreigners, but did not radically change Moscow life. He firmly preserved Russian customs and the Orthodox faith. In 1491, the construction of the Faceted Chamber was completed. Started by Mark Fryazin and completed by Pietro Antonio Solari, it occupies a special place in the history of Russian civil architecture. Like the Assumption Cathedral, it preserved in its appearance national traditions that were not absorbed by the art of the Renaissance. Festive dinners were held in the Faceted Chamber, receptions of foreign guests were held, and later Zemsky Sobors met. In the spacious Holy Entrance they awaited the sovereign's audience. The red porch was intended for ceremonial entrances of the sovereign. Under Ivan III, Pskov craftsmen erected the Church of the Deposition of the Robe and the Annunciation Cathedral. They combined elements of Pskov and Moscow architecture. And all the temples built were in harmony, did not contradict each other, making up a single artistic whole.

It should be admitted that in everything Ivan Vasilyevich had a sense of proportion. The ruler was a man of outstanding intelligence and statesmanship. Ivan III died without seeing the completion of the construction of the Archangel Cathedral, which became the tomb of Moscow rulers. He was placed in the still unfinished temple. Life continued to boil around Derzhavny, which had already become history, and the construction and improvement of the Kremlin did not stop. Ivan Vasilyevich determined the main goals of these changes, he supervised the main work, and his plan acquired powerful outlines. But it was not completed. Just as his royal plan was not finally completed. But it was Ivan the Great who made the most important creative breakthrough in the construction of the Russian state.

One Russian state Even during its formation, it began to purposefully master the diverse experience of the modernizing West, which ensured its competitiveness and military-political superiority over its eastern neighbors.

Ivan III won in Time and Space. Russia under his successors became an Empire. It was the process of Europeanization that became the basis of Russia’s competitiveness. The Great Sovereign Ivan III, to a certain extent, formed the prerequisites for the transformations of Peter I, created the foundations for the transformation of Russia into a great European power in the 18th century.

During his reign, reforms on a national scale began. Changes covered all areas: the political system, the socio-economic system, legislation. A system of government of a single state began to take shape. In the 1470s, Ivan Vasilyevich took the title “Sovereign of All Rus'”. Russia becomes a prominent state in the world of that time, establishes diplomatic relations, and interacts with both European and Asian states. Foreign policy priorities are taking shape, and the country's national and state interests are gradually taking shape. The international legal status of the Russian state is, first of all, the status of its monarch, which is based on the symbols of his power. There was a need to create a coat of arms, and it was created. The State Archive of Ancient Acts contains a document dating back to 1497. The Grand Duke's seal of Ivan III sealed the “exchange and allotment” charter for the land holdings of the appanage princes. It was made of red wax. At that time, the seal was hung, not applied, so it had two sides. The emblems of the seal are a horseman slaying a serpent with a spear (on the front side) and a double-headed eagle (on the back side).More N.M. Karamzin in “History of the Russian State” noted that symbolism Russian coat of arms originates from a seal of 1497. This opinion is shared by the majority of the scientific community. We know that the horseman is an ancient image symbolizing the prince. St. George the Victorious was also revered in Rus'; he was perceived as the heavenly patron of the army. Saint George was also popular in Europe, where he was revered as the patron saint of chivalry.

The Heavenly Warrior on a white horse, striking the Serpent with a spear, was present on the banners of the princely squads, helmets and shields of warriors, on coins and signet rings - the insignia of military leaders, on the grand ducal seals. During the time of Dmitry Donskoy, St. George became the patron saint of Moscow. The high relief icon of St. George was installed on the Frolovskaya (Spasskaya) tower of the Kremlin by order of Ivan Vasilyevich in 1464. The image was installed on the outside to protect the Kremlin from enemies. Later, Italian craftsmen built the Spasskaya Tower on this site, placed an image of the Savior above its gates, and moved the sculpture of St. George first to the St. George Church, then to the Ascension Monastery. St. George the Victorious was an example of Christian virtues. It is no coincidence that his image was on the grand ducal banners of Ivan III, with which he went to the Great Stand on the Ugra. Many researchers believe that the image of St. George on the state seal and in Moscow symbols from the time of Ivan the Great became a sign of the succession of the Moscow princes to Vladimir and to the Kyiv princes . The role of the Moscow prince as a stronghold of Orthodoxy was also symbolically emphasized. Analysis of the semantics of the images shows that both emblems corresponded to certain parts of the title: the horseman was a subjective title, naming the sovereign himself, and the eagle was an objective or territorial title, describing the state. The eagle has long been perceived as a symbol of heavenly (solar) power, fire and immortality, as a symbol of the gods and their messenger. In the Middle Ages it was revered as a symbol of the resurrection of Christ. The double-headed eagle replaced the lion of Vasily II because it had a fundamentally new meaning. State symbols became necessary, since state ideology required reinforcement of its ideas, including visually. Two problems had to be solved. First, explain to your people the new system of power, the new political reality. Secondly, to show the whole world the sovereign dignity of the Moscow State. The most reasonable assumption is that the double-headed eagle on the state seal of Ivan III symbolizes, first of all, the claims of the Moscow government to the vast territories of the once united Old Russian state, which the Grand Duke thought of as his ancestral homeland. Historians believe that the two heads of the eagle can be interpreted as two parts of the Russian state: one was already under the rule of Moscow, the second still had to be returned to the Moscow Rurikovichs. From the point of view of the Grand Duke of Moscow, it was he who had ownership rights in relation to all the lands that once belonged to Kyiv. That is why, at the same time, at the end of the 15th century, images of a gilded double-headed eagle on a red field appeared on the walls of the Faceted Chamber in the Kremlin. The Moscow ruler realized his aspirations: as a result of the wars with Lithuania, significant territories in the west went to Russia, in 1510, then under Vasily III, Pskov was annexed, and in 1514 Smolensk. Experts have still not come to a consensus and did not settle on an agreed version about the source of the appearance of the eagle in Russian state symbols. The eagle was borrowed. But from whom? The Holy Roman Empire? In the Balkan countries? Byzantium? In the Novgorod Republic? Each of the versions is solid. But not one is completely convincing. It is quite possible that all the options together contributed to the formation of Ivan III's decision. Something else is important: in those years when a unified Russian state was born, the state emblem of the new country was created. It became the double-headed eagle - and this symbol is inextricably linked with Russia to this day, for several centuries now.

Seal of Ivan III (1497)

In 1498, the first royal wedding in Russian history took place. Ivan III crowned Dmitry the grandson with the Monomakh cap for the great reign. A system of the nobility's oath of allegiance to the ruler was introduced, and a letter of cross-kissing about princely and boyar "non-departure" appeared. A special form of land ownership arose - the manorial system, in which the landowner held the land only for the duration of his active service. An all-Russian monetary system was created.

In 1497, the first all-Russian Code of Law was created. It is traditionally believed that the Code of Laws was intended to regulate procedural, criminal and civil legal relations. However, the text analysis carried out by B.N. Zemtsov, showed that at the end of the 15th century. the most important thing for the authors, led by Ivan III, was the creation new system organs executive power. The difficult political situation in the country required a new regulation of the judicial functions of central and local authorities.

Under Ivan the Great, the formation of the Sovereign's Court took place, which carried out the functions of the state apparatus of power. Its upper house was the Boyar Duma. It acquires the features of representativeness from various layers of the aristocracy and becomes a “co-ruling” body under the sovereign who heads a single state. Contemporary discourse on the issue of political forms of the Russian state is associated with the involvement of new sources in scientific circulation. Previously expressed ideas require clarification based on the latest data.

Overcoming fragmentation and the beginning of the formation of the state contributed to the emergence of the idea “Moscow - new Constantinople" It was first voiced by Metropolitan Zosima on church cathedral in 1492. Later, the thoughts expressed would be developed in the writings of Elder Philotheus (c. 1465-1542), who would call Russia the “Third Rome.” But only after gaining the patriarchate in the 17th century will this formula be filled with political meanings. Then, at the end of the 15th century, there were still no imperial ambitions, we're talking about about the need for approval in the country is true Christian faith.

Sophia Paleolog. Plastic reconstruction (1994)

It is worth mentioning the second marriage of Ivan Vasilyevich with the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleologus in 1472 and “obtaining rights to Constantinople.” The Roman Popes, Paul II, Sixtus IV, Uniate Greeks, and Eastern Orthodox Christians interpreted the “Byzantine inheritance” as the opportunity and obligation of Muscovy to wage war for specific territories that were once Byzantine. And the sovereign of sovereign Russia sought to erect a new Orthodox Constantinople on the “seven hills of Moscow.” The Muscovites did not fight with the Ottomans. Domestic diplomacy made every effort to establish good relations with the Sublime Porte. For Ivan Vasilievich at the core foreign policy lay Russian national-state interests and awareness of the merits of the kingdom that he ruled.

Moscow, as Russian lands gathered, established itself in the role of successor Kievan Rus, became a symbol of political unification on a popular national basis. Ivan III turned into a political leader, the Sovereign of All Rus', called upon to unite all Orthodox Russian lands that were once part of the Old Russian state. Hence the new understanding of the state as a reflection of the interest of the emerging nation. As a ruler, Ivan III was a first-class master of his craft. Having begun the process of gathering Russian lands and absorbing them into the stronger Moscow principality, Ivan III began to change the previously existing political system. Born a tributary of the steppe Horde, he became the ruler of a country recognized in Rome and Istanbul, Stockholm and Vienna, Vilna and Krakow. He skillfully combined the tactics of war and peace, restored the freedom and integrity of Russia, and protected its borders from enemy encroachments. Of course, the Moscow state in the second half of the 15th century. was undergoing a process of formation. Its institutions were still amorphous, the boundaries of power of various bodies were not strictly delineated. Under these conditions, the imperious behavior of Ivan III, the ruler, played a very important role. The sovereign ruler of the Muscovite kingdom entered the history of the country as the creator of an independent state called Russia.

Shcherbakova Olga Mikhailovna,
Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor, Associate Professor of the Department of History of Moscow State Technical University. N.E. Bauman

Zemtsov Boris Nikolaevich,
Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor. Professor, Department of History, Moscow State Technical University. N.E. Bauman

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09.06.2016

The peculiarities of human memory are such that we more easily remember something outstanding, unusual, something that can greatly amaze the imagination, than ordinary life events and people who do not have pronounced personal character traits. This applies, among other things, to historical figures who influence the destinies of entire countries. So it is in the case of the two Russian Tsars Ivan: every schoolchild without hesitation will list the deeds of the “great and terrible” Ivan the Terrible, but will not immediately remember what distinguished his own grandfather, Ivan III. Meanwhile, the grandfather of Tsar the Terrible received the nickname of the Great among the people. What Ivan III the Great was like and what he did for Russia will be told by several interesting facts from his biography.

1. The fate of the future Grand Duke Ivan III was such that from a young age he became an indispensable assistant to his blind father, Vasily the Dark. Already in his youth, he gained experience in battles and learned to maneuver through the intricacies of intrigue that are inevitable under any throne. In his youth, Ivan took part in the fight against Dmitry Shemyaka.
2. The first wife of Prince Ivan was the meek-tempered Maria, who was destined to live a short life. It is believed that she fell victim to the machinations of people close to the prince: she was allegedly poisoned during her husband’s absence.
3. On the monument in the Kremlin (in Veliky Novgorod), dedicated to the millennium of Rus', one can see, among other rulers, Grand Duke Ivan III. He stands, almost trampling underfoot his defeated enemies: a Tatar, a Lithuanian and a German. This is an allegorical depiction of the prince’s actual victories: he actually managed to save the Russian principality from expansion by the Baltic states and overthrow the Golden Horde yoke.
4. The stagnation of the Ugra River is an event that in 1480 determined the entire further course of Russian history. There was no battle. Thanks to patience and the ability to outwit the enemy, Ivan III, without losing his soldiers, was able to achieve the departure of the Tatars. From that moment on, Rus' became free - it was no longer oppressed by the heavy Golden Horde yoke. And for this feat the people gave Ivan the nickname Saint.
5. Under Ivan III, the unification of Russian lands was in full swing. The principalities of Yaroslavl, Rostov, Tver, and Chernigov were annexed to the Moscow principality. Proud and rebellious Novgorod was conquered.
6. With the active participation of Ivan III Vasilyevich, the Code of Laws was developed.
7. Ivan III assigned the peasants to the landowners, giving them the opportunity only twice a year to legally leave their landowners.
8. Historians, based on the testimony of contemporaries, having analyzed the activities of Ivan III, give him the following characteristics. Cold, calm, very cautious, unhurried in action and a secretive person. These qualities helped him to steadily pursue his policies without much bloodshed. He knew how to wait for the right moment and act deliberately, he knew how to sense the situation.
9. After the death of his first wife, Ivan III did not remain single for long. His new chosen one is the heiress of the Byzantine emperors - Zoya (Sophia) Paleologus. The Pope hoped to use this marriage to influence the head of the Russian state, but he was mistaken in his expectations. Of course, Sophia made changes in the life of the Grand Duke’s subjects, but this influence benefited only Rus', and not the pope. Sophia was a strong-willed and intelligent woman.
10. Having become the wife of Ivan III, Sophia now considered Rus' her patrimony and thought about its good. Under her influence, the princely court acquired splendor, beauty and grandeur. Sophia contributed to the construction of the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals. During her reign, the Chamber of Facets was built. Moscow was decorated and blossomed. Ivan consulted with his wife, including on political issues. The couple lived in perfect harmony for 20 years. Ivan grieved so much after Sophia’s death that he faded away after 2 years.

Ivan III was one of those sovereigns who know how to set a goal and methodically, with unhurried but confident steps, move towards it. His whole life shows: the main subject of his thoughts, his tireless concerns was the good of the state. He even chose his wife not based on personal preferences (Sophia was not very beautiful), but thinking about the future of Russia, about strengthening its international position. Ivan III deserves the grateful memory of his descendants. His contemporaries understood this - it was not for nothing that he became a Saint and Great during his lifetime.

Ivan 3

Biography of Ivan 3 (briefly)

Ivan Vasilyevich was born in the family of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily Vasilyevich. On the eve of his death, Ivan's father made a will, according to which the lands were distributed among his sons. So the eldest son Ivan receives 16 central cities into his possessions, including Moscow.
Having taken possession, after the death of his father, he issues a decree according to which gold coins are minted with the names of the king and his son. The first wife of Ivan 3 dies early. In order to become related to Byzantium, the king remarried Sophia Paleologus. In their marriage, their son Vasily is born. However, the tsar does not appoint him to the throne, but his grandson Dmitry, whose father was Ivan Young - son from his first marriage, who died early. The tsar blamed the death of Ivan the Young on his second wife, who was hostile against her stepson, but was later forgiven. Grandson Dmitry, who had previously been declared heir to the throne, and his mother Elena found themselves in disgrace; they were imprisoned, where Elena was subsequently killed. Sophia also dies a little earlier. Despite mutual hatred during life, they are both buried side by side in the Church of the Ascension.
After the death of his second wife, the king becomes seriously ill, he becomes blind in one eye and his hand stops moving, which indicates brain damage. On October 27, 1505, Tsar Ivan 3 dies. According to his will, power passes to his son from his second marriage, Vasily 3.

Foreign policy of Ivan 3

During the reign of Ivan 3, many years of dependence on the Horde ceased; moreover, he ardently supported the opponents of the Horde. The final formation of the Russian independent state is taking place.
Foreign policy was also successful in the eastern direction; thanks to the right combination of military force and diplomatic negotiations, the tsar managed to annex the Kazan Khanate to Moscow politics.

During the reign of Ivan 3, architectural construction reached an unprecedented rise. Italian masters were invited to the country, who introduced a new trend in architecture - the Renaissance. A new round of ideology is developing, a coat of arms appears, with a double-headed eagle depicted on it.

Sudebnik Ivana 3

One of important points rule became the Code of Law of Ivan 3, adopted in 1497. The Code of Laws was a set of laws that were applied at that time in Rus'. This, a kind of municipal act, recorded: a list of duties of officials, the right of peasants to transfer to another feudal lord, only on the eve or after St. George’s Day, with the obligatory payment of a tax for accommodation. These were the first prerequisites for the further establishment of serfdom. According to the Code of Laws, lynching was not allowed under any circumstances; trade transactions were monitored and adjusted. A new form of land ownership was introduced - local, according to which landowners work and submit to the king.

Domestic policy of Ivan 3

During the reign of Ivan Vasilyevich, most of the lands around Moscow itself were united, and Moscow itself became the center of the state. The composition included: Novgorod land, Tver, Yaroslavl, Rostov principality. After the victory over the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Chernigov, Bryansk and Novgorod-Seversky were annexed. Thanks to politics and conquests, Russia gained the right to make its own decisions. The order and local management systems appeared. In domestic policy, a course was taken to centralize the country. During the reign of Ivan Vasilyevich, culture reached an unprecedented rise: the Assumption Cathedral was erected, the chronicle developed rapidly.
The reign of Ivan 3 was successful and the tsar himself was called “The Great”.

Announcement: perishing from the invasion of the Turks, Byzantium handed over the double-headed eagle to Rus' as a symbol of the harmony of heavenly and earthly power.

By the 15th century the conditions for centralization The Russians were created. Under Grand Duke Ivan III ( 1462 - 1505 ) the right to become the center of Christianity in the world was accepted from Byzantium. Almost all the principalities submitted to Moscow. IN 1478 Novgorod land also joined. Having strengthened, Ivan III stopped paying tribute Orde. In front of the Horde ambassadors, he tore up the Khan's letter. At that time, Khan Akhmat ruled the Horde. To punish the offender, he moved a huge army to Rus'.

Russian troops took up a position along the river bank Ugrians. On the other bank were the Horde. Khan Akhmat expected the king to attack the Russians from the rear Kazimir. But the cunning Ivan III persuaded the Crimean Khan to attack the lands of Casimir, and thwarted the enemy operation. The Mongols stood waiting for about 5 months. One morning, the Russians saw dying fires on the other side of the Ugra. The victory turned out to be bloodless. IN 1480 year, the yoke of the Mongol-Tatar khans was overthrown forever.

IN 1485 year Tver entered into a single state. IN 1497 was published "Code of Law"- a set of laws for united Rus'. It is established that peasants will leave their owners only during 2 weeks of November if they pay a special tax. Any peasant could become free. This was done a week before “St. George’s Day” and a week after it.

Were created orders- a prototype of ministries. Created Boyar Duma - advisory body of power under the Grand Duke. The principle was established - the sovereign indicated, the boyars sentenced.

There was localism- places and positions were distributed according to nobility. Feeding- a system when governors collected taxes from the people, took part for themselves (to feed), and gave part to the state. Their nobles The prince placed those who served faithfully on the lands. They began to call landowners. The prince took away part of the lands from the church ( secularization).

Thus, the power of the Grand Duke increased. This brought great benefits to the country. Its international authority has grown. Muscovy began to be called Russia. Ivan III was energetic wise man. I managed to do so much without the Internet and mobile phones.

The main goal in the life of Ivan III was the creation of a unified Russian state under the supreme authority of one ruler, a state strong enough to exist in a hostile world. It was towards achieving this goal that all his actions were aimed both within the country and abroad. We, therefore, cannot draw a sharp line between his national and foreign policies. When he became the Grand Duke of Moscow, Great Russia was still fragmented, and the traditions of the Kyiv period were alive. Not only the rulers of the local great principalities, such as Tver, Ryazan or Novgorod land, but even the younger Moscow princes themselves did not want to recognize the supreme power of Ivan III. Commercial interests played an important role in the diplomacy of Ivan III (both in the East and in the West). Kazan and Crimea were significant centers international trade and annually attracted a large number of Russian merchants. The Moscow government made significant efforts to support them and keep trade routes open. The khans of the Golden Horde remained able to block the road from Moscow to Crimea along the Don whenever they wished, which they actually did quite often. Moscow merchants then had to get to Crimea by the western route, through the territory of the Middle Dnieper, which was under the control of Lithuania. As a matter of fact, control over these routes played a significant role in the clashes between Moscow and the Golden Horde and Lithuania. In the struggle between Roman Catholicism and Greek Orthodoxy Ivan III acted as a defender of Orthodoxy and a determined opponent of Roman Catholicism. As we saw above, thanks to this position he was able to undermine the unity of the Novgorodians. She also attracted the sympathy of some Western Russian princes, which served his interests in clashes with Lithuania.

Already under the son of Ivan III, Vasily III (1505–1533), in 1510 Pskov became part of Russia, and Ryazan was the last in 1521. In 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was lifted and Russia became independent.

United Russian State: 1) central power in the country was exercised by the Grand Duke and together with him the Boyar Duma (an advisory body under the ruler). At the same time as the boyar elite, the service nobility also came into force. It often served as a support for the Grand Duke during his struggle with the noble boyars. For their service, the nobles acquired estates that could not be inherited. At the beginning of the 16th century. orders were formed - institutions that performed the functions of managing military, judicial and financial affairs. The order was headed by a boyar or clerk - a major government official. Over time tasks government controlled became more complex, the number of orders increased. The design of the order system made it possible to strengthen the centralized management of the country;

2) the country was divided into districts (which were the former appanage principalities) headed by a governor. The counties, in turn, were divided into volosts headed by volostels;

3) governors and volostels received lands for feeding, from which they collected part of the taxes in their favor. Appointment to positions took place on the basis of localism (the so-called order in which preference at the time of appointment to public service people were well-born, noble, and not distinguished by knowledge, intelligence and corresponding abilities). Later the feedings were cancelled. Local administration was in the hands of provincial elders (guba - district), who were elected from local nobles, as well as zemstvo elders, who were chosen from among the black-sown population, and city clerks - from city residents;

4) in the 16th century. An apparatus of state power emerged in the form of an estate-representative monarchy. Activities that were aimed at strengthening the grand ducal power were very actively carried out by Ivan IV. On initial stage During his reign, Ivan IV still put up with the existence of the Elected Rada - the Near Duma of the sovereign, which included his closest like-minded people. The elected Rada was not an official government body, but in fact governed the Russian state on behalf of the Tsar.

In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor was convened, which was an advisory body, a meeting of class representatives from boyars, nobles, clergy, merchants, townspeople and black-growing peasants. By decisions of the Zemsky Sobor, measures were taken that significantly expanded the rights of the nobles and limited the rights of large feudal lords - boyars, who could form opposition to the tsar. Zemsky Sobors were not permanent bodies of state power; they met irregularly.

Years of life: 1440-1505. Reign: 1462-1505

Ivan III is the eldest son of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II the Dark and Grand Duchess Maria Yaroslavna, daughter of the Serpukhov prince.

In the twelfth year of his life, Ivan married Maria Borisovna, princess of Tver, and in the eighteenth year he already had a son, Ivan, nicknamed Young. In 1456, when Ivan was 16 years old, Vasily II the Dark appointed him as his co-ruler, and at the age of 22 he became the Grand Duke of Moscow.

As a youth, Ivan took part in campaigns against the Tatars (1448, 1454, 1459), saw a lot, and by the time he ascended the throne in 1462, Ivan III already had an established character and was ready to make important government decisions. He had a cold, reasonable mind, a tough disposition, an iron will, and was distinguished by a special lust for power. By nature, Ivan III was secretive, cautious and did not rush towards his intended goal quickly, but waited for an opportunity, chose the time, moving towards it with measured steps.

Outwardly, Ivan was handsome, thin, tall and slightly stooped, for which he received the nickname “Humpbacked.”

The beginning of Ivan III's reign was marked by the release of gold coins, on which the names of Grand Duke Ivan III and his son Ivan the Young, heir to the throne, were minted.

The first wife of Ivan III died early, and the Grand Duke entered into a second marriage with the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, Zoya (Sophia) Palaeologus. Their wedding took place in Moscow on November 12, 1472. She immediately became involved in political activity, actively helping her husband. Under Sophia, he became more severe and cruel, demanding and power-hungry, demanded complete obedience and punished for disobedience, for which Ivan III first of the kings was called Terrible.

In 1490, Ivan III's son from his first marriage, Ivan the Young, unexpectedly died. He left behind a son, Dmitry. The Grand Duke was faced with the question of who should inherit the throne: his son Vasily from Sophia or his grandson Dmitry.

Soon a conspiracy against Dmitry was discovered, the organizers of which were executed, and Vasily was taken into custody. On February 4, 1498, Ivan III crowned his grandson as king. This was the first coronation in Rus'.

In January 1499, a conspiracy against Sophia and Vasily was revealed. Ivan III lost interest in his grandson and made peace with his wife and son. In 1502, the Tsar put Dmitry into disgrace, and Vasily was declared Grand Duke of All Rus'.

The great sovereign decided to marry Vasily to Danish princess, But Danish king declined the offer. Fearing that he would not have time to find a foreign bride before his death, Ivan III chose Solomonia, the daughter of an insignificant Russian dignitary. The marriage took place on September 4, 1505, and on October 27 of the same year, Ivan III the Great died.

Domestic policy of Ivan III

The cherished goal of Ivan III’s activities was to gather lands around Moscow, to put an end to the remnants of specific disunity for the sake of creating a single state. The wife of Ivan III, Sophia Paleologue, strongly supported her husband’s desire to expand the Moscow state and strengthen autocratic power.

For a century and a half, Moscow extorted tribute from Novgorod, took away lands and almost brought the Novgorodians to their knees, for which they hated Moscow. Realizing that Ivan III Vasilyevich finally wanted to subjugate the Novgorodians, they freed themselves from the oath to the Grand Duke and formed a society for the salvation of Novgorod, headed by Marfa Boretskaya, the widow of the mayor.

Novgorod entered into an agreement with Casimir, the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, according to which Novgorod comes under his supreme authority, but at the same time retains some independence and the right to the Orthodox faith, and Casimir undertakes to protect Novgorod from the encroachments of the Moscow prince.

Twice Ivan III Vasilyevich sent ambassadors to Novgorod with good wishes to come to his senses and enter the lands of Moscow, the Metropolitan of Moscow tried to convince the Novgorodians to “correct”, but all in vain. I had to Ivan III make a campaign against Novgorod (1471), as a result of which the Novgorodians were defeated first on the Ilmen River, and then Shelon, but Casimir did not come to the rescue.

In 1477, Ivan III Vasilyevich demanded that Novgorod fully recognize him as its master, which caused a new rebellion, which was suppressed. On January 13, 1478, Veliky Novgorod completely submitted to the authority of the Moscow sovereign. In order to finally pacify Novgorod, Ivan III in 1479 replaced the Novgorod Archbishop Theophilos, resettled the unreliable Novgorodians to Moscow lands, and settled Muscovites and other residents on their lands.

With the help of diplomacy and force, Ivan III Vasilyevich subjugated other appanage principalities: Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), Tver (1485), Vyatka lands (1489). Ivan married his sister Anna to the Ryazan prince, thereby securing the right to interfere in the affairs of Ryazan, and later acquired the city by inheritance from his nephews.

Ivan acted inhumanely with his brothers, taking away their inheritance and depriving them of the right to any participation in state affairs. So, Andrei Bolshoi and his sons were arrested and imprisoned.

Foreign policy of Ivan III.

During the reign of Ivan III in 1502, the Golden Horde ceased to exist.

Moscow and Lithuania often fought over Russian lands located under Lithuania and Poland. As the power of the Great Sovereign of Moscow strengthened, more and more Russian princes and their lands moved from Lithuania to Moscow.

After Casimir's death, Lithuania and Poland were again divided between his sons, Alexander and Albrecht, respectively. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander married the daughter of Ivan III Elena. Relations between son-in-law and father-in-law deteriorated, and in 1500 Ivan III declared war on Lithuania, which was successful for Rus': parts of the Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky and Chernigov principalities were conquered. In 1503, a truce agreement was signed for 6 years. Ivan III Vasilyevich rejected the proposal for eternal peace until Smolensk and Kyiv were returned.

As a result of the war of 1501-1503. the great sovereign of Moscow forced the Livonian Order to pay tribute (for the city of Yuryev).

During his reign, Ivan III Vasilyevich made several attempts to subjugate the Kazan kingdom. In 1470, Moscow and Kazan made peace, and in 1487, Ivan III took Kazan and enthroned Khan Makhmet-Amen, who had been a faithful novice of the Moscow prince for 17 years.

Reforms of Ivan III

Under Ivan III, the title of “Grand Duke of All Rus'” began to be formalized, and in some documents he calls himself Tsar.

For internal order in the country, Ivan III in 1497 developed a Code of Civil Laws (Code). The chief judge was the Grand Duke, the highest institution was the Boyar Duma. Mandatory and local management systems appeared.

The adoption of the Code of Laws of Ivan III became a prerequisite for the establishment of serfdom in Rus'. The law limited the output of peasants and gave them the right to transfer from one owner to another once a year (St. George's Day).

Results of the reign of Ivan III

Under Ivan III, the territory of Rus' expanded significantly, Moscow became the center of the Russian centralized state.

The era of Ivan III was marked by the final liberation of Rus' from the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

During the reign of Ivan III, the Assumption and Annunciation Cathedrals, the Faceted Chamber, and the Church of the Deposition of the Robe were built.