Types of power by institutionalization. Scientific work informal activities of the state

Political power and its types.

The concept of politics and power relations.

1. The term “politics” is one of the most widely and frequently used. We are talking about internal and foreign policy, about economic, social, cultural, demographic, environmental and other policies, political life and struggle, political power and political system, political conflicts and crises, political culture, political pluralism. Thus, we highlight a special, specific, unique area, sphere public life existing, functioning and developing along with the economy, social life and spiritual culture. Politics acts in this regard as a specific type of social reality, social interaction, special kind social activities and social regulation.

The breadth, complexity, versatility and multi-level nature of such a phenomenon as politics create considerable difficulties in its clear definition. It is no coincidence that not only in everyday consciousness, but also in scientific publications there is a great diversity of such definitions. But even at the same time, it is still possible to highlight the main, essential thing that is characteristic of politics. This is public power, relations of power as relations of domination (rule) and subordination (execution). M. Weber, who did a lot for the establishment of political sociology, defined power as the opportunity “for one actor in given social conditions to carry out his own will even in the face of resistance.”

Politics is one of the main spheres of public life, associated with relations regarding the establishment, organization, functioning and change of political power; the activities of social actors in the exercise of political (state and public) power.

There is no politics without power and power relations, i.e. without the ability, right and opportunity of one social subject decisively influence the actions of another, relying on one’s will and authority, moral and legal norms, customs and traditions, the threat of coercion and punishment, etc. At the same time, it would be wrong to completely identify power and politics, since not all power acts as political. Thus, the power of the head of a family over its members, taken in itself, is not public, but personal, individual power, and therefore not politics. Therefore, for example, in the tribal, pre-state social system, which rested on the personal power of the head of the clan, there was no political power. Public power, first of all, state power and politics arise and exist when society, as a result of its expansion and complexity, turns out to be unable to remain within the framework of its former self-regulation and self-government. It reveals and retains an objective need to ensure external control over the behavior of its members and their relationships, and thereby to allocate for this a special layer of people who exercise such control and socio-political regulation.

The main reasons for the emergence of politics:

1) polarization of society, leading to the emergence of social contradictions and conflicts that need resolution;

2) the increased level of complexity and importance of managing society, which required the formation of special authorities, separated from the people.

Thus, the most important prerequisite for politics is the emergence of state and political power. Primitive societies were non-political. Cannot be considered as political and power of a manager, leader and in a number of other small amateur groups and associations.

2. Politics is always a question of power. In a general sense, power is the ability to control the behavior of others, regardless of their consent, and to participate effectively in the decision-making process. Power can be legal, illegal, fair, unfair. It may be based on wealth, status, prestige, numerical dominance, or organized efficiency.

The main components of power are not subject and object, but means and process. Subject and object are direct carriers, agents of power. The subject is its active, directing principle. Subjects of political power have a complex, multi-level nature. The primary level consists of individuals and social groups, secondary – political organizations. The subject determines the content of power interaction through an order that prescribes the behavior of the object of power. It also indicates rewards and punishments for following or failing to follow a command. Therefore, the organization of the subject is of great importance for political power.

Power always implies the subordination of an object to a subject. The relationship between the object and the subject of power can take the form of both fierce resistance and voluntary, joyfully accepted obedience. The quality of the object of political power is determined, first of all, by the political culture of the population.

Power may have several bases on which its strength depends, i.e. the degree of the subject's ability to influence the object. The force of power, based on habit, is perceived painlessly and is quite reliable until it comes into conflict with the requirements real life. The most stable power is based on interest. Personal interest contributes to the development of positive motivation for obedience in people. Submission by conviction is associated with an impact on fairly deep layers of consciousness. The willingness to submit to authority for the sake of high goals is an important source of power. Power based on authority is based on the common interest of the object and subject

power and the confidence of subordinates in the special abilities of the subject.

Power, based on interests, conviction and authority, develops into identification of the subordinate with the leader.

Subject and object are two extreme and changeable poles of power: in one respect a person acts as a superior, in the other as a subordinate. The interaction between the subject and the object of power is mediated by a whole complex of means or resources. This interaction takes place within the framework of a special institutional mechanism, which acts as a stabilizer of the power process.

Political power is characterized by the following features:

1) the legality of the use of force within the state (only it has the right to apply all types of sanctions, including physical coercion, deprivation of property, freedom and even life). Political power differs from a gang of robbers in that its violence is legitimate - recognized and accepted by the majority of members of society;

2) supremacy, binding decisions for any other government; the ability to manage social processes;

3) publicity, i.e. universality and impersonality (power extends to the entire society as a whole);

4) monocentricity (presence of a single decision-making center, diversity of resources). Political power uses both coercion and economic, social, cultural and information resources.

Typologies of power are varied. Depending on the motives of subordination, they distinguish: - traditional power - it is based on a universal conviction in the inviolability and sanctity of established traditions. The power of the ruler is based on unwritten laws, it is sacred. For example, chiefs and monarchs held traditional authority. Submission to their power was justified by the formula “it has been this way since the ages.” Such power is usually

based on the right of inheritance. And often the hereditary power of the ruler is practically unlimited; - charismatic power - is based on the recognition of authority, on the dominant belief in greatness, holiness, heroism, the superiority of one person over all. Such power often manifests itself in the form of the father of the nation, the leader, the undisputed leader, to whom one readily obeys voluntarily. A charismatic leader is recognized by everyone as a person whose destiny, laws social development, God endowed me with an unusual gift and inspired me to lead society. But charismatic power is short-lived, it either collapses or is transformed; - rational power. It is based on the belief in the legality of the established order, the recognition by the majority of the validity of the right of state bodies to exercise power. The rights and responsibilities of leaders, as a rule, are enshrined in constitutions and laws, based on general agreement on their content. Guiding Principle rational type of political power - “the rule of law, not people.” This type is typical for many industrial societies and is implemented in a democratic society.

According to the resources on which power is based,

highlight:

Economic power - represents control over economic resources, property, material assets, assumes the ability to distribute material goods;

Social power - based on the distribution of positions (statuses, positions, benefits and privileges) along the social ladder;

Cultural-informational power – exercised with the help of scientific knowledge, information and means of their distribution;

Coercive power is control over people through the use or threat of physical force.

When classified by function, legislative, executive and judicial powers are distinguished; By the nature of application, power is distinguished as democratic, authoritarian, totalitarian, despotic, bureaucratic, etc.

3. The stability of political power is achieved in the process of its institutionalization. This institutionalization begins with the identification of status-role groups that should govern society. At the same time, a regulatory and legal system is being formed that is responsible for regulating the degree of responsibility of this group, as well as a system of responsibility of the population to the state - civil liability. To maintain normative order, a reliable sanctions mechanism is created to ensure that individuals comply with the requirements of norms and rules. Over time, the established political institutional order becomes a habit.

The institutionalization of political power is a natural process. It is based on the result of the actions of people pursuing immediate interests, but forced in their actions to proceed from the expectations of other people and be guided by them. Institutionalization is the selection of rules of interaction from many others.

The result of institutionalization is a stable mechanism that ensures the constant reproduction of political power relations. In the course of institutionalization, political power acquires clear outlines. Power relations become clear, allowing each person to determine his place in them.

The social system of power covers almost all spheres of human life, therefore the typology of power is based on different characteristics.

1) By degree of institutionalization: government, city, university

2) By subject of power: class, party

3) By quantitative basis: individual, oligarchic (power of a close-knit group), polyarchic

4) By social type of government: monarchical, republican

5) By mode of government: despotic, totalitarian, authoritarian

6) By sphere human activity: economic, political, informational, moral

Political power- this is the ability and opportunity to carry out one’s will in the field of politics and law;

a form of social relations characterized by the real ability of a socio-historical community, a group of people, an individual to carry out their will in politics and legal norms Oh.

Political power mobilizes large masses of people to achieve a goal, regulates relations between groups in the name of stability and general harmony.

There are 2 main ways to exercise political power:

Dominance is implemented in standards such as possible - impossible, right - wrong.

Management of implementation in the organization of beliefs and appeals.

Signs of political power:

1) Delegation of power from some people to others

2) The use of a mechanism, the organization of coercion based on a system of various sanctions applied for violation of established norms.

3) The presence of a special apparatus of people with more high level competencies and education compared to others.

The tasks of the authorities are:

1. maintaining public order and stability

2. identifying limitations and resolving conflicts

3. achieving public consent

4. the use of violence and coercion in the name of maintaining the stability of society

5. management of company affairs, etc.

The core of political power is state power. When the state apparatus appeared. employees, compulsory institutions, state power appears. Polit. power is a broader concept than state power.

State traits authorities:

1. The presence of a special state apparatus. employees

2. The right to make laws and regulations binding on the entire population

3. The ability to resort to means of organized and legal coercion, a monopoly on coercing members of society to fulfill their duties.

Ethnopolitical and religious-political ideologies

Ethnopolitical ideologies - the desire of peoples, especially small ones, to ensure their own statehood and thereby create favorable conditions to develop their identity, language, culture, traditions. Ethnopolitical ideologies have become noticeably widespread in the last decade not only among developing countries, but also in developed countries(Great Britain, Spain, Belgium). Ethnopolitical ideologies and movements acquired a particularly large scale in countries such as the USSR, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and post-Soviet republics, which contributed to the destruction of these states. The essence of the ideology and movement is the desire of peoples, especially small ones, to achieve their own statehood and thereby create favorable conditions for preserving their identity, that is, language, culture, traditions. Ethnopolitical ideologies and trends are opposed by the process of world integration and internationalization.

Religious and political ideologies, unlike those listed above, arose a very long time ago. This type of ideology is based on religious dogmas. Their the main objective consists not only of influencing power, but also of establishing one’s power where possible. In some countries, in particular the Middle East and Asia, religious movements have established themselves in power (Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia). The influence of religions. ideologies increased in a number of former Soviet republics - in Tajikistan, in the North. Caucasus, Chechnya.

In political science, two interpretations of the concept of “state” can be distinguished.

IN in a broad sense A state is a political entity that meets three main characteristics:

1) availability single territory with certain boundaries;

2) the population living in a given territory;

3) sovereign power.

This interpretation of the concept of state is primarily of a legal nature.

IN in the narrow sense the state is interpreted as a set of political institutions that exercise supreme power in a certain territory. The classic definition of the state in a narrow sense was formulated by M. Weber: “The modern state,” he wrote, “is a union of domination organized according to the type of institution, which, within a certain sphere, has achieved success in monopolizing legitimate physical violence as a means of domination.” Weber's position can be characterized as a political science approach. He derives the concept of the state from the relationship of domination of people over people, which is based on legitimate violence. At the same time, domination itself is organized and carried out in accordance with existing standards and procedures (“by type of institution”), that is, it is institutionalized in nature. Weber's definition received widespread support in modern science. The French sociologist P. Bourdieu considers the state as “X (to be defined), which has a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical and symbolic violence in a certain territory and in relation to the relevant population.” In this definition, Bourdieu expands the interpretation of violence used by the state: for him it is not only physical, but also symbolic.

Historical research confirms the fact that the creation centralized states in Europe and other regions is associated with the monopolization of one group’s right to use violence, an increase in tax collection and strengthening military power. Some researchers consider the process of establishing a territorial monopoly of force, i.e., the formation of a state, to be a law of history, and the emergence of modern states dates back to the 15th century. Monopoly of force involves protecting a territory from external enemies and eliminating conflicts using violence within a certain territory.

In political science Special attention is devoted to the problem of the origin of the state. Depending on its decision, the nature of the state and the methods of its legitimation are determined. This problem was in the field of vision of ancient and medieval thinkers, philosophers and lawyers of the New Age. In modern political science, representatives of neo-institutionalism have addressed this problem.

Representatives of neo-institutionalism interpret the origin of the state from the standpoint of social constructivism. D. North views the ruler as an owner who trades in protection and justice. In exchange for these benefits, the ruler acquires supreme power, which is limited on the part of his subjects both by the possible costs of leaving the subordination of the ruler and his replacement, and by the level of political competition. J. Buchanan paints a slightly different picture. From the point of view of his theory, the citizen (principal) constructs the state (agent), transferring to it functions, including the guarantor of the execution of contracts. As a result, he is forced to obey the decisions of the state, thus becoming an agent.

Adherents of neo-institutionalism consider two polar models of the state: contractual and exploitative. From point of view contract model, the state uses the right delegated to it by citizens to use violence in their interests. Purpose similar state is a redistribution of property rights that maximizes society's income. To do this, property is transferred into the hands of those economic entities that can use it most effectively. The contract state operates within the framework of the constitutional field and market economy. In contrast to him exploitative state uses the monopoly on violence in its own interests, i.e. to maximize its own profits. The interests of the ruler are placed above the interests of society, and the state apparatus seeks to bring all spheres of society under its control. The redistribution of property and government extortions are becoming systematic.

In the process of institutionalization, any social relationship takes shape with established sets of rules, laws and sanctions. This form is called a “social institution,” and all rules and regulations can be formalized both in writing and orally.

Process of institutionalization

Institutionalization implies a change in the form of relations in a community or group in such a way that the spontaneous behavior of members of these formations becomes organized.

The creation and development of such social institutions takes for a long time, sometimes it takes centuries. As a result, spontaneous social phenomenon transforms into a full-fledged organized institution, in which all processes are streamlined and there is a clearly structured hierarchy of power.

The process of institutionalization itself takes place in several stages:

• First, certain needs arise in society, the satisfaction of which is possible only through the organization of joint actions;

• The next step is to define the goals to be achieved;
• At the third stage, the behavior of the majority of members of the system is still spontaneous, but the process of creating norms and rules, as well as related procedures, gradually begins;
• Next begins directly institutionalization, that is, official acceptance and practical use formed procedures, rules, laws and norms.

At the final stage, they are determined, and between all members of the newly formed social institution their roles are finally distributed and established.

Signs of institutionalization

In the process of creating a social institution, not only vault certain rules and norms, but also its own ideology, certain traditions and rituals appear, in most cases certain symbolism is introduced.

But the basis of a social institution consists, first of all, of its leaders, who perform important organizational and business functions, a complex of institutions, as well as tools and instruments of activity with the help of which members of the institutionalized group can perform their functions and responsibilities.

The main signs of institutionalization are:

• Changing the quality of the activities of group members: as part of an institute, such activities acquire a not only meaningful and orderly character, but also become professional;
• Distribution of roles in society and the emergence of hierarchy;
• The emergence of moral and legal norms of regulation;
• The emergence of special objects, buildings and institutions necessary for the activities of members of the institute;
• The presence of an ideology, which is characterized as a system of ideas that do not contradict and support the moral and legal foundations of a particular institution.

Functions of social institutions

Regardless of what sphere or area an institution belongs to, it always has not only its own specific characteristics and characteristics, but also certain patterns of behavior characteristic of institutionalization as a whole. Any institution can reflect a wide variety of social relations - from politics and economics to family and religion. However, everyone the institute always performs five main functions:

• The function of consolidating and reproducing social relations;
• Communicative;
• Integrative;
• Regulatory;
• Broadcasting.

For consolidation and reproduction of social relations in every The institute has its own tools: these are the rules and regulations that govern the behavior of all participants. This function plays important role, as it ensures the stability of the entire system.

Communication function is necessary to ensure the regulation of relationships between the members of a social institution themselves, and for this purpose certain patterns and patterns of behavior and communication are always developed. This same function facilitates the acquisition of external information, since a social institution is an open structure, and its members are interested in knowledge about what is happening in other similar systems.

Integrative function contributes to maintaining the integrity of the institute itself and strengthening the connection between members of the entire team. Within the framework of this function, there is a combination of efforts () and the use of personal resources of the members of the institute to achieve some common goal.

Within regulatory function Institute develops certain patterns and patterns of behavior of members of the system, as a result of which relationships are regulated.

The last function is broadcasting. Due to this function, social experience is transferred within the institution itself, and members of the system are also introduced to common values, roles and norms. This function may seem secondary, but it is indispensable when changing generations and changing the social boundaries of the institution.

All these functions of social institutions direct members to act in accordance with certain established standards of behavior, and people who are associated with a particular institution tend to fulfill certain social roles that are assigned to them. For example, a soldier who wears a uniform and uses weapons does so primarily not because it is his personal preference, but because the norms and patterns of the social institution to which the soldier belongs so dictate.

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Power- there is the ability and opportunity of some to model the behavior of others, i.e. force someone to do something against their will through any means ranging from persuasion to violence.

- the ability of a social subject (individual, group, layer) to impose and carry out their will with the help of legal and norms and special institute — .

Power is a necessary condition sustainable development society in all its spheres.

Power is distinguished: political, economic, spiritual family, etc. Economic power is based on the right and ability of the owner of any resources to influence the production of goods and services, spiritual power is based on the ability of holders of knowledge, ideology, information to influence changes in people’s consciousness.

Political power is power (the power to impose will) transferred by a community to a social institution.

Political power can be divided into state, regional, local, party, corporate, clan, etc. State power is ensured government institutions(parliament, government, court, law enforcement agencies, etc.), as well as the legal framework. Other types of political power are provided by relevant organizations, legislation, charters and instructions, traditions and customs, and public opinion.

Structural elements of power

Considering power as the ability and ability of some to model the behavior of others, we should find out where this ability comes from? Why, in the course of social interaction, are people divided into those who dominate and those who are dominated? In order to answer these questions, you need to know what power is based on, i.e. what are its grounds (sources). There are countless of them. And, nevertheless, among them there are those that are classified as universal, present in one or another proportion (or form) in any power relationship.

In this regard, it is necessary to turn to the accepted principles in political science classifications of bases (sources) of power, and understand what type of power is generated by such of them as force or the threat of force, wealth, knowledge, law, charisma, prestige, authority, etc.

Particular attention should be paid to the argumentation (evidence) of the position that power relations are not only relations of dependence, but also interdependence. That, with the exception of forms of direct violence, absolute power not in nature. All power is relative. And it is built not only on the dependence of the ruled on the rulers, but also on the rulers on the ruled. Although the extent of this dependence is different for them.

The closest attention is also required to clarify the essence of the differences in approaches to the interpretation of power and power relations among political scientists representing different political science schools (functionalists, taxonomists, behaviorists). And also what lies behind the definitions of power as a characteristic of an individual, as a resource, as a construct (interpersonal, causal, philosophical), etc.

The main features of political (state) power

Political power is a kind of power complex, including both state power, which plays the role of “first violin” in it, and the power of all other institutional subjects of politics represented by political parties, mass socio-political organizations and movements, independent media, etc.

It is also necessary to take into account that state power, as the most socialized form and core of political power, differs from all other authorities (including political ones) in a number of ways: significant features giving it a universal character. In this regard, one must be prepared to reveal the content of such concepts-signs of this power as universality, publicity, supremacy, monocentrism, diversity of resources, monopoly on the legitimate (i.e., provided for and stipulated by law) use of force, etc.

Such concepts as "political dominance", "legality" and "legitimacy". The first of these concepts is used to denote the process of institutionalization of power, i.e. its consolidation in society as an organized force (in the form of a hierarchical system of power institutions and institutions), functionally intended to carry out general leadership and management of the social organism.

The institutionalization of power in the form of political domination means the structuring in society of relations of command and subordination, order and execution, the organizational division of managerial labor and the privileges usually associated with it, on the one hand, and executive activity, on the other.

As for the concepts of “legality” and “legitimacy”, although the etymology of these concepts is similar (in French the words “legal” and “legitime” are translated as legal), in terms of content they are not synonymous concepts. First concept (legality) emphasizes the legal aspects of power and acts as an integral component of political domination, i.e. consolidation (institutionalization) of power regulated by law and its functioning in the form of a hierarchical system of state bodies and institutions. With clearly defined steps of order and execution.

Legitimacy of political power

- political property of the body state power, meaning recognition by the majority of citizens of the correctness and legality of its formation and functioning. Any power that is based on popular consensus is legitimate.

Power and power relations

Many people, including some political scientists, believe that the struggle to acquire, distribute, retain, and use power constitutes essence of politics. This point of view was held, for example, by the German sociologist M. Weber. One way or another, the doctrine of power has become one of the most important in political science.

Power in general is the ability of one subject to impose its will on other subjects.

Power is not just the relationship of someone to someone, it is always asymmetrical relationship, i.e. unequal, dependent, allowing one individual to influence and change the behavior of another.

Foundations of power in the very general view perform unmet needs some and the possibility of their satisfaction by others on certain conditions.

Power is a necessary attribute of any organization, any human group. Without power there is no organization and no order. In every joint activity of people there are those who command and those who obey them; those who make decisions and those who carry them out. Power is characterized by the activities of those who control.

Sources of power:

• authority- power as the force of habit, tradition, internalized cultural values;
• force- “naked power”, in the arsenal of which there is nothing but violence and suppression;
• wealth- stimulating, rewarding power, which includes negative sanctions for uncomfortable behavior;
• knowledge— the power of competence, professionalism, the so-called “expert power”;
• charisma— leader’s power, built on the deification of the leader, endowing him with supernatural abilities;
• prestige- identifying (identifying) power, etc.

The need for power

The social nature of people's lives turns power into social phenomenon. Power is expressed in the ability of united people to achieve their agreed goals, affirm generally accepted values ​​and interact. In undeveloped communities, power is dissolved; it belongs to everyone together and to no one individually. But already here public power takes on the character of the right of the community to influence the behavior of individuals. However, the inevitable difference of interests in any society disrupts political communication, cooperation, and coherence. This leads to the disintegration of this form of power due to its low efficiency, and ultimately to the loss of the ability to achieve agreed goals. In this case, the real prospect is the collapse of this community.

To prevent this from happening, public power is transferred to elected or appointed people - rulers. Rulers receive from the community powers (full power, public authority) to manage social relations, that is, to change the activity of subjects in accordance with the law. The need for management is explained by the fact that people in relationships with each other are very often guided not by reason, but by passions, which leads to the loss of the goal of the community. Therefore, the ruler must have a force that would keep people within the framework of an organized community, would exclude extreme manifestations of selfishness and aggression in public relations ensuring everyone's survival.