Rus' after the Mongol Tatar yoke. How did the Tatar-Mongol yoke end?

In Russian sources, the phrase “Tatar yoke” first appears in the 1660s in an insertion (interpolation) in one of the copies of the Legend of the Massacre of Mamaev. The form “Mongol-Tatar yoke”, as a more correct one, was first used in 1817 by Christian Kruse, whose book was translated into Russian in the middle of the 19th century and published in St. Petersburg.

The Tatar tribe, according to the Secret Legend, was one of the most powerful enemies of Genghis Khan. After the victory over the Tatars, Genghis Khan ordered the destruction of the entire Tatar tribe. An exception was made only for young children. Nevertheless, the name of the tribe, being widely known outside Mongolia, passed on to the Mongols themselves.

Geography and content The Mongol-Tatar yoke, the Horde yoke - a system of political and tributary dependence of the Russian principalities on the Mongol-Tatar khans (before the early 60s of the 13th century, the Mongol khans, after the khans of the Golden Horde) in the 13th-15th centuries. The establishment of the yoke became possible as a result of the Mongol invasion of Rus' in 1237-1242; the yoke was established for two decades after the invasion, including in unravaged lands. In North-Eastern Rus' it lasted until 1480. In other Russian lands it was eliminated in the 14th century as they were annexed to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland.

Standing on the Ugra River

Etymology

The term “yoke,” meaning the power of the Golden Horde over Russia, does not appear in Russian chronicles. It appeared at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries in Polish historical literature. The first to use it were the chronicler Jan Dlugosz (“iugum barbarum”, “iugum servitutis”) in 1479 and the professor at the University of Krakow Matvey Miechowski in 1517. In 1575, the term “jugo Tartarico” was used in Daniel Prince’s record of his diplomatic mission to Moscow.

Russian lands retained local princely rule. In 1243, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was summoned to the Horde to Batu, recognized as “the oldest prince in the Russian language” and confirmed in the Vladimir and, apparently, Kiev principalities (at the end of 1245, Yaroslav’s governor Dmitry Eykovich was mentioned in Kiev), although the visits to Batu of the other two of the three most influential Russian princes - Mikhail Vsevolodovich, who at that time owned Kiev, and his patron (after the destruction of the Chernigov principality by the Mongols in 1239) Daniil Galitsky - date back to a later time. This act was a recognition of political dependence on the Golden Horde. The establishment of tributary dependence occurred later.

Yaroslav's son Konstantin went to Karakorum to confirm his father's powers as the Great Khan, after his return Yaroslav himself went there. This example of the khan's sanction to expand the domain of a loyal prince was not the only one. Moreover, this expansion could occur not only at the expense of the possessions of another prince, but also at the expense of territories that were not devastated during the invasion (in the second half of the 50s of the 13th century Alexander Nevskiy established his influence in Novgorod, threatening it with Horde ruin). On the other hand, in order to incline the princes to loyalty, they could be presented with unacceptable territorial demands, like Daniil of Galitsky, the “Mighty Khan” of the Russian chronicles (Plano Carpini names “Mauzi” among the four key figures in the Horde, localizing his nomads on the left bank of the Dnieper): “Dai Galich." And in order to completely preserve his patrimony, Daniel went to Batu and “called himself a slave.”

The territorial delimitation of the influence of the Galician and Vladimir grand dukes, as well as the Sarai khans and the Nogai temnik during the existence of a separate ulus can be judged from the following data. Kiev, unlike the lands of the Galicia-Volyn principality, was not liberated by Daniil Galitsky from the Horde Baskaks in the first half of the 1250s, and continued to be controlled by them and, possibly, by the Vladimir governors (the Horde administration retained its positions in Kyiv even after the Kyiv nobility brought oath to Gediminas in 1324). The Ipatiev Chronicle under the year 1276 reports that the Smolensk and Bryansk princes were sent to help Lev Danilovich Galitsky by the Sarai Khan, and the Turov-Pinsk princes went with the Galicians as allies. Also, the Bryansk prince participated in the defense of Kyiv from the troops of Gediminas. Posemye, bordering the steppe (see the presence of Baskak Nogai in Kursk in the early 80s of the 13th century), located south of the Bryansk principality, apparently shared the fate of the Pereyaslav principality, which immediately after the invasion found itself under the direct control of the Horde (in this case, the “Danube” ulus" Nogai, whose eastern borders reached the Don), and in the 14th century Putivl and Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny became Kyiv "suburbs".

The khans issued labels to the princes, which were signs of the khan’s support for the prince’s occupation of a particular table. Labels were issued and were of decisive importance in the distribution of princely tables in North-Eastern Rus' (but even there, during the second third of the 14th century, it almost completely disappeared, as did the regular trips of north-eastern Russian princes to the Horde and their murders there). The rulers of the Horde in Rus' were called “tsars” - the highest title, which was previously applied only to the emperors of Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire. Another important element of the yoke was the tributary dependence of the Russian principalities. There is information about a population census in the Kyiv and Chernigov lands no later than 1246. “They want tribute” was also heard during Daniil Galitsky’s visit to Batu. In the early 50s of the 13th century, the presence of Baskaks in the cities of Ponizia, Volyn and Kiev region and their expulsion by Galician troops was noted. Tatishchev, Vasily Nikitich in his “Russian History” mentions as the reason for the Horde campaign against Andrei Yaroslavich in 1252 the fact that he did not pay the exit and tamga in full. As a result of Nevryuy’s successful campaign, the reign of Vladimir was taken over by Alexander Nevsky, with whose assistance in 1257 (in the Novgorod land - in 1259), Mongol “numerals” under the leadership of Kitat, a relative of the Great Khan, carried out a census, after which the regular exploitation of the lands of the Great Vladimir began reign by collecting tribute. In the late 50s and early 60s of the 13th century, tribute was collected from the northeastern Russian principalities by Muslim merchants - “besermen”, who bought this right from the great Mongol Khan. Most of the tribute went to Mongolia, to the Great Khan. As a result of popular uprisings in 1262 in the northeastern Russian cities, the “besermans” were expelled, which coincided with the final separation of the Golden Horde from the Mongol Empire. In 1266, the head of the Golden Horde was named khan for the first time. And if most researchers consider Rus' to be conquered by the Mongols during the invasion, then the Russian principalities, as a rule, are no longer considered as components of the Golden Horde. This detail of Daniil Galitsky’s visit to Batu, as “on his knee” (see homage), as well as the obligation of the Russian princes, on the orders of the khan, to send soldiers to participate in campaigns and in round-up hunts (“lovitva”), underlies the classification of Russian dependence principalities from the Golden Horde as a vassal. There was no permanent Mongol-Tatar army on the territory of the Russian principalities.

The units of taxation were: in cities - the yard, in rural areas - the farm (“village”, “plow”, “plough”). In the 13th century, the output amount was half a hryvnia per plow. Only the clergy, which the conquerors tried to use to strengthen their power, were exempt from tribute. There are 14 known types of “Horde burdens”, of which the main ones were: “exit”, or “tsar’s tribute”, a tax directly for the Mongol khan; trade fees (“myt”, “tamga”); carriage duties (“pits”, “carts”); maintenance of the khan's ambassadors (“food”); various “gifts” and “honors” to the khan, his relatives and associates, etc. Large “requests” for military and other needs were periodically collected.

After the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke throughout all of Rus', payments from Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the Crimean Khanate remained until 1685, in the Russian documentation “Wake” (tesh, tysh). They were canceled only by Peter I under the Treaty of Constantinople (1700) with the wording:

...And since the Moscow State is an autocratic and free State, a dacha, which to this day has been given to the Crimean Khans and Crimean Tatars, either past or now, henceforth shall not be given from His sacred Tsar's Majesty of Moscow, nor from his heirs: but and the Crimean Khans and Crimeans and other Tatar peoples will henceforth not give a petition for any other reason, or as a cover, let them do anything contrary to the world, but let them maintain peace.

Unlike Russia, the Mongol-Tatar feudal lords in Western Russian lands did not have to change their faith and could own land with peasants. In 1840, Emperor Nicholas I, by decree, confirmed the right of Muslims to own Christian serfs in that part of his empire that was annexed as a result of the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Igo in Southern Rus'

Since 1258 (according to the Ipatiev Chronicle - 1260), the practice of joint Galician-Horde campaigns against Lithuania, Poland and Hungary began, including those initiated by the Golden Horde and the temnik Nogai (during the existence of a separate ulus). In 1259 (according to the Ipatiev Chronicle - 1261), the Mongol military leader Burundai forced the Romanovichs to tear down the fortifications of several Volyn cities.

The winter of 1274/1275 dates back to the campaign of the Galician-Volyn princes, the troops of Mengu-Timur, as well as the Smolensk and Bryansk princes dependent on him against Lithuania (at the request of Lev Danilovich Galitsky). Novgorod was taken by Lev and the Horde even before the allies arrived, so the plan for a campaign deep into Lithuania was frustrated. In 1277, the Galician-Volyn princes, together with Nogai’s troops, invaded Lithuania (at Nogai’s suggestion). The Horde ravaged the outskirts of Novgorod, and Russian troops failed to take Volkovysk. In the winter of 1280/1281, Galician troops, together with the troops of Nogai (at the request of Leo), besieged Sandomierz, but suffered a partial defeat. Almost immediately there was a retaliatory Polish campaign and the capture of the Galician city of Pereveresk. In 1282, Nogai and Tula-Buga ordered the Galician-Volyn princes to go with them against the Hungarians. The troops of the Volga horde got lost in the Carpathians and suffered serious losses from hunger. Taking advantage of Leo's absence, the Poles again invaded Galicia. In 1283, Tula-Buga ordered the Galician-Volyn princes to go with him to Poland, while the outskirts of the capital of the Volyn land were seriously damaged by the Horde army. Tula-Buga went to Sandomierz, wanted to go to Krakow, but Nogai had already gone there through Przemysl. Tula-Buga's troops were stationed in the vicinity of Lvov, which suffered seriously as a result of this. In 1287, Tula-Buga, together with Alguy and the Galician-Volyn princes, invaded Poland.

The principality paid an annual tribute to the Horde, but information on the population census available for other regions of Rus' is not available for the Galicia-Volyn principality. It lacked the institution of Baskaism. The princes were obliged to periodically send their troops to participate in joint campaigns with the Mongols. The Galicia-Volyn principality pursued an independent foreign policy, and none of the princes (kings) after Daniil of Galicia traveled to the Golden Horde.

The Galician-Volyn principality did not control the Ponizye in the second half of the 13th century, but then, taking advantage of the fall of the Nogai ulus, it restored its control over these lands, gaining access to the Black Sea. After the death of the last two princes from the Romanovich male line, which one version associates with the defeat of the Golden Horde in 1323, they were lost again.

Polissya was annexed by Lithuania at the beginning of the 14th century, Volyn (finally) as a result of the War of the Galician-Volynian Succession. Galicia was annexed by Poland in 1349.

The history of the Kyiv land in the first century after the invasion is very poorly known. As in North-Eastern Rus', the institution of Baskaks existed there and raids took place, the most destructive of which was noted at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries. Fleeing from Mongol violence, the Kiev Metropolitan moved to Vladimir. In the 1320s, the Kiev land became dependent on the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but the Khan's Baskaks continued to reside in it. As a result of Olgerd's victory over the Horde in the Battle of Blue Waters in 1362, the power of the Horde in the region was ended. The Chernigov land was subjected to severe fragmentation. On a short time The Bryansk principality became its center, but at the end of the 13th century it, presumably with the intervention of the Horde, lost its independence, becoming the possession of the Smolensk princes. The final assertion of Lithuanian sovereignty over the Smolensk and Bryansk lands occurred in the second half of the 14th century, however, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 70s of the 14th century resumed paying tribute from the southern Russian lands as part of an alliance with the Western Volga Horde.

Igo in North-Eastern Rus'

Boris Chorikov “Feud of Russian princes in the Golden Horde over the label for the great reign”

After the Horde army overthrew Andrei Yaroslavich, who refused to serve Batu, from the Vladimir grand-ducal throne in 1252, Prince Oleg Ingvarevich the Red was released from 14 years of captivity in Ryazan, apparently under the condition of complete submission to the Mongol authorities and assistance in their policies. Under him, the Horde census took place in the Ryazan principality in 1257.

In 1274, Khan of the Golden Horde Mengu-Timur sent troops to help Leo of Galicia against Lithuania. The Horde army marched west through the Smolensk principality, with which historians attribute the spread of Horde power to it. In 1275, simultaneously with the second census in North-Eastern Rus', the first census was carried out in the Smolensk principality.

After the death of Alexander Nevsky and the division of the core of the principality, there was a fierce struggle between his sons in Rus' for the great reign of Vladimir, including that fueled by the Sarai khans and Nogai. Only in the 70-90s of the 13th century they organized 14 campaigns. Some of them were in the nature of the devastation of the south-eastern outskirts (Mordva, Murom, Ryazan), some were carried out in support of the Vladimir princes on the Novgorod “suburbs”, but the most destructive were the campaigns, the purpose of which was to forcefully replace the princes on the grand princely throne. Dmitry Alexandrovich was first overthrown as a result of two campaigns by the troops of the Volga Horde, then he returned Vladimir with the help of Nogai and was even able to inflict the first defeat on the Horde in the northeast in 1285, but in 1293, first he, and in 1300 Nogai himself, was overthrown Tokhta (the Principality of Kiev was devastated, Nogai fell at the hands of a Russian warrior), who had previously taken the Sarai throne with the help of Nogai. In 1277, Russian princes took part in the Horde campaign against the Alans in the North Caucasus.

Immediately after the unification of the western and eastern uluses, the Horde returned to the all-Russian scale of its policy. In the first years of the 14th century, the Principality of Moscow repeatedly expanded its territory at the expense of neighboring principalities, laid claim to Novgorod and was supported by Metropolitan Peter and the Horde. Despite this, the label was owned mainly by the princes of Tver (in the period from 1304 to 1327 for a total of 20 years). During this period, they managed to establish their governors in Novgorod by force, defeat the Tatars in the Battle of Bortenev, and kill the Moscow prince at the khan's headquarters. But the policy of the Tver princes failed when Tver was defeated by the Horde in alliance with the Muscovites and Suzdalians in 1328. At the same time, this was the last forceful replacement of the Grand Duke by the Horde. Having received the label Ivan I Kalita in 1332, the prince of Moscow, which grew stronger against the backdrop of Tver and the Horde, won the right to collect “exit” from all the northeastern Russian principalities and Novgorod (in the 14th century, the amount of output was equal to a ruble from two dry land. “Moscow Exit” "was 5-7 thousand rubles in silver, "Novgorod exit" - 1.5 thousand rubles). At the same time, the era of Baskaism ended, which is usually explained by repeated “veche” performances in Russian cities (in Rostov - 1289 and 1320, in Tver - 1293 and 1327).

The chronicler’s testimony “and there was great silence for 40 years” (from the defeat of Tver in 1328 to Olgerd’s first campaign against Moscow in 1368) became widely known. Indeed, the Horde troops did not act during this period against the holders of the label, but repeatedly invaded the territory of other Russian principalities: in 1333, together with the Muscovites, into the Novgorod land, which refused to pay an increased tribute, in 1334, together with Dmitry Bryansky, against Ivan Alexandrovich of Smolensky, in 1340, led by Tovlubiy - again against Ivan of Smolensky, who entered into an alliance with Gediminas and refused to pay tribute to the Horde, in 1342 with Yaroslav-Dmitry Alexandrovich Pronsky against Ivan Ivanovich Korotopol.

From the middle of the 14th century, the orders of the khans of the Golden Horde, not supported by real military force, the Russian princes were no longer fulfilled, since the “great turmoil” began in the Horde - a frequent change of khans who fought with each other for power and ruled at the same time in different parts Hordes. Its western part came under the control of the temnik Mamai, who ruled on behalf of the puppet khans. It was he who laid claim to supremacy over Russia. Under these conditions, the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-1389) did not obey the khan's labels issued to his rivals, and seized the Grand Duchy of Vladimir by force. In 1378 he defeated the punitive Horde army on the river. Vozhe (in Ryazan land), and in 1380 he won the Battle of Kulikovo over the army of Mamai. Although after the accession of Mamai's rival and legitimate khan Tokhtamysh to the Horde, Moscow was devastated by the Horde in 1382, Dmitry Donskoy was forced to agree to an increased tribute (1384) and leave his eldest son Vasily in the Horde as a hostage, he retained the great reign and for the first time was able to transfer it to his son without the khan's label, as “his fatherland” (1389). After the defeat of Tokhtamysh by Timur in 1391-1396, the payment of tribute stopped until the invasion of Edigei (1408), but he failed to take Moscow (in particular, the Tver prince Ivan Mikhailovich did not fulfill Edigei’s order to “be on Moscow” with artillery).

In the middle of the 15th century, Mongol troops carried out several devastating military campaigns (1439, 1445, 1448, 1450, 1451, 1455, 1459), achieved private successes (after the defeat in 1445, Vasily the Dark was captured by the Mongols, paid a large ransom and gave some Russian cities to feed them, which became one of the points of accusation against him by other princes who captured and blinded Vasily), but they were no longer able to restore their power over the Russian lands. The Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III in 1476 refused to pay tribute to the khan. After the unsuccessful campaign of the Great Horde Khan Akhmat and the so-called “Standing on the Ugra” in 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was completely eliminated. The acquisition of political independence from the Horde, along with the spread of Moscow's influence over the Kazan Khanate (1487), played a role in the subsequent transition of part of the lands under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to the rule of Moscow.

In 1502, Ivan III, for diplomatic reasons, recognized himself as the slave of the Khan of the Great Horde, but in the same year the troops of the Great Horde were defeated by the Crimean Khanate. Only under the treaty of 1518 were the positions of darug of the Moscow prince of the Great Horde finally abolished, which at that time actually ceased to exist.

But there will be no daragas and other daraz duties...

Military victories over the Mongol-Tatars

During the Mongol invasion of Rus' in 1238, the Mongols did not reach 200 km to Novgorod and passed 30 km east of Smolensk. Of the cities that were on the way of the Mongols, only Kremenets and Kholm were not taken in the winter of 1240/1241.

The first field victory of Rus' over the Mongols occurred during Kuremsa's first campaign against Volyn (1254, according to GVL dating 1255), when he unsuccessfully besieged Kremenets. The Mongol vanguard approached Vladimir Volynsky, but retreated after the battle near the city walls. During the siege of Kremenets, the Mongols refused to help Prince Izyaslav take possession of Galich, he did it on his own, but was soon defeated by an army led by Roman Danilovich, when sending whom Daniil said “if there are Tatars themselves, let horror not come to your heart.” During Kuremsa’s second campaign against Volyn, which ended in the unsuccessful siege of Lutsk (1255, according to the GVL dating 1259), Vasilko Volynsky’s squad was sent against the Tatar-Mongols with the order to “beat the Tatars and take them prisoner.” For actually losing the military campaign against Prince Danila Romanovich, Kuremsa was removed from command of the army and replaced by Temnik Burundai, who forced Danila to destroy the border fortresses. Nevertheless, Burundai failed to restore the power of the Horde over Galician and Volyn Rus, and after that none of the Galician-Volyn princes went to the Horde to obtain labels to reign.

In 1285, the Horde, led by Tsarevich Eltorai, ravaged the Mordovian lands, Murom, Ryazan and headed to the Vladimir principality along with the army of Andrei Alexandrovich, who laid claim to the grand-ducal throne. Dmitry Alexandrovich gathered an army and marched against them. Further, the chronicle reports that Dmitry captured some of Andrei’s boyars and “drove the prince away.”

“In historical literature, the opinion has been established that the Russians won their first victory in a field battle over the Horde only in 1378 on the Vozha River. In reality, the victory “in the field” was snatched by the regiments of the senior “Alexandrovich” - Grand Duke Dmitry - almost a hundred years earlier. Traditional assessments sometimes turn out to be surprisingly tenacious for us.”

In 1301, the first Moscow prince Daniil Alexandrovich defeated the Horde near Pereyaslavl-Ryazan. The consequence of this campaign was the capture by Daniil of the Ryazan prince Konstantin Romanovich, who was subsequently killed in a Moscow prison by Daniil’s son Yuri, and the annexation of Kolomna to the Moscow principality, which marked the beginning of its territorial growth.

In 1317, Yuri Danilovich Moskovsky, together with the army of Kavgady, came from the Horde, but was defeated by Mikhail Tverskoy, the wife of Yuri Konchak (sister of the Khan of the Golden Horde, Uzbek) was captured and subsequently died, and Mikhail was killed in the Horde.

In 1362, a battle took place between the Russian-Lithuanian army of Olgerd and the united army of the khans of the Perekop, Crimean and Yambalutsk hordes. It ended in victory for the Russian-Lithuanian forces. As a result, Podolia was liberated, and subsequently the Kiev region.

In 1365 and 1367, the Battle of Pyana, won by the Suzdalians, took place respectively at the Shishevsky Forest, won by the Ryazan people.

The Battle of Vozha took place on August 11, 1378. Mamai's army under the command of Murza Begich headed for Moscow, was met by Dmitry Ivanovich on Ryazan soil and defeated.

The Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 took place, like the previous ones, during the period of the “great turmoil” in the Horde. Russian troops led by the prince of Vladimir and Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy defeated the troops of the temnik beklyarbek Mamai, which led to a new consolidation of the Horde under the rule of Tokhtamysh and the restoration of dependence on the Horde of the lands of the great reign of Vladimir. In 1848, a monument was erected on Red Hill, where Mamai had his headquarters.

And only 100 years later, after the unsuccessful raid of the last khan of the Great Horde, Akhmat, and the so-called “Standing on the Ugra” in 1480, the Moscow prince managed to leave the subordination of the Great Horde, remaining only a tributary of the Crimean Khanate.

The meaning of the yoke in the history of Rus'

Currently, scientists do not have a common opinion about the role of the yoke in the history of Rus'. Most researchers believe that its results for the Russian lands were destruction and decline. Apologists of this point of view emphasize that the yoke threw the Russian principalities back in their development and became the main reason for Russia's lag behind Western countries. Soviet historians noted that the yoke was a brake on the growth of the productive forces of Rus', which were at a higher socio-economic level compared to productive forces Mongol-Tatars, preserved for for a long time subsistence nature of the economy.

These researchers (for example, the Soviet academician B. A. Rybakov) note in Rus' during the yoke the decline of stone construction and the disappearance of complex crafts, such as the production of glass jewelry, cloisonne enamel, niello, granulation, and polychrome glazed ceramics. “Rus was thrown back several centuries, and in those centuries, when the guild industry of the West was moving to the era of primitive accumulation, the Russian handicraft industry had to go through again part of the historical path that had been made before Batu” (Rybakov B.A. “Craft” Ancient Rus'", 1948, pp. 525-533; 780-781).

Dr. History Sciences B.V. Sapunov noted: “The Tatars destroyed about a third of the entire population of Ancient Rus'. Considering that about 6-8 million people lived in Rus' at that time, at least two - two and a half were killed. Foreigners passing through the southern regions of the country wrote that Rus' had practically been turned into a dead desert, and such a state no longer existed on the map of Europe.”

Other researchers, in particular, the outstanding Russian historian Academician N.M. Karamzin, believe that Tatar-Mongol yoke played a vital role in the evolution of Russian statehood. In addition, he also pointed to the Horde as the obvious reason for the rise of the Moscow principality. Following him, another prominent Russian scientist-historian, academician, professor of Moscow State University V. O. Klyuchevsky also believed that the Horde prevented debilitating, fratricidal internecine wars in Rus'. “The Mongol yoke, in extreme distress for the Russian people, was a harsh school in which Moscow statehood and Russian autocracy were forged: a school in which the Russian nation recognized itself as such and acquired character traits that made it easier for it to subsequently struggle for existence.” Supporters of the ideology of Eurasianism (G.V. Vernadsky, P.N. Savitsky and others), without denying the extreme cruelty of Mongol rule, rethought its consequences in a positive way. They highly valued the religious tolerance of the Mongols, contrasting it with the Catholic aggression of the West. Mongol Empire they viewed it as the geopolitical predecessor of the Russian Empire.

Later, similar views, only in a more radical version, were developed by L. N. Gumilyov. In his opinion, the decline of Rus' began earlier and was associated with internal reasons, and the interaction of the Horde and Rus' was beneficial military-political union, first of all, for Rus'. He believed that the relationship between Rus' and the Horde should be called “symbiosis.” What a yoke when “Great Russia... voluntarily united with the Horde thanks to the efforts of Alexander Nevsky, who became Batu’s adopted son.” What kind of yoke can there be if, according to L.N. Gumilyov, on the basis of this voluntary association an ethnic symbiosis of Rus' with the peoples arose Great Steppe- from the Volga to Pacific Ocean and it was from this symbiosis that the Great Russian ethnic group was born: “a mixture of Slavs, Finno-Ugric, Alans and Turks merged into the Great Russian nationality”? The inauthenticity that reigned in the Soviet national history, about the existence of “Tatar- Mongol yoke"L. N. Gumilyov called it a “black legend.” Before the arrival of the Mongols, numerous Russian principalities of Varangian origin, located in the river basins flowing into the Baltic and Black Sea, and only in theory recognized the power over themselves of the Grand Duke of Kyiv, in fact they did not constitute one state, and the name of a single Russian people was not applicable to the tribes of Slavic origin that inhabited them. Under the influence of Mongol rule, these principalities and tribes were merged together, first forming the Muscovite kingdom, and subsequently Russian Empire. The organization of Russia, which was the result of the Mongol yoke, was undertaken by the Asian conquerors, of course, not for the benefit of the Russian people and not for the sake of the exaltation of the Moscow Grand Duchy, but in view of their own interests, namely for the convenience of governing the conquered vast country. They could not allow the abundance of small rulers in it, living at the expense of the people and the chaos of their endless strife, which undermined the economic well-being of their subjects and deprived the country of security of communications, and therefore naturally encouraged the formation of a strong power of the Moscow Grand Duke, which could keep and gradually absorb the appanage principalities. This principle of creating autocracy, in fairness, seemed to them more appropriate for this case than the Chinese rule, well known to them and tested on themselves: “divide and conquer.” Thus, the Mongols began to gather, to organize Rus', like their own state, for the sake of establishing order, legality and prosperity in the country.

In 2013, it became known that the yoke would be included in a single textbook on the history of Russia in Russia under the name “Horde yoke.”

List of Mongol-Tatar campaigns against Russian principalities after the invasion

1242: invasion of the Galician-Volyn principality.

1252: “Nevryuev’s army”, Kuremsa’s campaign in Ponizye.

1254: Kuremsa’s unsuccessful campaign near Kremenets.

1258-1260: two invasions of Burundai into the Galicia-Volyn principality, forcing local princes to participate in campaigns against Lithuania and Poland, respectively, and scatter several fortresses.

1273: two Mongol attacks on Novgorod lands. The ruin of Vologda and Bezhitsa.

1274: first destruction of the Smolensk principality on the way to Lithuania.

1275: defeat of the south-eastern outskirts of Rus' on the way from Lithuania, destruction of Kursk.

1281-1282: two devastations of North-Eastern Rus' by the troops of the Volga Horde during the struggle for power between the sons of Alexander Nevsky.

1283: devastation of the Vorgol, Ryl and Lipovech principalities, Kursk and Vorgol were taken by the Mongols.

1285: the army of Eltorai, Temirev’s son, devastated the Mordovian, Ryazan and Murom lands.

1287: raid on Vladimir.

1288: raid on Ryazan.

1293: Dudenev's army.

1307: campaign against the Ryazan principality.

1310: campaign against the Bryansk Principality and the Karachev Principality in support of Vasily Alexandrovich.

1315: destruction of Torzhok (Novgorod land) and Rostov.

1317: sack of Kostroma, Battle of Bortenevskaya.

1319: campaign against Kostroma and Rostov.

1320: raid on Rostov and Vladimir.

1321: raid on Kashin.

1322: destruction of Yaroslavl.

1328: Fedorchuk’s army.

1333: campaign of the Mongol-Tatars with Muscovites on the Novgorod land.

1334, 1340: campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars with Muscovites against the Smolensk principality.

1342: Mongol-Tatar intervention in the Ryazan principality.

1347: raid on Alexin.

1358, 1365, 1370, 1373: campaigns against the Ryazan principality. Battle of Shishevsky Forest.

1367: raid on the Nizhny Novgorod principality, Battle of Pian (1367).

1375: raid on the southeastern outskirts of the Nizhny Novgorod principality.

1375: raid on Kashin.

1377 and 1378: raids on the Nizhny Novgorod principality, Battle of Pyan (1377), campaign in the Ryazan principality.

1378: Begich's campaign against Moscow. Battle on the Vozha River.

1379: Mamai’s campaign against Ryazan.

1380: Mamai’s campaign against Moscow. Battle of Kulikovo.

1382: Invasion of Tokhtamysh, Moscow burned.

1391: campaign against Vyatka.

1395: destruction of Yelets by Tamerlane's troops.

1399: raid on the Nizhny Novgorod principality.

1408: Invasion of Edigei.

1410: ruin of Vladimir.

1429: Mongol-Tatars ravage the outskirts of Galich Kostroma, Kostroma, Lukh, Pleso.

1439: Mongol-Tatars ravage the outskirts of Moscow and Kolomna.

1443: Tatars ravage the outskirts of Ryazan, but are repelled from the city.

1445: Ulu-Muhammad's troops raided Nizhny Novgorod and Suzdal.

1449: destruction of the southern outskirts of the Moscow principality.

1451: devastation of the outskirts of Moscow by Khan Mazovsha.

1455 and 1459: devastation of the southern outskirts of the Moscow principality.

1468: devastation of the outskirts of Galich.

1472: sack of Aleksin by Akhmat's army.

List of Russian princes who visited the Horde

Chronological and personal list of Russian princes who visited the Horde from 1242 to 1430.

1243 - Yaroslav Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky, Konstantin Yaroslavich (to Karakorum).

1244-1245 - Vladimir Konstantinovich Uglitsky, Boris Vasilkovich Rostovsky, Gleb Vasilkovich Belozersky, Vasily Vsevolodovich, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich Suzdalsky, Ivan Vsevolodovich Starodubsky.

1245-1246 - Daniil Galitsky.

1246 - Mikhail Chernigovsky (killed in the Horde).

1246 - Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (to Karakorum for the enthronement of Guyuk) (poisoned).

1247-1249 - Andrei Yaroslavich, Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky to the Golden Horde, from there to Karakorum (inheritance).

1252 - Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky.

1256 - Boris Vasilkovich of Rostov, Alexander Nevsky.

1257 - Alexander Nevsky, Boris Vasilkovich Rostovsky, Yaroslav Yaroslavich Tverskoy, Gleb Vasilkovich Belozersky (enthronement of Berke).

1258 - Andrey Yaroslavich Suzdal.

1263 - Alexander Nevsky (died upon returning from the Horde) and his brother Yaroslav Yaroslavich Tverskoy, Vladimir Ryazansky, Ivan Starodubsky.

1268 - Gleb Vasilkovich Belozersky.

1270 - Roman Olgovich Ryazansky (killed in the Horde).

1271 - Yaroslav Yaroslavich Tverskoy, Vasily Yaroslavich Kostromskoy, Dmitry Alexandrovich Pereyaslavsky.

1274 - Vasily Yaroslavich of Kostroma.

1277-1278 - Boris Vasilkovich Rostovsky with his son Konstantin, Gleb Vasilkovich Belozersky with his sons, Mikhail and Fyodor Rostislavovich Yaroslavsky, Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.

1281 - Andrey Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.

1282 - Dmitry Alexandrovich Pereyaslavsky, Andrey Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.

1288 - Dmitry Borisovich Rostovsky, Konstantin Borisovich Uglitsky.

1292 - Alexander Dmitrievich, son of the Grand Duke of Vladimir.

1293 - Andrey Aleksandrovich Gorodetsky, Dmitry Borisovich Rostovsky, Konstantin Borisovich Uglitsky, Mikhail Glebovich Belozersky, Fyodor Rostislavovich Yaroslavsky, Ivan Dmitrievich Rostovsky, Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy.

1295 - Andrei Alexandrovich with his wife, Ivan Dmitrievich Pereyaslavsky.

1302 - Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich, Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tverskoy, Yuri Danilovich of Moscow and his younger brother.

1305 - Mikhail Andreevich Nizhny Novgorod.

1307 - Vasily Konstantinovich Ryazansky (killed in the Horde).

1309 - Vasily Bryansky.

1310 - son of Konstantin Borisovich Uglitsky.

1314 - Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy, Yuri Danilovich Moskovsky.

1317 - Yuri Danilovich Moskovsky, Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy and his son Konstantin.

1318 - Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy (killed in the Horde).

1320 - Ivan I Kalita, Yuri Alexandrovich, Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes of Tverskaya.

1322 - Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes, Yuri Danilovich.

1324 - Yuri Danilovich, Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes, Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Ivan I Kalita, Konstantin Mikhailovich.

1326 - Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes, Alexander Novosilsky (both killed in the Horde).

1327 - Ivan Yaroslavich Ryazansky (killed in the Horde).

1328 - Ivan I Kalita, Konstantin Mikhailovich Tverskoy.

1330 - Fyodor Ivanovich Starodubsky (killed in the Horde).

1331 - Ivan I Kalita, Konstantin Mikhailovich Tverskoy.

1333 - Boris Dmitrievich.

1334 - Fyodor Alexandrovich Tverskoy.

1335 - Ivan I Kalita, Alexander Mikhailovich.

1337 - The son of Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy Fyodor was sent as a hostage, Ivan I Kalita, Simeon Ivanovich Proud.

1338 - Vasily Dmitrievich Yaroslavsky, Roman Belozersky.

1339 - Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy, his son Fedor (killed in the Horde), Ivan Ivanovich Ryazansky (Korotopol) and his brothers Semyon Ivanovich, Andrei Ivanovich.

1342 - Simeon Ivanovich Proud, Yaroslav Alexandrovich Pronsky, Konstantin Vasilyevich Suzdalsky, Konstantin Tverskoy, Konstantin Rostovsky.

1344 - Ivan II the Red, Simeon Ivanovich Proud, Andrei Ivanovich.

1345 - Konstantin Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Vsevolod Aleksandrovich Kholmsky, Vasily Mikhailovich Kashinsky.

1347 - Simeon Ivanovich the Proud and Ivan II the Red.

1348 - Vsevolod Alexandrovich Kholmsky, Vasily Mikhailovich Kashinsky.

1350 - Simeon Ivanovich Proud, his brother Andrei Ivanovich of Moscow, Ivan and Konstantin of Suzdal.

1353 - Ivan II the Red, Konstantin Vasilyevich Suzdal.

1355 - Andrei Konstantinovich Suzdalsky, Ivan Fedorovich Starodubsky, Fyodor Glebovich and Yuri Yaroslavich (dispute about Murom), Vasily Alexandrovich Pronsky.

1357 - Vasily Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Vsevolod Alexandrovich Kholmsky.

1359 - Vasily Mikhailovich Tverskoy with his nephew, princes of Ryazan, princes of Rostov, Andrei Konstantinovich of Nizhny Novgorod.

1360 - Andrey Konstantinovich Nizhny Novgorod, Dmitry Konstantinovich Suzdal, Dmitry Borisovich Galitsky.

1361 - Dmitry Ivanovich (Donskoy), Dmitry Konstantinovich Suzdal and Andrei Konstantinovich Nizhny Novgorod, Konstantin Rostovsky, Mikhail Yaroslavsky.

1362 - Ivan Belozersky (principality taken away).

1364 - Vasily Kirdyapa, son of Dmitry of Suzdal.

1366 - Mikhail Alexandrovich Tverskoy.

1371 - Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (bought out the son of Mikhail Tverskoy).

1372 - Mikhail Vasilyevich Kashinsky.

1382 - Mikhail Alexandrovich Tverskoy with his son Alexander, Dmitry Konstantinovich Suzdalsky sent two sons - Vasily and Simeon - as hostages, Oleg Ivanovich Ryazansky (seeks an alliance with Tokhtamysh).

1385 - Vasily I Dmitrievich (hostage), Vasily Dmitrievich Kirdyapa, Rodoslav Olegovich Ryazansky were released home, Boris Konstantinovich Suzdal.

1390 - Simeon Dmitrievich and Vasily Dmitrievich of Suzdal, who had previously been held hostage in the Horde for seven years, were summoned again.

1393 - Simeon and Vasily Dmitrievich of Suzdal were again summoned to the Horde.

1402 - Simeon Dmitrievich Suzdalsky, Fyodor Olegovich Ryazansky.

1406 - Ivan Vladimirovich Pronsky, Ivan Mikhailovich Tverskoy.

1407 - Ivan Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Yuri Vsevolodovich.

1410 - Ivan Mikhailovich Tverskoy.

1412 - Vasily I Dmitrievich, Vasily Mikhailovich Kashinsky, Ivan Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Ivan Vasilyevich Yaroslavsky.

1430 - Vasily II the Dark, Yuri Dmitrievich.

Whatever one may say, history was, is, and also remains quite illusory and unreliable, and those facts that we are accustomed to taking at face value often turn out to be, upon closer examination, foggy and vague. Who exactly, and most importantly, why, is rewriting that very objective information is often simply impossible to identify, due to the lack of eyewitnesses who can either confirm or refute it. However, it is worth saying that there are inconsistencies, outright absurdity, as well as blunders that are striking and worth discussing in more detail, because among the huge amount of chaff, it is quite possible that the truth will be found. Moreover, in the history of our country there is also enough of such good things, for example, you can discuss the Tatar-Mongol yoke briefly, without wandering into the dark jungle of a flighty girl named Clio.

Official version: when the Mongol yoke was formed and who might need it

First of all, we need to find out what the official version of history, which we studied very successfully at school, says about the Mongol-Tatar yoke of 1237-1480. It is this version that is considered correct, so we must proceed from this. Fans of this version believe, based on available sources, that in early spring 1237, that is, at the very beginning of the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan unexpectedly appeared at the helm of nomadic tribes living communally and scattered at that time. In just a couple of years, this truly talented leader, and roughly speaking, a real, brilliant leader, gathered such a colossal army that he was immediately able to set out on his, which turned out to be actually victorious, campaign to the north-west.

Although no, everything was somewhat not so fast, because at first, a hastily cobbled together state, which previously consisted of completely disparate tribes and communities, conquered China, which was quite strong at that time, and at the same time its closest neighbors. Only after all this, the Golden Horde, like an endless sea, rushed towards us, jingling with spears and playing with long beards, riding on dashing horses, intending to impose the Tatar-Mongol yoke on Mother Rus', which is what we are talking about.

Tatar-Mongol yoke: start and end dates, according to the official version, dates and numbers

Horror, fear, horror gripped all of ancient Rus', from edge to edge, when millions of troops entered our lands. Burning everything in its path, killing and also maiming the population, leaving behind only ashes, the “Horde” walked across the steppes and plains, capturing ever larger territories, horrifying everyone who met them on the way.

Absolutely no one could prevent this incredible avalanche, fragrant with fat and soot, and our epic good fellows and heroes, apparently, were just lying on the stoves, ripening for their allotted thirty-three years. Having reached the Czech Republic and Poland itself, the victorious campaign, for completely unknown reasons, suddenly choked and stood rooted to the spot, and the Tatar-Mongol yoke stopped, splashed in place, like a real sea, establishing its own order, as well as a fairly harsh regime on the conquered people. amazing lightness of the territories.

It was then that the Russian princes received special letters, as well as labels from the khan for governance. That is, the country, in fact, simply continued to live its usual, everyday life. To make it clearer, it is worth saying that in Ancient Rus', a yoke was the name given to a yoke placed on powerful animals, oxen, pulling an unbearable burden, for example, a cart loaded with salt. True, the Mongols and Tatars, at times, apparently to further intimidate and prevent outrage against the regime, destroyed several small villages or towns.

The khan had to pay tribute regularly and very carefully, in order to avoid unnecessary conflicts, and the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus' went simply with a bang. Mongols are oriental people - quick-tempered and hot-tempered, why tempt fate? This went on for about three hundred years, until Dmitry Donskoy finally showed the handsome Horde, Khan Mamai, where these domestic crayfish spend the winter, which mortally frightened the invaders, who seemed completely fearless and invincible.

Around the same time, in the middle of the fourteenth century AD, on the Ugra River, Prince Ivan the Third and the Tatar Akhmat, having stood opposite each other for several days, for some reason simply separated without even entering into battle. Moreover, the Horde’s “staring contest” clearly lost. This time is considered the official end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. These events date back to approximately 1380.

The period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus': years and key dates

However, the invaders remained angry and rampant for several more decades, and the consequences for the country were simply catastrophic; the horde managed to quarrel the Russian princes, so much so that they were ready to tear each other’s throats for labels and petitions from the khan. At that time, the son of the notorious Genghis Khan, the elderly young man Batu, became the head of the Horde, and he surrendered his position to the enemy.

Thus, it turns out that the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which lasted about two to three hundred years, ended in nothing. Moreover, the official version of history also offers the dates of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, which are key. How long did the Tatar-Mongol yoke last in Rus'? Do the math for yourself, it’s not at all difficult, because specific numbers are given, and then – pure mathematics.

• The Mongol-Tatar yoke, which we briefly talk about, began in 1223, when a countless horde approached the borders of Rus'.
• Even the date of the first battle, which marked the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, is known : May 31 of the same year.
• Tatar-Mongol yoke: the date of the massive attack on Rus' is the winter of 1237.
• In the same year, the Mongol yoke in Rus', in short, reigned; Kolomna and Ryazan were captured, and after them the entire Palo-Ryazan principality.
• In the early spring of 1238, at the very beginning of March, the city of Vladimir was captured, which later became the center from which the Tatar-Mongols ruled, and Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich was killed.
• A year later, the horde also captured Chernigov.
• Kyiv fell in 1240, and this was a complete collapse for Rus' at that time.
• By 1241, the Principality of Galicia-Volyn was captured, after which the activity of the Horde clearly stopped.

However, the Tatar-Mongol yoke did not end there, and for another forty years the Russians paid tribute to the Horde khan, because official history says that it ended only in 1280. To get a clearer idea of ​​the events taking place, it is worth considering the map of the Tatar-Mongol yoke; everything there is quite transparent and simple, if you take everything on faith.

Tatar-Mongol yoke: historical fact or fiction

What do they say, so to speak, alternative sources, was there really a Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus', or was it specially invented for some specific purpose? Let's start with Genghis Khan himself, an extremely interesting and, one might even say, entertaining personality. Who was this “Comanche leader”, the most talented of all existing rulers, leaders and organizers, who probably surpassed Adolf Hitler himself? A mysterious phenomenon, but the Mongol by family and tribe, it turns out, was completely European in appearance! A Persian historian, a contemporary of the Mongol-Tatar campaigns, named Rashidad-Din, frankly writes in his chronicles:

“All the children from the clan of Genghis Khan were born with blond hair, and also gray eyes. The Great One himself had the yellow-green gaze of a wild puma.”

It turns out that he is not a Mongol at all, a great Mongol! For starters, there is also information, quite reliable: In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the invasion took place, the Mongolian and Tatar peoples simply did not have a written language! Therefore, they could not write down their own sources, purely physically. Well, they didn’t know how to write, and that’s all! It’s a pity, because their words would be useful to us in establishing the truth.

These peoples learned to write as many as five centuries later, that is, much later than the Tatar-Mongol yoke supposedly existed in Rus', and even that’s not all. If you thoroughly delve into the historical reports of other nations, then nothing is written about the black-eyed and black-haired invaders of vast territories, from China to the Czech Republic and Poland. The trail has been lost and it is impossible to find it.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus' lasted for a long time, but left no traces behind it

When Russian travelers, exploring more and more new lands, set their feet to the east, to the Urals and Siberia, then on their way they would certainly have encountered at least some traces of the presence of a once multimillion-strong army. After all, the Tatar-Mongols, according to legend, were supposed to “hold” these territories too. Moreover, no burials more or less reminiscent of Turkic ones were discovered. It turns out that no one has died in three hundred years? Cossack travelers did not even find a hint of cities or any kind of “decent” infrastructure for their time. But it was here that the very road along which tribute was brought from all over Rus' should have passed. A strange forgetfulness was observed among the people who occupied these lands for centuries - they knew neither in sleep nor in spirit about any yoke.

In addition to the complete “lack of presence,” as everyone’s favorite humorist Mikhail Zadornov would say, one can also note the elementary impossibility of existence, much less the victorious march of an army of half a million people in those ancient times! According to the same evidence on which official history is based, it turns out that each nomad had at least two horses at his disposal, and sometimes even three or four. It is difficult to imagine this herd of several million horses, and even more difficult to figure out how to feed such a host of hungry animals. In one day, these countless hordes of ungulates should have devoured all the greenery within a radius of several hundred kilometers and left behind a landscape most reminiscent of the consequences of a nuclear attack or a zombie invasion.

Perhaps, under the attack and rule of the Mongols, someone skillfully disguised something else, completely unrelated to the poor nomadic peoples? It is difficult to imagine that they, accustomed to life in a fairly warm steppe, felt calm in severe Russian frosts, but even the more persistent and hardy Germans could not withstand them, although they were equipped the latest technology and weapons. And the very fact of such a well-coordinated and clearly functioning control mechanism is quite strange to expect from nomads. The most interesting thing is that completely wild people were sometimes depicted in early paintings dressed in armor and chain mail, and during military operations they could easily roll out a battering ram to the city gates. These facts somehow do not fit at all with the idea of ​​the Tatar-Mongols of that time.

Such inconsistencies, large and small, can be found if you dig into more than one volume of scientific work. Who and why needed to falsify history, “fooling lies” on the poor Mongols and Tatars, who were not even aware of something like that? To be honest, we must admit that these peoples learned about their heroic past much later, and most likely, already from the words of Europeans. It's funny, isn't it? What did they want to hide from their descendants, placing responsibility for the destruction and years of unbearable tribute on Genghis Khan? So far, all this is just theory and guesswork, and it is not at all a fact that the objective truth will ever be clarified.

3 The emergence and development of the Old Russian state (IX - beginning of the 12th century). The emergence of the Old Russian state is traditionally associated with the unification of the Ilmen region and the Dnieper region as a result of the campaign against Kiev by the Novgorod prince Oleg in 882. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned in Kyiv, Oleg began to rule on behalf of the young son of Prince Rurik, Igor. The formation of the state was the result of long and complex processes that took place over vast areas of the East European Plain in the second half of the 1st millennium AD. By the 7th century East Slavic tribal unions settled in its vastness, the names and location of which are known to historians from the ancient Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” by the Monk Nestor (11th century). These are the glades (along the western bank of the Dnieper), the Drevlyans (to the northwest of them), the Ilmen Slovenes (along the banks of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River), the Krivichi (in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Volga and Western Dvina ), Vyatichi (along the banks of the Oka), northerners (along the Desna), etc. The northern neighbors of the eastern Slavs were the Finns, the western - the Balts, the southeastern - the Khazars. Trade routes were of great importance in their early history, one of which connected Scandinavia and Byzantium (the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” from the Gulf of Finland along the Neva, Lake Ladoga, Volkhov, Lake Ilmen to the Dnieper and the Black Sea), and the other connected the Volga regions with the Caspian Sea and Persia. Nestor cites the famous story about the calling of the Varangian (Scandinavian) princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor by the Ilmen Slovenes: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order in it: come reign and rule over us.” Rurik accepted the offer and in 862 he reigned in Novgorod (that is why the monument “Millennium of Russia” was erected in Novgorod in 1862). Many historians of the 18th-19th centuries. were inclined to understand these events as evidence that statehood was brought to Rus' from the outside and the Eastern Slavs were unable to create their own state on their own (Norman theory). Modern researchers recognize this theory as untenable. They pay attention to the following: - Nestor’s story proves that the Eastern Slavs by the middle of the 9th century. there were bodies that were the prototype of state institutions (prince, squad, meeting of tribal representatives - the future veche); - the Varangian origin of Rurik, as well as Oleg, Igor, Olga, Askold, Dir is indisputable, but the invitation of a foreigner as a ruler is an important indicator of the maturity of the prerequisites for the formation of a state. The tribal union is aware of its common interests and tries to resolve contradictions between individual tribes with the calling of a prince standing above local differences. The Varangian princes, surrounded by a strong and combat-ready squad, led and completed the processes leading to the formation of the state; - large tribal super-unions, which included several tribal unions, developed among the Eastern Slavs already in the 8th-9th centuries. - around Novgorod and around Kyiv; - in the formation of the Ancient Tehran state, external factors played an important role: threats coming from outside (Scandinavia, Khazar Kaganate) pushed for unity; - the Varangians, having given Rus' a ruling dynasty, quickly assimilated and merged with the local Slavic population; - as for the name “Rus”, its origin continues to cause controversy. Some historians associate it with Scandinavia, others find its roots in the East Slavic environment (from the Ros tribe, who lived along the Dnieper). Other opinions are also expressed on this matter. At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 11th century. The Old Russian state was going through a period of formation. The formation of its territory and composition was actively underway. Oleg (882-912) subjugated the tribes of the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi to Kyiv, Igor (912-945) successfully fought with the streets, Svyatoslav (964-972) - with the Vyatichi. During the reign of Prince Vladimir (980-1015), the Volynians and Croats were subjugated, and power over the Radimichi and Vyatichi was confirmed. In addition to the East Slavic tribes, the Old Russian state included Finno-Ugric peoples (Chud, Merya, Muroma, etc.). The degree of independence of the tribes from the Kyiv princes was quite high. For a long time, the only indicator of submission to the authorities of Kyiv was the payment of tribute. Until 945, it was carried out in the form of polyudya: the prince and his squad from November to April traveled around the territories under their control and collected tribute. The murder of Prince Igor in 945 by the Drevlyans, who tried to collect a second tribute that exceeded the traditional level, forced his wife Princess Olga to introduce lessons (the amount of tribute) and establish graveyards (places where tribute was to be taken). This was the first example known to historians of how the princely government approved new norms that were mandatory for ancient Russian society. Important functions of the Old Russian state, which it began to perform from the moment of its inception, were also protecting the territory from military raids (in the 9th - early 11th centuries these were mainly raids by the Khazars and Pechenegs) and pursuing an active foreign policy (campaigns against Byzantium in 907, 911, 944, 970, Russian-Byzantine treaties 911 and 944, the defeat of the Khazar Khaganate in 964-965, etc.). The period of formation of the Old Russian state ended with the reign of Prince Vladimir I the Holy, or Vladimir the Red Sun. Under him, Christianity was adopted from Byzantium (see ticket No. 3), a system of defensive fortresses was created on the southern borders of Rus', and the so-called ladder system of transfer of power was finally formed. The order of succession was determined by the principle of seniority in the princely family. Vladimir, having taken the throne of Kiev, placed his eldest sons in the largest Russian cities. The most important reign after Kyiv - Novgorod - was transferred to his eldest son. In the event of the death of the eldest son, his place was to be taken by the next in seniority, all other princes were moved to more important thrones. During the life of the Kyiv prince, this system worked flawlessly. After his death, as a rule, there followed a more or less long period of struggle by his sons for the reign of Kiev. The heyday of the Old Russian state occurred during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) and his sons. It includes the oldest part of the Russian Pravda - the first monument of written law that has come down to us (“Russian Law,” information about which dates back to Oleg’s reign, has not been preserved either in the original or in copies). Russian Truth regulated relations in the princely economy - the patrimony. Its analysis allows historians to talk about the existing system government controlled: the Kiev prince, like the local princes, is surrounded by a squad, the top of which are called boyars and with whom he consults on the most important issues (the Duma, the permanent council under the prince). From among the warriors, mayors are appointed to manage cities, governors, tributaries (collectors of land taxes), mytniki (collectors of trade duties), tiuns (administrators of princely estates), etc. Russian Pravda contains valuable information about ancient Russian society. It was based on the free rural and urban population (people). There were slaves (servants, serfs), farmers dependent on the prince (zakup, ryadovichi, smerds - historians do not have a common opinion about the situation of the latter). Yaroslav the Wise pursued an energetic dynastic policy, tying his sons and daughters by marriage with the ruling families of Hungary, Poland, France, Germany, etc. Yaroslav died in 1054, before 1074. his sons managed to coordinate their actions. At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. the power of the Kyiv princes weakened, individual principalities acquired increasing independence, the rulers of which tried to agree with each other on cooperation in the fight against the new - Polovtsian - threat. Tendencies towards the fragmentation of a single state intensified as its individual regions grew richer and stronger (for more details, see ticket No. 2). The last Kyiv prince who managed to stop the collapse of the Old Russian state was Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). After the death of the prince and the death of his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132), the fragmentation of Rus' became a fait accompli.

4 Mongol-Tatar yoke briefly

The Mongol-Tatar yoke is the period of the capture of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th-15th centuries. The Mongol-Tatar yoke lasted for 243 years.

The truth about the Mongol-Tatar yoke

The Russian princes at that time were in a state of hostility, so they could not give a worthy rebuff to the invaders. Despite the fact that the Cumans came to the rescue, the Tatar-Mongol army quickly seized the advantage.

The first direct clash between troops took place on the Kalka River, May 31, 1223 and was quickly lost. Even then it became clear that our army would not be able to defeat the Tatar-Mongols, but the enemy’s onslaught was held back for quite some time.

In the winter of 1237, a targeted invasion of the main Tatar-Mongol troops into the territory of Rus' began. This time the enemy army was commanded by the grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu. The army of nomads managed to move quite quickly into the interior of the country, plundering the principalities in turn and killing everyone who tried to resist as they went along.

Main dates of the capture of Rus' by the Tatar-Mongols

1223 The Tatar-Mongols approached the border of Rus';

Winter 1237. The beginning of a targeted invasion of Rus';

1237 Ryazan and Kolomna were captured. The Ryazan principality fell;

Autumn 1239. Chernigov captured. The Principality of Chernigov fell;

1240 Kyiv is captured. The Principality of Kiev fell;

1241 The Galician-Volyn principality fell;

1480 Overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

Reasons for the fall of Rus' under the onslaught of the Mongol-Tatars

absence single organization in the ranks of Russian soldiers;

numerical superiority of the enemy;

weakness of the command of the Russian army;

poorly organized mutual assistance on the part of disparate princes;

underestimation of enemy forces and numbers.

Features of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'

The establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke with new laws and orders began in Rus'.

Actual center political life became Vladimir, it was from there that the Tatar-Mongol khan exercised his control.

The essence of the management of the Tatar-Mongol yoke was that Khan awarded the label for reign at his own discretion and completely controlled all territories of the country. This increased the enmity between the princes.

Feudal fragmentation of territories was encouraged in every possible way, as this reduced the likelihood of a centralized rebellion.

Tribute was regularly collected from the population, the “Horde exit.” The collection of money was carried out by special officials - Baskaks, who showed extreme cruelty and did not shy away from kidnappings and murders.

Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar conquest

The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus' were terrible.

Many cities and villages were destroyed, people were killed;

Agriculture, handicrafts and art fell into decline;

Feudal fragmentation increased significantly;

The population has decreased significantly;

Rus' began to noticeably lag behind Europe in development.

The end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke

Complete liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke occurred only in 1480, when Grand Duke Ivan III refused to pay money to the horde and declared the independence of Rus'.

Most history textbooks say that in the 13th-15th centuries Rus' suffered from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. However, in Lately More and more often are the voices of those who doubt that the invasion took place at all? Did huge hordes of nomads really surge into peaceful principalities, enslaving their inhabitants? Let's analyze historical facts, many of which may be shocking.

The yoke was invented by the Poles

The term “Mongol-Tatar yoke” itself was coined by Polish authors. The chronicler and diplomat Jan Dlugosz in 1479 called the time of existence of the Golden Horde this way. He was followed in 1517 by the historian Matvey Miechowski, who worked at the University of Krakow. This interpretation of the relationship between Rus' and the Mongol conquerors was quickly picked up in Western Europe, and from there it was borrowed by domestic historians.

Moreover, there were practically no Tatars themselves in the Horde troops. It’s just that in Europe the name of this Asian people was well known, and therefore it spread to the Mongols. Meanwhile, Genghis Khan tried to exterminate the entire Tatar tribe, defeating their army in 1202.

The first census of Rus'

The first population census in the history of Rus' was carried out by representatives of the Horde. They had to collect accurate information about the inhabitants of each principality and their class affiliation. The main reason Such interest in statistics on the part of the Mongols was due to the need to calculate the amount of taxes imposed on their subjects.

In 1246, a census took place in Kyiv and Chernigov, the Ryazan principality was subjected to statistical analysis in 1257, the Novgorodians were counted two years later, and the population of the Smolensk region - in 1275.

Moreover, the inhabitants of Rus' raised popular uprisings and drove out the so-called “besermen” who were collecting tribute for the khans of Mongolia from their land. But the governors of the rulers of the Golden Horde, called Baskaks, lived and worked for a long time in the Russian principalities, sending collected taxes to Sarai-Batu, and later to Sarai-Berke.

Joint hikes

Princely squads and Horde warriors often carried out joint military campaigns, both against other Russians and against residents of Eastern Europe. Thus, in the period 1258-1287, the troops of the Mongols and Galician princes regularly attacked Poland, Hungary and Lithuania. And in 1277, the Russians took part in the Mongol military campaign in the North Caucasus, helping their allies conquer Alanya.

In 1333, Muscovites stormed Novgorod, and the next year the Bryansk squad marched on Smolensk. Each time, Horde troops also took part in these internecine battles. In addition, they regularly helped the great princes of Tver, considered at that time the main rulers of Rus', to pacify the rebellious neighboring lands.

The basis of the horde were Russians

The Arab traveler Ibn Battuta, who visited the city of Saray-Berke in 1334, wrote in his essay “A Gift to Those Contemplating the Wonders of Cities and the Wonders of Travel” that there are many Russians in the capital of the Golden Horde. Moreover, they make up the bulk of the population: both working and armed.

This fact was also mentioned by the White émigré author Andrei Gordeev in the book “History of the Cossacks,” which was published in France in the late 20s of the 20th century. According to the researcher, most of the Horde troops were the so-called Brodniks - ethnic Slavs who inhabited the Azov region and the Don steppes. These predecessors of the Cossacks did not want to obey the princes, so they moved to the south for the sake of a free life. The name of this ethnosocial group probably comes from the Russian word “wander” (wander).

As is known from chronicle sources, in the Battle of Kalka in 1223, the Brodniks, led by the governor Ploskyna, fought on the side of the Mongol troops. Perhaps his knowledge of the tactics and strategy of the princely squads was of great importance for the victory over the united Russian-Polovtsian forces.

In addition, it was Ploskynya who, by cunning, lured out the ruler of Kyiv, Mstislav Romanovich, along with two Turov-Pinsk princes and handed them over to the Mongols for execution.

However, most historians believe that the Mongols forced Russians to serve in their army, i.e. the invaders forcibly armed representatives of the enslaved people. Although this seems implausible.

And the eldest Researcher Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences Marina Poluboyarinova in the book “Russian People in the Golden Horde” (Moscow, 1978) suggested: “Probably, the forced participation of Russian soldiers in the Tatar army later ceased. There were mercenaries left who had already voluntarily joined the Tatar troops.”

Caucasian invaders

Yesugei-Baghatur, the father of Genghis Khan, was a representative of the Borjigin clan of the Mongolian Kiyat tribe. According to the descriptions of many eyewitnesses, both he and his legendary son were tall, fair-skinned people with reddish hair.

The Persian scientist Rashid ad-Din wrote in his work “Collection of Chronicles” (beginning of the 14th century) that all the descendants of the great conqueror were mostly blond and gray-eyed.

This means that the elite of the Golden Horde belonged to Caucasians. It is likely that representatives of this race predominated among other invaders.

There weren't many of them

We are accustomed to believe that in the 13th century Rus' was invaded by countless hordes of Mongol-Tatars. Some historians talk about 500,000 troops. However, it is not. After all, even the population of modern Mongolia barely exceeds 3 million people, and if we take into account the brutal genocide of fellow tribesmen committed by Genghis Khan on his way to power, the size of his army could not be so impressive.

It is difficult to imagine how to feed an army of half a million, moreover, traveling on horses. The animals simply would not have enough pasture. But each Mongolian horseman brought with him at least three horses. Now imagine a herd of 1.5 million. The horses of the warriors riding at the forefront of the army would eat and trample everything they could. The remaining horses would have starved to death.

According to the most daring estimates, the army of Genghis Khan and Batu could not have exceeded 30 thousand horsemen. While the population of Ancient Rus', according to historian Georgy Vernadsky (1887-1973), before the invasion was about 7.5 million people.

Bloodless executions

The Mongols, like most peoples of that time, executed people who were not noble or disrespected by cutting off their heads. However, if the condemned person enjoyed authority, then his spine was broken and left to slowly die.

The Mongols were sure that blood was the seat of the soul. To shed it means to complicate the afterlife path of the deceased to other worlds. Bloodless execution was applied to rulers, political and military figures, and shamans.

The reason for a death sentence in the Golden Horde could be any crime: from desertion from the battlefield to petty theft.

The bodies of the dead were thrown into the steppe

The method of burial of a Mongol also directly depended on his social status. Rich and influential people found peace in special burials, in which valuables, gold and silver jewelry, and household items were buried along with the bodies of the dead. And the poor and ordinary soldiers killed in battle were often simply left in the steppe, where their life’s journey ended.

In the alarming conditions of nomadic life, consisting of regular skirmishes with enemies, it was difficult to organize funeral rites. The Mongols often had to move on quickly, without delay.

It was believed that the corpse of a worthy person would be quickly eaten by scavengers and vultures. But if birds and animals have not touched the body for a long time, folk beliefs this meant that the soul of the deceased had a grave sin.

(ROK - many already know that the prince of Kievan Rus, Vladimir the Bloody, did not “baptize” the Russians into Christianity, but converted them to the “Greek Faith” monks of Byzantium - the Lunar Cult, only after the death of the great knight-prince Svyatoslav Khorobre! Since the people resisted with all their might for almost 300 years the black monks of Byzantium and the mercenaries of Kyiv, the latter used GENOCIDE, burning all those who disagreed in the log houses. They decided to disguise the monstrous crimes - the murder of about 9 million victims - under the guise of the “Tatar-Mongol” yoke! But the truth is already breaking through the Judeo-Christian deceptions of the Middle Ages).

Great (Grande) i.e. Mogul Tartaria is Mogul Tartaria

Many members of the editorial board are personally acquainted with the inhabitants of Mongolia, who were surprised to learn about their supposed 300-year rule over Russia. Of course, this news filled the Mongols with a sense of national pride, but at the same time they asked: “Who is Genghis Khan?” (from the magazine “Vedic Culture No. 2”)

In the chronicles of the Orthodox Old Believers it is said unequivocally about the “Tatar-Mongol yoke”: “There was Fedot, but not the same one.” Let's turn to the Old Slovenian language. Having adapted runic images to modern perception, we get: thief - enemy, robber; Mughal - powerful; yoke - order. It turns out that the “Tata of the Aryans” (from the point of view of the Christian flock), with the light hand of the chroniclers, were called “Tatars”, (There is another meaning: “Tata” is the father. Tatar - Tata of the Aryans, i.e. Fathers (Ancestors or more the elders) Aryans) powerful - by the Mongols, and the yoke - the 300-year-old order in the State, which stopped the bloody civil war that broke out on the basis of the forced baptism of Rus' - “martyrdom”. Horde is a derivative of the word Order, where “Or” is strength, and day is the daylight hours or simply “light.” Accordingly, “Order” is the Force of Light, and “Horde” is the Forces of Light. Were there dark-haired, stocky, dark-skinned, hook-nosed, narrow-eyed, bow-legged and very angry warriors in the Horde? Were. Detachments of mercenaries of different nationalities, who, as in any other army, were driven in the front ranks, preserving the main Slavic-Aryan Troops from losses on the front line.

Hard to believe? All Scandinavian countries and Denmark were part of Russia, which extended only to the mountains, Moreover, the Principality of Muscovy is shown as an independent state, not part of Rus'. In the east, beyond the Urals, the principalities of Obdora, Siberia, Yugoria, Grustina, Lukomorye, Belovodye are depicted, which were part of the Ancient Power of the Slavs and Aryans - Great (Grand) Tartaria (Tartaria - lands under the patronage of the God Tarkh Perunovich and the Goddess Tara Perunovna - Son and Daughter of the Supreme God Perun - Ancestor of the Slavs and Aryans).

Do you need a lot of intelligence to draw an analogy: Great (Grand) Tartaria = Mogolo + Tartaria = “Mongol-Tataria”? Not only in the 13th, but until the 18th century, Grand (Mogolo) Tartary existed as real as the faceless Russian Federation now.

The “history scribblers” were not able to distort and hide everything from the people. Their repeatedly darned and patched “Trishka caftan”, covering the Truth, is constantly bursting at the seams. Through the gaps, the Truth reaches the consciousness of our contemporaries bit by bit. They do not have truthful information, so they are often mistaken in the interpretation of certain factors, but the general conclusion they draw is correct: what school teachers taught to several dozen generations of Russians is deception, slander, falsehood.

The classic version of the “Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'” has been known to many since school. She looks like this. IN early XIII centuries in the Mongolian steppes, Genghis Khan gathered a huge army of nomads, subject to iron discipline, and planned to conquer the whole world. Having defeated China, Genghis Khan's army rushed to the west, and in 1223 it reached the south of Rus', where it defeated the squads of Russian princes on the Kalka River. In the winter of 1237, the Tatar-Mongols invaded Rus', burned many cities, then invaded Poland, the Czech Republic and reached the shores of the Adriatic Sea, but suddenly turned back because they were afraid to leave devastated, but still dangerous Rus' in their rear. The Tatar-Mongol yoke began in Rus'. The huge Golden Horde had borders from Beijing to the Volga and collected tribute from the Russian princes. The khans gave the Russian princes labels to reign and terrorized the population with atrocities and robberies.

Even the official version says that there were many Christians among the Mongols and some Russian princes established very warm relations with the Horde khans. Another oddity: with the help of the Horde troops, some princes remained on the throne. The princes were very close people to the khans. And in some cases, the Russians fought on the side of the Horde. Aren't there a lot of strange things? Is this how the Russians should have treated the occupiers?

Having strengthened, Rus' began to resist, and in 1380 Dmitry Donskoy defeated the Horde Khan Mamai on the Kulikovo Field, and a century later the troops of Grand Duke Ivan III and the Horde Khan Akhmat met. The opponents camped for a long time on opposite sides of the Ugra River, after which the khan realized that he had no chance, gave the order to retreat and went to the Volga. These events are considered the end of the “Tatar-Mongol yoke.”

A number of scientists, including academician Anatoly Fomenko, made a sensational conclusion based on a mathematical analysis of the manuscripts: there was no invasion from the territory of modern Mongolia! And there was a civil war in Rus', the princes fought with each other. There were no traces of any representatives of the Mongoloid race who came to Rus'. Yes, there were individual Tatars in the army, but not aliens, but residents of the Volga region, who lived in the neighborhood of the Russians long before the notorious “invasion.”

What is commonly called the “Tatar-Mongol invasion” was in fact a struggle of the descendants of Prince Vsevolod “ Big Nest"with their rivals for sole power over Russia. The fact of war between princes is generally recognized; unfortunately, Rus' did not unite immediately, and quite strong rulers fought among themselves.

But who did Dmitry Donskoy fight with? In other words, who is Mamai?

The era of the Golden Horde was distinguished by the fact that, along with secular power, there was a strong military power. There were two rulers: a secular one, called the prince, and a military one, he was called the khan, i.e. "military leader" In the chronicles you can find the following entry: “There were wanderers along with the Tatars, and their governor was so-and-so,” that is, the Horde troops were led by governors! And the Brodniks are Russian free warriors, the predecessors of the Cossacks.

Authoritative scientists have concluded that the Horde is the name of the Russian regular army(like the “Red Army”). And Tatar-Mongolia is Great Rus' itself. It turns out that it was not the “Mongols,” but the Russians who conquered a vast territory from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Arctic to the Indian. It was our troops who made Europe tremble. Most likely, it was fear of the powerful Russians that caused the Germans to rewrite Russian history and turn their national humiliation into ours.

A few more words about names. Most people of that time had two names: one in the world, and the other received at baptism or a military nickname. According to the scientists who proposed this version, Prince Yaroslav and his son Alexander Nevsky act under the names of Genghis Khan and Batu. Ancient sources depict Genghis Khan as tall, with a luxurious long beard, and “lynx-like” green-yellow eyes. Note that people of the Mongoloid race do not have a beard at all. The Persian historian of the Horde, Rashid al-Din, writes that in the family of Genghis Khan, children “were mostly born with gray eyes and blond hair.”

Genghis Khan, according to scientists, is Prince Yaroslav. He just had a middle name - Chinggis (who had a rank called gis) with the prefix “khan”, which meant “military leader”. Batu (father) Batuhan (if you read it in Cyrillic it is given by the Vatican) - his son Alexander (Nevsky). In the manuscripts you can find the following phrase: “Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky, nicknamed Batu.” By the way, according to the description of his contemporaries, Batu had fair hair, a light beard and light eyes! It turns out that it was the Horde khan who defeated the crusaders on Lake Peipsi!

Having studied the chronicles, scientists discovered that Mamai and Akhmat were also noble nobles, who, according to the dynastic ties of the Russian-Tatar families, had the right to a great reign. Accordingly, “Mamaevo’s Massacre” and “Standing on the Ugra” are episodes civil war in Rus', the struggle of princely families for power.

At the beginning of the 18th century, Peter 1 founded Russian Academy Sci. Over the 120 years of its existence, there have been 33 academic historians in the historical department of the Academy of Sciences. Of these, only three are Russians, including M.V. Lomonosov, the rest are Germans. The history of Ancient Rus' until the beginning of the 17th century was written by the Germans, and some of them did not even know Russian! This fact is well known to professional historians, but they make no effort to carefully review what kind of history the Germans wrote.

It is known that M.V. Lomonosov wrote the history of Rus' and that he had constant disputes with German academics. After Lomonosov's death, his archives disappeared without a trace. However, his works on the history of Rus' were published, but under the editorship of Miller. Meanwhile, it was Miller who persecuted M.V. Lomonosov during his lifetime! The works of Lomonosov on the history of Rus' published by Miller are falsifications, this was shown by computer analysis. There is little left of Lomonosov in them.