What are the assets of an individual. Assets and liabilities of an enterprise: what are they?

« The rich acquire assets. The poor and middle class are liabilities treated as assets.». ( Robert Kiyosaki)

Keep a balance of your assets and liabilities in the program " Home accounting ».

Greetings, dear friend.

This article will clearly explain to you what assets and liabilities are, according to such a writer as .

This question is one of the main ones in any financial activity., so you definitely need to understand it. If you do not have a complete understanding of this issue, it will be impossible to prepare your own financial report, and without this it is almost impossible to become a wealthy person.

What are assets and liabilities (definitions)?

Successful businessman and multimillionaire Robert Kiyosaki describes his own system of dividing property into assets and liabilities in his first book - .

In this book, I came across one of the simplest and most understandable, at first glance, definitions of assets and liabilities, and this is how they sound:

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exactly"> ─ An asset is anything that puts money in our pockets.;

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exactly"> ─ Passive - anything that takes money out of our pockets.

Drawing conclusions

Everything you need to - this is to acquire more assets and get rid of all liabilities as soon as possible.

At first glance, everything is simple and does not require further explanation, but let’s still look at this issue in more detail, since these words have much more meaning than can be seen right away.

Many people often confuse assets and liabilities with each other., mistaking an asset for a liability and vice versa - this is the main problem.

An asset is something that will generate positive cash flow.

Examples of assets

Residential or non-residential space that you rent out - this property pays for all its expenses and creates a positive cash flow for you. Any other item you rented and which brings you money. It could be a power tool, a car, or something else.

Business, of course, if it brings you a net profit and not a loss.

Shares that you have purchased for a long time - they pay dividends and, as a rule, shares large companies always increase in price, and accordingly the price of your portfolio will increase. In 3-5-10 years, such shares can be sold at a good price and make a big profit.

Shares, which bring good profits over medium and long periods of time (from 3 years to infinity).

Bank deposit - of course, it will not bring you much profit over short periods of time, but it will do a great job of protecting your finances from inflation.

Examples of liabilities

The house or apartment you live in - this is a liability, although many consider them assets. Your home doesn't make you money. On the contrary, you yourself need to pay monthly rent, purchase furniture and electronics, make repairs, etc.

All types of consumer loans are also liabilities, also applies to loans or any other loan.

A car that you drive yourself - costs for fuel, repairs, maintenance, etc. All this takes money from you, but if you work on this machine, say as a taxi driver, then it can already be considered an asset.

This point is very important - according to Robert Kiyosaki’s system, assets and liabilities can change, any asset can become a liability over time and vice versa! Therefore, it is necessary to react to the current situation in a timely manner.

Assets and liabilities - balance between them

You probably already realized that it is impossible to live without liabilities at all, at least without a critical decline in the standard of living (not to become homeless, after all J ). It is important to have more assets in your life than liabilities..

In other words no need to strive for excessive luxury and buy household items you can't afford. If you look around, you will notice that many people in our, and not only, country live like this, constantly exceeding their budget (loans, debts, etc.).Try to make do with what you really need, and you will forget words like credit or debt.

Human, will reduce its liabilities and increase the list of its assets, because he understands that this is the only way to become rich.

Who to follow as an example and what to strive for?

You can follow the example of wealthy people; each of them owns real estate, various enterprises and shopping centers etc. - they are all assets.

Only through assets can you gainwhen you won’t be forced to sell your time for money, and money will buy you more and more free time, because time is the most important and non-renewable resource in our lives.

The moment will come when the acquired assets will provide for you and your loved ones required quantity money for the rest of your life - this is what you should strive for.

Money- this is a tool and thanks to it, rich people can afford various pleasant liabilities, such as a luxury house or car. However, remember that monetary growth is provided to them by their assets, which allow them to maintain all this without much damage to their financial condition.

If the list of your assets includes only hired labor, and your liabilities include not only living space and cars, but also debts (credit and simple) - it’s time to think about where you are heading!

Conclusion

You can take the first step on the path to wealth, or you can live in the same cycle of “received a salary and spent it.”

Remember, assets and liabilities are your income and losses, respectively.

Assets and Liabilities (the power of trinkets) - Robert Kiyosaki (video)

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In accounting there are special concepts"assets" and "liabilities". Both are an important component of the balance sheet and represent the most convenient way to summarize information about the activities and financial position of an organization.

Everything that an enterprise has is divided into assets that generate profit and liabilities that participate in the formation of the former. It is important to learn to distinguish between them, to understand what this or that enterprise object is.

Asset and liability balance

The concepts under consideration are the main components of the main report, which is drawn up in the process. Balance accounting depicted in the form of a table in which assets are located on the left side and liabilities on the right. The sum of all positions on the left side is equal to the sum of all positions on the right side. That is left-hand side balance is always equal to its right side.

Equality of assets and liabilities on the balance sheet is an important rule that must be followed at any time.

If equality is not met when drawing up the balance sheet, it means that there is an error in the accounting that needs to be found.

In order to correctly draw up a balance sheet, you need to understand what belongs to assets and what to liabilities.

Assets as an element of accounting

These are the organization's resources that it uses in the process. economic activity, the use of which in the future implies profit.

Assets always display the value of all tangible, intangible and monetary assets of the company, as well as property powers, their content, placement and investment.

Examples of business assets:

• Fixed assets;
• Securities;
• Raw materials, materials, semi-finished products;
• Goods;
• Finished products.

All this is property that the enterprise will use in the course of its operation in order to generate economic profit.

Asset classification

According to the form of the functional composition, they are divided into material, intangible and financial.

• Material refers to objects that are in material form (they can be touched and felt). These include buildings and structures of the company, Technical equipment and materials.
• By intangible we usually mean that part of the production of an enterprise that does not have a material embodiment. It could be trademark or a patent, which also take part in the organization’s office work.
• Financial - refers to various financial instruments of the company, be it cash accounts in any currency, accounts receivable or other economic investments with different terms.

By the nature of participation in production activities enterprises, assets are divided into current (current) and non-current.

• Current assets are used to carry out the company’s operational processes and are completely consumed in one full production cycle (no more than 1 year)
• Non-negotiable — take part in office work repeatedly, and are used exactly until the moment when all resources are transferred into the form of products.

According to the type of capital used, assets are:

• Gross, that is, formed on the basis of own and borrowed capital.
• Net, which implies the formation of assets only from the company’s own capital.

According to the right of ownership of assets, they are divided into leased and owned.

They are also classified by liquidity, that is, the speed of their transformation into a financial equivalent. In accordance with such a system, the following resources are distinguished:

• Assets with absolute liquidity;
• With high liquidity;
• Medium liquid;
• Low liquidity;
• Illiquid;

Long-term assets include land, different types transport, technical equipment, household and production type, and other company accessories. Assets of this type are reflected at their cost of acquisition less accrued depreciation, or, in the case of land and buildings, at a price determined by a professional expert.

Liabilities of the enterprise and their participation in production activities

Under The liabilities of an enterprise mean the obligations that the company has undertaken and its sources of financing (including equity and borrowed capital, as well as funds attracted to the organization for some reason).

The equity capital of an enterprise with any form of ownership, except for state ownership, contains in its structure the authorized capital, shares, shares in various business companies and partnership associations, proceeds from the sale of company shares (primary and additional), accumulated reserves, public finance In the organisation.

For state-owned enterprises, the structure includes state financial resources and deferred revenue deductions.

Borrowed capital

The structure of funds borrowed consists of capital for which this or that property is pledged, regardless of whether the mortgage is issued or not, loans received from banking institutions, bills of various types.

Summarize.

What refers to the assets of the enterprise:

• Fixed and production assets;
• Movable and immovable property;
• Cash;
• Inventory assets;
• Securities;
• Accounts receivable

What refers to the company's liabilities:

• Authorized capital;
• Credits and borrowings from other individuals and legal entities;
• Retained earnings;
• Reserves;
• Taxes;
• Accounts payable.

Difference between liability and asset

The difference is their different functions; Each of these elements of the balance sheet illuminates its own aspect of office work. However, they are closely related between themselves.

When an asset increases, the liability necessarily increases by the same amount, that is, the debt obligation of the enterprise increases. The same principle also applies to liabilities.

For example, if a new loan agreement is concluded with a bank, assets automatically increase, as new finances are received by the organization, and at the same time the company has a liability - debt to the bank. At the moment when the organization repays this loan, there will be a decrease in assets, since the amount of funds in the enterprise’s account will decrease, and at the same time, liabilities will also decrease, since the debt to the bank will disappear.

It is from this principle that the equality of liabilities and assets of an enterprise follows. Any change in the former entails a change in the latter by the same amount and vice versa.

part of the balance sheet (right side), which reflects the obligations and sources of funds of the enterprise, consisting of own, borrowed and borrowed funds, grouped by their ownership and purpose, including accounts payable

Definition and interpretation of liabilities, types of liabilities, theory and practice of liabilities, liabilities as sources of assets, liabilities of the financial balance sheet, short-term liabilities, current and long-term liabilities, liability management, liabilities of commercial banks and passive bank operations, liabilities and liability structure of an enterprise

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Passive is, definition

Passive is the part of the balance sheet opposite to the asset (the right side), which reflects the sources of funds at the disposal of the enterprise, grouped by their affiliation and purpose, as well as the totality of all liabilities (sources of formation of funds) of the enterprise, that is, generating income and providing liquidity, with the help which are allocated, who owns the funds and for what purpose they are intended and the various payments are determined (interest on bonds, salaries, payment of taxes, etc.).

Passive is material obligations of the corporation, which include various payments (interest on bonds, salaries, payment of taxes, etc.).

Passive - This part of the balance sheet, which reflects the sources of funds at the disposal of the enterprise, grouped by their ownership and purpose. Funds are grouped into items based on management needs. Thus, it is highlighted who owns the funds and for what purpose they are intended.

Passive - This the totality of a business's debts and liabilities (as opposed to an asset).

Passive - This excess of expenses over receipts.

Passive - This that side of the balance sheet that reveals the sources of financing for the funds that form the asset, that is, generating income and providing liquidity.

Passive - This

Passive -This a set of legal relations underlying the financing of a business entity and including both debt and equity capital.

Passive is liabilities (except for subventions, subsidies, own funds and other sources) of an enterprise, consisting of borrowed and raised funds, including accounts payable.

Passive is a set of obligations involving the organization's indebtedness as a result of its economic activity, settlements for which lead to an outflow of funds.

Passive is sources of formation of the enterprise's funds, its financing, grouped by their ownership and purpose (own and borrowed).

Passive isworking capital, constantly used in economic circulation and therefore equated to own funds, but not owned by the enterprise: wages owed to workers and employees, a reserve of future payments formed to pay for vacations, etc.

Passive is the source of origin of assets, reflecting whether the assets are obtained from the enterprise’s own capital or due to the occurrence of any liabilities in the enterprise.

Passive - This the excess of a country's foreign spending over its income received from abroad.

Passive - This any obligation to third-party individuals and legal entities - loan, obligation to pay an invoice, tax obligations, etc.

Passive is the part of the balance sheet opposite to the asset (the right side) is the totality of all liabilities (sources of funds) of the enterprise.

Passive balance - This part of the balance sheet (right side), indicating the sources of the enterprise’s funds, its financing, grouped by their composition, ownership and purpose: own reserves, loans from other institutions, etc.

Liabilities and assets

The bank's liability is all monetary claims presented to the bank, except for the claims of its owners, reflected in the balance sheet.

The liability of the enterprise is sources of financing that made it possible to attract the necessary values ​​and funds.

The liability of the enterprise is liabilities and sources of funds of the enterprise, consisting of its own, borrowed and attracted funds. The own funds of an enterprise under any form of ownership (except state) consist of: authorized capital; shares, shares in business companies and partnerships; proceeds from the sale of primary and additional issues of shares; accumulated retained earnings (reserves); realized increase in the market value of securities; public funds with which the enterprise is allocated.

The liability of an investment fund is short-term obligations of the fund (accounts payable, debt on contributions to the budget, extra-budgetary funds, etc.) and long-term obligations of the fund (loans, borrowed and other borrowed funds).

What is a liability?

Liabilities are what waste our resources. Monetary liabilities take money away from us, that is, they create a loss. Temporary liabilities take up our time, and power liabilities take away both our strength and our ability to work. It is very important to take into account that the same things can be both liabilities and assets at different times. Is it not clear? Let's look at some examples!

Cash liabilities

Monetary liabilities take money away from us, that is, they create a loss. For example, a car is definitely a liability. You have to buy it, spend money on gasoline and Maintenance. This is a monetary liability. But what if you use this car to deliver some goods and get paid for it, which will exceed all expenses? It turns out that the car will generate income, which means it will turn into an asset! I think this is clear. Also, the apartment is a liability: every month you need to pay utility bills, etc. But if you rent out an apartment and receive rent, then the apartment turns into an asset that generates cash income. I think everything is clear with monetary assets and liabilities. Now let's move on to temporary ones.

Temporary liabilities

Temporary liabilities waste our time. You came home after work, very tired. You sit down and watch TV. So TV is one of the main temporary liabilities. He's wasting your time. Now let's imagine that you need to write some text. You can write on paper, but this is the 21st century, after all, so it will be easier to write text on a computer. Of course, it will be even faster on a computer. This means that the computer saves our time, therefore, it is a temporary asset in this situation.

Power passives

Power liabilities take away both strength and the ability to work. Now let’s look at the last type of assets and liabilities, namely power assets. For example, sleep is a power asset. It replenishes our strength lost throughout the past day. Gym is also a strength asset, as it increases our physical strength. But how can we imagine power liabilities? Very simple. These are things and people that take away our physical strength and energy. It could be work, or a person who was impolite to you, and you don’t want to do anything after communicating with him. Bad food that gives you indigestion is also a power liability!

One peculiarity can be noticed. If we look at the issue of assets and liabilities from a philosophical perspective, we can say that work is a power liability, but at the same time it is a monetary asset, since we receive wages for work. And many more such ambiguous cases can be found.

What are liabilities?

Currently, this approach has generally been preserved, but the interpretation of the formula is given in the spirit of Scher: assets equal liabilities plus capital. Under the influence of Western accountants, we stopped treating capital as an organization's debt to its owner.

And here a general formulation arises: Liability is a list of legal entities and individuals who own assets.

Three important conclusions follow from this definition:

Passive is a consequence of an asset; if there is no asset, there will be no liability;

A liability can be called a plan for the distribution by the owners of the property specified in the asset;

Liabilities should be grouped according to the principle of seizability; it is best to start with what is subject to seizure last.

True, it remains unclear how to interpret such an item as deferred income?

In theory, and, as a consequence, in practice, there are three interpretations of the passive from a purely content side.

Traditional interpretation of the passive

This is the traditional understanding of liability, which considers it as property at the disposal of the owner. There are usually two approaches to this:

Passive is understood as a purely legal category;

As a plan for the distribution of assets, with accounts payable already normalized by the obligations that have arisen, and equity funds are normalized according to established and specified limits.

The first option can be considered traditional for domestic accounting. It was shared by all the classics of our accounting department (N.S. Lunsky, A.P. Rudanovsky, N.A. Kiparisov, N.S. Pomazkov, etc.). The second option was developed by accountants who sought to link accounting with Marxist political economy. In both options there are no problems with the interpretation of future income. They are considered as a source of own funds.

New interpretation of the passive

It arose relatively recently and serves as clear evidence of the priority of content (economic relations) over form (legal relations). The essence of this approach can be expressed as follows: liability is the upcoming outflow of assets.

IN in this case it does not matter who owns the rights to the funds paid: it is only important to know the exact or probable payment schedule. This distribution of payments refers to both the repayment of accounts payable and the write-off of reserved funds. (Moreover, here it is necessary to take into account possible withdrawals of funds by the owners.) From here arises a revolutionary interpretation of accounts payable, which should now be understood not only as liabilities, that is, debts to legal entities and individuals, but also reserves, which also imply an outflow of funds to agreed terms.

Compared to the variants of the first interpretation, in this case we are faced with a different understanding of the relationship between liabilities and own funds, because reserves - clearly own funds - are already interpreted as non-own funds, but future income is understood in the same way as in the first interpretation.

Interpretation of the passive according to Schmalenbach

E. Schmalenbach (1873-1955), a German accountant, defined liability as follows:

Income that has not yet become expenses.

In fact, the owners invested capital, that is, the enterprise received income from its owner (at the beginning of the business, their own, and during operation they capitalized accounts payable and their income).

The funds received must be invested in the business. This means that they should be used to purchase equipment, materials, goods, etc. in order to turn these enterprise incomes into its expenses.

In this case, all liabilities can be understood as income of either past and/or future periods. And by and large, the border between own and attracted capital will essentially disappear.

The peculiarities of this interpretation are that its supporters interpret the liability as a cause, and the asset as a consequence. This was first noticed by the Russian accountant L.I. Gomberg (1866-1935). In fact, the understanding of what can be interpreted as a cause and what as a consequence is very conditional. For example, the receipt of goods is reflected both as an asset and as a liability. We can say that suppliers supplied goods (cause) and the company’s inventory increased (effect). But with equal success it can be argued that the increase in the commodity mass (cause) led to an increase in accounts payable (effect). The theory is “whatever the clamp, whatever the drawbar, wherever you turn, that’s where it comes out.”

The sources of formation of economic funds are reflected in passive accounts. The balances in these accounts show how and where the funds came from. Otherwise, the totality of sources of funds is called the liabilities of the enterprise.

According to the definition, a liability is an organization’s debt existing at a certain date, arising as a result of completed business transactions, the repayment of which should lead to a decrease in the corresponding assets. This may be the payment of funds, the transfer of other assets (provision of services), or the replacement of one type of obligation with another.

Authorized and share capital

Borrowed capital

Short-term liabilities

Short-term liabilities (accounts payable (to employees of the enterprise, lessors, founders, budget), short-term obligations for loans and borrowings (payments for which come due within a year), reserves for future expenses).

Current liabilities

Current liabilities (current liabilities) are short-term financial obligations that must be repaid within a year from the date of drawing up the balance sheet (or the current operating cycle of the enterprise, this period is longer). This definition implies that current liabilities are satisfied by assets classified as current in the same balance sheet. Liabilities of enterprises arise from existing (as a result of past transactions or events) debts of the enterprise, or regarding the transfer of certain assets or services to another enterprise in the future (upon prepayment).

Long-term liabilities

Long-term liabilities (long-term liabilities for loans and borrowings, deferred tax liabilities).

Theory and practice of the passive

What is the theory, so is the practice. In a developed economy, accountants strive to embellish the balance sheet; in an undeveloped economy, accountants become poor and think most of all about how to hide, by various reasons, profit. In this regard, the principle of conservatism (the requirement of prudence), which involves understating assets and exaggerating liabilities, is very indicative.

It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the theory of liability and the practice of working with it, despite the confusion of terminology and many interpretations, is nevertheless quite simple compared to the understanding of the asset. The accountant should be told: if you understand well what an asset is (and this is very difficult to understand), then you can easily understand what a liability is. Think about the asset, and understanding the liability will come naturally.

Liabilities - sources of assets

The composition of liabilities contains equity capital - authorized and share capital, as well as borrowed capital (loans, borrowings), grouped by composition and repayment terms. The liability indicates in total terms data on the capital and liabilities of the organization.

Liabilities are sources of assets and consist of the following sections:

Authorized or Own capital;

Accounts payable;

Profit.

Authorized or equity capital

Authorized or Own capital is the so-called initial capital. Basically, it was your savings or your relatives who helped, and you used them to buy a stove, containers, transport, initial flour, and yeast. Maybe they bought an office or rented it.

Accounts payable

Accounts payable are your debts to someone. Sometimes your initial capital is not enough, then you take out a loan from the bank to purchase these stoves, containers, transport and something else. Also, the bakery almost always owes for utilities, water, electricity, telephone, if only because we make payments before the 10th of the next month. Maybe they took the flour, but didn’t pay for it for a while. Those. You have been using other people's funds for some time.

Profit

Profit. Those. this is the profit you received as a result of your work. Income minus all your expenses and what remains is profit. And you use it to buy an additional oven, more flour, that is, you expand your production.

Financial balance sheet liability

In accordance with international standards of financial accounting and reporting, liabilities are understood as the sources of funds of an enterprise. The liabilities side of the balance sheet reflects decisions on the selection of sources of financing for the enterprise's investment decisions, the result of which are acquired assets.

The main sections of the balance sheet liabilities are:

Equity;

Long-term accounts payable (long-term liabilities, long-term borrowed capital);

Short-term accounts payable (short-term liabilities, short-term borrowed capital).

Equity

Section "Equity". As mentioned above, in basic course financial management examines the management of funds of a joint-stock enterprise. At the creation stage joint stock company Own capital is equal to share capital. The equity capital of an operating enterprise includes many subsections.

Invested capital, including:

Share capital;

Extra capital;

Funds and reserves;

Share capital

Article "Share Capital". Typically, the balance sheet reflects the authorized share capital and the number of shares actually issued at the balance sheet date (shares issued are treasury shares in the portfolio). Shares are reflected in the balance sheet according to their type in the items: “common shares” and “preferred shares”.

Common shares give their owners the right to vote at shareholders' meetings. Unfixed dividends are accrued on common shares, the amount and payment of which depend on the financial results of the enterprise. Preferred shares do not give their owners voting rights at shareholders' meetings. Preferred shares accrue fixed dividends, the payment of which, in general, does not depend on the financial performance of the enterprise.

Preferred shares may be cumulative or non-cumulative. Cumulation means the property of maintaining dividends. If in some year, due to the difficult financial situation of the enterprise, dividends on common and even preferred shares were not paid, the owners of cumulative shares will be able to receive them in subsequent periods. For non-cumulative shares, dividends not paid in the current period are not retained in subsequent periods.

Owners of preferred shares have a preferential right to receive dividends and return of invested capital in the event of liquidation of the enterprise. Shares have a par value, at which they are recorded on the balance sheet, and an exchange (market) value.

What is the difference between ordinary shares and preferred shares?

The item “Additional capital” is formed due to:

Share premium from the sale of part of the shares at a price higher than the nominal price;

No increase in value current assets(revaluation reserve);

Positive exchange rate difference on foreign currency deposits in the authorized capital.

The item “Reserve capital” includes various funds and reserves, which are established for unforeseen expenses and are considered a reasonable precaution. Depending on the sources of formation and terms of use, funds and reserves can be reflected both in the “Equity” section and in the “Debt capital” section.

There are two groups of reserves.

First group to establish:

Reserves required by law;

Voluntary reserves (formed in accordance with the constituent documents).

Second group by nature:

Reserves having the nature of additional capital;

Reserves intended to cover current or future losses or expenses;

Provision for doubtful debts;

Compensation funds (depreciation funds, etc.).

In the classification by nature, the first group of reserves represents reserve capital, the source of which is net profit. The second group of reserves represents estimated reserves. The source of their formation is gross profit. Valuation reserves are created in order to protect the enterprise from unstable market conditions and inflationary losses and are reflected in the statements in the form of discounts subject to deduction from the corresponding balance sheet asset items.

retained earnings

The item “Retained earnings” includes both retained earnings (uncovered loss) of previous years and retained earnings (uncovered loss) of the reporting period.

The article “Retained earnings” records the accumulated profit indicator calculated in the statement of accumulated profit.

As part of the accumulated profit, a profit reserve may be allocated, which is formed by annual deductions from net profit until the value of the reserve reaches a certain value (25% of the value of share capital). This reserve is not affected by the distribution of dividends, but can be used to maintain them at the proper level in unprofitable years or converted into share capital by resolution of the board of directors.

long term duties

The “Long-term liabilities” section includes liabilities that must be repaid within a period exceeding a year, including:

Long-term accounts payable;

Long-term bonds;

Lease payments;

Debt on pension payments.

Long-term loans

The item “Long-term accounts payable” includes liabilities for long-term loans received by the enterprise. Part of the long-term accounts payable, the payment of which comes due in the current period, is transferred to the “Short-term liabilities” section.

Bonds

The item “Bonds” includes bonds issued in order to attract additional funds to finance the activities of the enterprise. Bonds are debt securities and represent a borrowing relationship. When purchasing a bond, an agreement is drawn up between the bondholder (creditor) and the issuing company (borrower), according to which the issuing company undertakes to repay the principal amount of the debt and pay accrued interest within a specified period (repayment period). Bonds may be sold at par, at a premium (above par), or at a discount (below par). Both the premium and discount, as well as the costs associated with issuing the bonds (classified as deferred expenses), are gradually written off (amortized) over the life of the loan.

The issuing enterprise, on the basis of an agreement with the bondholder, forms a bond redemption fund through periodic deductions from profits. The funds of the fund for the period until the bonds are redeemed can be invested in income-generating securities. Control over the receipt and expenditure of funds from the fund is exercised by the bondholders or the appointed principal of the loan. The presence of a bond sinking fund gives investors greater confidence in the securities of the issuing company.

Rental payments

The article “Rental payments” is recorded in the section of long-term liabilities if the company leases funds on a long-term (capital) lease. Lease refers to the fixed-term and paid possession and use of property, based on an agreement between the owner of the property - the lessor and the lessee.

A lease is recognized as long-term if at least one of the following conditions is met:

The lease term covers 75% or more of the useful life of the property;

Upon expiration of the lease term, the leased assets become the property of the lessee;

The tenant has the opportunity, upon expiration of the lease term, to renew it at a minimum price (much lower than the market average);

The discounted value of the minimum lease payments is equal to or greater than 90% of the current value of the property.

Funds rented under long-term lease terms are recorded in the Western balance sheet as their own, which demonstrates one of the principles of including data in reporting - the predominance of economic content over the legal norm. The liability side of the balance sheet records the entire amount of lease payments that the company must pay during the lease term.

Reserves and funds

Reserves and funds. As part of the section “Long-term liabilities”, funds and reserves that have the nature of debts can be created through deductions from pre-tax profits. These include: enterprise pension funds; long-term employee deposits; reserve for paying bonuses to staff, etc. Debt in pension payments arises if the enterprise has a pension fund. The source of formation of the enterprise pension fund are periodic contributions by the employer and employees. The fund's funds are used to pay pensions, disability benefits, or in the event of the death of an employee. The presence of a pension fund at first glance indicates a stable financial position of the enterprise. However, to complete the picture, it is necessary to find out how much pension obligations are funded.

The items “Long-term liabilities” and “Short-term liabilities” in the balance sheet of a Western enterprise can be combined under the name “external liabilities”. In accordance with international financial accounting and reporting standards, external liabilities are understood as future losses in economic benefits that may arise as a result of an enterprise's existing obligations to transfer funds or provide services to other enterprises as a result of concluded transactions or events.

Short-term liabilities

The section “Current liabilities” includes liabilities that are covered by current assets or are repaid as a result of the formation of new short-term liabilities. The maturity of short-term liabilities does not exceed a year. Current liabilities are recorded on the balance sheet or at a current price that reflects future cash outflows; or at the price on the date of debt repayment. However, these estimates do not differ significantly from each other due to the short repayment period.

Accounts payable

The item “Accounts payable” includes obligations arising from the purchase of goods or services on the terms of a commercial loan, i.e. with deferred payment, usually for a period of 30 to 60 days. In this case, a commercial loan is issued by an entry in an open account.

Bills payable

The item “Bills payable” includes bills payable for trade transactions, which are a written obligation of an enterprise to pay within a certain period of time for goods or services purchased on the terms of a commercial loan.

Short-term debts

The article “Short-term debt certificates” includes short-term debt certificates resulting from the provision of cash loans to an enterprise by banks or other credit institutions. The repayment amount of a short-term loan includes the nominal amount and accrued interest.

Short-term debt certificates include part of long-term obligations, the payment period of which occurs in the current period in following cases:

If the company expects to pay off the corresponding debt using funds reflected in current assets;

If this debt should not be renewed;

If this debt is not repaid by issuing new shares;

If the company violated the terms of the agreement on the provision of borrowed funds, which gives the lender the right to claim his money ahead of schedule.

Tax debt

The item “Tax debt” reflects the enterprise’s debt to the budget.

Deferred taxes

The item “Deferred taxes” includes accrued but unpaid taxes. Deferred taxes are a kind of loan that the state provides to an enterprise.

Wages arrears

The item “Wages arrears” includes wages accrued but not paid to employees.

Advances received

The item “Advances received” includes various advances received by the enterprise. An advance means an amount of money issued against future payments for goods, work, or services provided.

The item “Part of long-term liabilities” includes a part of long-term liabilities that are due for payment in the current period.

The item “Accumulated liabilities” includes liabilities accrued in the reporting year, but not yet paid at the balance sheet date.

Unforeseen obligations

The item "Unforeseen liabilities" includes obligations of the enterprise that may arise in the future as a result of transactions in the past. The reasons for possible losses should be disclosed in the notes to the financial statements. The inclusion of the item “Unforeseen liabilities” in the balance sheet is an expression of the principle of caution (prudence, conservatism), according to which, as mentioned above, the enterprise should take into account potential losses to a greater extent than potential profits.

Liability management

To manage liabilities, it is advisable to use their classification into equity and borrowed capital, which corresponds to the classification of financing into internal and external:

Equity items are sources of internal financing;

Debt capital items are sources of external financing.

Internal financing (self-financing) is carried out at the expense of the enterprise’s own funds in the following areas:

Self-financing to maintain production levels;

Self-financing for production growth.

Self-financing in order to maintain production levels is carried out from the depreciation fund. Self-financing for the purpose of production growth is carried out at the expense of retained earnings and funds and reserves formed from part of it.

External financing (external obligations) is carried out by attracting funds belonging to other economic entities on the terms of urgency, payment, and repayment. Funds raised in this way are called borrowed funds, or borrowed capital. Borrowed funds are recorded in the liabilities side of the balance sheet and represent the liabilities of the enterprise. Increasing borrowed funds (liabilities) to a certain level helps to increase the profitability of the enterprise's own funds (the effect of financial leverage).

Passive as an expression of an asset

“To understand accounting,” Scher argues, “it is extremely important to see this contrast not just as an obvious analytical equation, but to understand its deeper meaning; it is precisely this that represents the opposition, on the one hand, of exchange values, real, existing in tactile form, differentiated into economic and legal categories of the constituent parts of all property of the economy (the left side of the equation) and, on the other hand, the resulting abstract value, the capital of the owner of a given farms."

The fact that a liability is an abstract expression of an asset also explains the objectivity of the equality A = P. Its expression in monetary value is also justified by the fact that a liability is only a specific expression of an asset. Capital (liability) as an expression of an asset should accordingly be valued at the same exchange value as the asset at the balance sheet date.

Any change in K (algebraic sum) must proceed from a change - increase or decrease - in the components of the property (its articles). By “K” here we mean the amount of capital as an expression of an asset, that is, the value of the liabilities of the balance sheet in the modern sense;

No change in K (amount) can take place if the change in parts of the property consists only of moving values, that is, in a simple barter transaction;

Any change in the value of parts of the property that is not compensated by another change should cause a corresponding increase or decrease in K (amount);

Both sides of the equation must always be in a state of equilibrium, balance.

These rules, in essence, being a development of Pacioli’s postulates, give a completely new meaning to balance sheet equality. The equality of the balance sheet here is objective not because this is caused by the preparation of accounting entries using the method double entry, but because the liability is a specific expression of the firm's capital, represented in the asset, and, therefore, we repeat, the valuation of the liability only reflects the valuation of the firm's asset, its capital, shown in the balance sheet.

Assets and liabilities: balancing the balance

Balance equation

Balance equation balance sheet equation - a formula according to which the sum of a corporation's assets must be exactly equal to the sum of its liabilities (liabilities and equity). The word passive is of Latin origin and literally means “passive,” which gives this word, unlike the word active, a certain sad connotation.

A formula expressing the equality of assets and liabilities. There are two main forms of writing this equation:

Assets = raised funds + equity;

Equity = assets - borrowed funds.

The first form represents the view of the business executive at the enterprise (that is, assets are financed from own and borrowed funds), the second is the view of the owner, when the owner’s share is defined as the excess of assets over debt.

It is easiest to understand the accounts payable of an enterprise as a liability. And this is how accountants interpreted it for many centuries.

By the end of the 19th century, the famous Swiss accountant I.F. Sher (1846-1924) expressed this understanding in the famous capital equation formula: that is, if accounts payable (P) are subtracted from the total asset (A), the amount of capital or the amount of the enterprise's own funds will be determined. This is how the passive was understood in all countries, and this is how it was interpreted here in Russia until the beginning of the 20th century.

“For accounting,” Sher revealed this statement, “it is of paramount importance what is taken as the starting point - the balance sheet equation (A = P) or the capital equation (A - P = K). The balance sheet equation corresponds to the external form of accounting: each debtor (debit item) must be confronted by a creditor (credit item). ... The capital equation (A - P = K) expresses, on the contrary, the very essence of accounting; algebraic sum components of property (A - P) equals net property (K); Here, therefore, the calculated net property, the concept of capital, is contrasted with the decomposition of this abstraction into various articles of real, tangible components of property.

But at the very beginning of the now last century, a wonderful Russian accountant, mathematician by training, N.S. Lunsky (1876-1956) introduced a completely different understanding of the passive. In the works of N.S. Lunsky first used the term “sources”, while most experts understood only accounts payable as liabilities on the balance sheet, and equity capital was determined by calculation. N.S. Lunsky extended the concept of liability to equity capital. This understanding led to a new study of debit and credit accounts. Lunsky's theory became widespread. He modified Scher's formula:

As a result, I received a balance equation, on the left side of which the property was presented, and on the right side - its sources. He called the entire right side passive, because according to today current rule about the property isolation of an organization from its owners, what is called capital is nothing more than the organization’s accounts payable to its owners. Consequently, the entire right side of the balance equation is a liability in the broad sense of the word.

Liabilities of commercial banks are the direct opposite of assets - these are the bank's obligations to third parties. But without them, there would be no assets. Thus, it turns out that liabilities are sources, resources of a credit institution’s own funds. They are also usually divided into types.

Types of bank liabilities

Liabilities of Russian commercial banks

Issue of securities. Most often, large banks are joint-stock companies that issue their own shares. Thus, selling at stock market its securities, the bank attracts additional working capital. He has an obligation to the shareholders to pay the cost of the shares if the investor wants to sell his shares, but on the other hand he receives additional funds that can be put into circulation and achieve a certain profitability.

Deposit operations

Deposit operations. Everyone knows that commercial banks through advertising and other means attract free funds from the population and legal entities. In this case, the funds raised are also used to replenish assets to generate income.

Profit direction

Directing the profit received from the bank’s activities to create reserves for the depreciation of securities or to cover possible losses. This value positively characterizes the bank's activities. The larger the reserve fund, the greater its growth from year to year, the more stable and reliable the bank. And this, in turn, influences investors’ decisions about depositing money in a given bank.

Loans

Loans received from other commercial and government entities. A huge part of these obligations is directed towards the bank's lending activities. After all, as a rule, this is his most profitable activity. And, as you know, money must work and generate income, as well as justify interest and other payments that are accrued on money borrowed by the bank.

Passive operations of banks

The definition of a bank as an institution that accumulates available funds and places them on a repayable basis allows us to distinguish passive and active operations in its activities.

Passive operations. With their help, banks form their resources. Their essence is to attract various types deposits, receiving loans from other banks, issuing their own securities, as well as carrying out other operations that result in an increase in banking resources.

Historically, passive operations played a primary and determining role in relation to active ones, since for the implementation of active operations a necessary condition is the sufficiency of resources. A special form of banking resources is the bank's own funds (capital).

In the practice of Russian commercial banks, passive operations include:

Acceptance of deposits;

Opening and maintaining customer accounts, including correspondent banks;

Issue of own securities (shares, bonds), financial instruments (bills of exchange, deposit and savings certificates);

Obtaining interbank loans, including centralized credit resources.

Own capital, having a clearly defined legal basis and functional certainty, is the financial basis for the development of the bank. It allows for compensation payments to depositors and creditors in the event of losses and bankruptcy of banks, and maintains the volume and types of operations in accordance with the bank’s objectives. The bank's own funds include: authorized, reserve and other special funds, as well as profits undistributed during the year.

Authorized fund

The main element of a bank's equity capital is its authorized capital. It is formed depending on the form of organization of the bank. If a bank is created as a joint-stock company, then its authorized capital is formed from the funds of shareholders received from the sale of shares. The bank, which is a limited liability company, forms its authorized capital from share contributions of participants.

Regardless of the bank’s organizational and legal form, its authorized capital is formed entirely from the contributions of participants (legal entities and individuals) and serves as security for their obligations.

The size of the authorized capital, the procedure for its formation and changes are determined by the Bank’s Charter. The amount of authorized capital is not limited by law, but to ensure the stability of the bank, the Central Bank of the Russian Federation sets a minimum amount of authorized capital. The increase in the authorized capital can be carried out both at the expense of the funds of the bank’s shareholders (shareholders), and its own funds (reserve and special funds, dividends of shareholders, profits).

Reserve Fund

The reserve fund is intended to cover possible losses of the bank on its operations. Its value is set as a percentage of the authorized capital. The source of formation of the reserve fund is deductions from profits. It is formed by annual contributions of at least 5% of net profit until it reaches 25% of the authorized capital.

Special funds

Banks also form other special funds: “Depreciation of fixed assets”, “Depreciation of low-value and wearable items”, formed through depreciation charges; economic incentive funds created from profits. The bank's special funds also include funds received by it from the revaluation of fixed assets carried out according to decisions of the Government of Russia; funds from the bank’s sale of shares to their first owners in excess of their nominal value, etc.

The bulk of banks' resources are formed by borrowed funds, which cover up to 90% of the total need for funds to carry out active banking operations.

A commercial bank has the opportunity to attract funds from enterprises, organizations, institutions, the public and other banks in the form of deposits and open appropriate accounts for them.

A passive operation of commercial banks is their receipt of centralized credit resources. Loans from the Central Bank of the Russian Federation are provided to banks through refinancing and on a competitive basis.

The information provided in the liability side of the balance sheet makes it possible to determine what changes have occurred in the structure of equity and borrowed capital, how much long-term and short-term funds have been attracted into the enterprise’s circulation, i.e. the liability side shows where the funds aimed at forming the property of the enterprise came from.

The financial condition of an enterprise largely depends on what funds it has at its disposal and where they are invested. According to the degree of ownership, the capital used is divided into equity and borrowed capital. Based on the duration of use, a distinction is made between long-term (permanent) and short-term capital. The need for equity capital (liabilities) is determined by the self-financing requirements of enterprises. Private capital is the basis for the independence of an enterprise. However, it must be taken into account that financing the activities of an enterprise only from its own funds is not always beneficial for it. It should be borne in mind that if prices for financial resources are low, and the company can provide a higher level of return on invested capital than it pays for credit resources, then by attracting borrowed funds, it can increase the return on equity.

At the same time, if the enterprise’s funds are mainly created through short-term liabilities, then its financial position will be unstable, since short-term capital requires constant operational work aimed at monitoring their timely return and attracting others into circulation for a short time capital.

Consequently, the financial position of the enterprise largely depends on how optimal the ratio of equity and debt capital is. Developing the right financial strategy is one of the main conditions for the effective operation of an enterprise.

When analyzing the sources of formation of an enterprise's property, absolute and relative changes in the enterprise's own and borrowed funds should be considered. In our case, the main source of formation of the enterprise’s property is its own capital. At the beginning of the year, its share in the structure of liabilities was 98.39%. At the end of the reporting period, the share of equity in the structure of liabilities decreased slightly (by 7.07%) and amounted to 91.32%. This structure of sources of property formation is a sign of high financial stability of the enterprise.

At the same time, it should be noted that the assessment of changes that have occurred in the capital structure may be different from the positions of the investor and the enterprise. It is more reliable for banks and other investors if the client has a higher share of equity capital. This eliminates financial risk. Enterprises, as a rule, are interested in attracting borrowed funds. By obtaining borrowed funds at a lower interest rate than the economic profitability of the enterprise, it is possible to expand production and increase the return on equity capital of the enterprise.

Construction of enterprise liabilities

Let's take a closer look at the structure of liabilities. The obligations of an enterprise that are due in the near future and those that are due in a year or later are not of equal value. It is of fundamental importance for the company whether creditors demand repayment of debts now or this will happen, for example, in a year. Typically, enterprises take out large loans for a long period of time. This can happen, for example, when purchasing expensive equipment. Then for the user financial statements It is fundamentally important to know whether these several million are current debt or should it be paid off gradually?

Therefore, liabilities should be divided into "long-term liabilities" and "short-term liabilities." Now the structure of our balance sheet much better reflects the specifics of the financial condition of the enterprise. But still, the structure of assets and liabilities is not completely complete.

It often happens that an enterprise incurs expenses at one time, which, in fact, do not entirely relate specifically to the current period. For example, employee vacations. The company incurs the cost of paying for an employee’s vacation once a year, but it would be more correct to say that every month an employee of the company general case receives the right to two days of paid leave. This means that it is better to “postpone” in advance - reserve a certain amount and attribute it to the costs of the current period. We can say the same thing if it is customary for an enterprise to pay bonuses at the end of the year. Another similar case may be bank loans, payments on bond loans and similar payments if, for example, they are paid once a quarter or once every six months.

If you keep records “according to all the rules,” then every month the enterprise must reflect in the accounting a certain amount, which shows that the deadline for fulfilling the obligations of the enterprise will come in the near future. And this is absolutely fair. For example, if we return to the example with the same vacations, then it is fair to note that the reason for the costs of vacation payments are precisely those months in which the employee works conscientiously. Therefore, it would be logical to include payment for two days of future vacation in the expenses of the current period, while simultaneously reflecting this amount in liabilities, since it will be paid when the employee takes vacation. This is called creating reserves for liabilities and payments.

Thus, another section should appear in our balance sheet - “Providing for future expenses and payments.” Well, if we have “Deferred expenses”, then there should also be deferred income. Therefore, the final balance sheet structure should look like this:

Thus, the structure of assets and liabilities of an enterprise contains three groups of assets and five groups of liabilities. A balance sheet section is a group of items in the assets or liabilities of the balance sheet, grouped according to the principles of purpose, urgency and turnover. Their grouping is subordinated to the tasks of monitoring and analyzing the financial condition of the enterprise.

A balance sheet item is a balance sheet line reflecting, as of a certain date, the types of funds of the enterprise (in assets) or the types of sources of their formation (in liabilities), which contain balances (balances) of one or simultaneously several accounting registers presented as a synthetic value. Each indicator shown in the balance sheet (balance sheet item) has a name that defines the object of accounting and the monetary value of the item (in a single monetary measurement at actual cost).

For constant systematic monitoring of the movement of each type of economic assets and the sources of their formation, a system of accounts is used. The value in the accounts at the end of each reporting period is the source for filling out balance sheet items.

In the balance sheet, to analyze the financial condition and control over the economic activities of the enterprise, two rows of data are given (vertically): at the beginning of the reporting period calendar year(in international financial statements at the beginning financial year) and at the end of the last reporting period. The balance sheet currency is the sum of the balance sheet items, and the sum of the asset items is equal to the sum of the liability items.

Sources and links

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ru.wikipedia.org - a resource with articles on many topics, a free encyclopedia Wikipedia

abc.informbureau.com - economic dictionary of terms, events, facts and phenomena in modern Russia

youtube.com - YouTube, the largest video hosting in the world

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profmeter.com.ua - information site all about economics

all-about-investments.ru - information portal all the most interesting things in the world of finance and economics

finance-place.ru - information portal Financial analysis and management

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buharick.ru - explanatory accounting dictionary ACCOUNTING dictionaryARIK

liga.net - information portal about everything LIGABusinessInform

banki-delo.ru - website Banking about banks, loans, interest, money and finance

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malb.ru - economic portal small business step by step

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the property of an enterprise that it disposes of to carry out its activities and make a profit. Characteristics and composition assets in accounting - these You will learn the nuances when you read this article.

Accounting of enterprise assets

Assets in accounting are owned real estate, goods, raw materials, products, money and monetary claims to counterparties, other accounting items that are reflected on the left side of the enterprise’s balance sheet. For accounting of the assets of the enterprise and operations carried out with them, data from the following main accounting accounts is used: 01-26, 29, 40, 41, 44, 45, 50-58, 60, 62, 68-73, 75, 76, 97.

Assets are divided into:

• negotiable and non-current;
• tangible and intangible (hereinafter referred to as intangible assets);
• high-, medium-, low-liquid and illiquid.

Current assets are those items that are consumed in the course of business activities (for example, inventories, cash, etc.). And non-current assets do not directly participate in the economic turnover of the enterprise (for example, fixed assets, long-term investments, etc.), but are capable of generating profit for it. Full list those objects that are included in current and non-current assets are reflected in paragraph 20 of PBU 4/99:

1. Non-negotiable:

• NMA ( business reputation, patents, know-how, licenses, etc.);
• OS (land, buildings/structures, machinery/equipment, unfinished capital investments, etc.);
• investments in assets that generate income (property for rental/leasing);
• Deferred tax assets;
• financial investments (long-term loans issued, investments).

1. Negotiable:

• inventories (raw materials/materials, work in progress costs, deferred costs, goods, finished products);
• VAT on acquisitions;
• debts of debtors (debts, bills receivable, advances issued, debts of founders on deposits in the management company);
• financial investments (short-term loans to companies; company shares purchased from its own shareholders);
• money (cash and non-cash, in domestic and foreign currency).

Assets can be tangible or intangible. Unlike tangible assets, intangible assets include those objects that do not have a tangible form (for example, property rights, business reputation of the enterprise, intellectual property). Despite the fact that intangible assets do not have a form, they can be easily identified (distinguished from other types of property). Moreover, the rights to such assets are confirmed exclusively in documentary form.

Accounting for intangible assets

In accounting, the unit for accounting for intangible assets is an object with an assigned inventory number, and the object is understood as the entire scope of rights that one object gives a company: a patent, certificate and other similar documents (letter of the Ministry of Finance dated October 21, 2014 No. 07-06/53102) .

The rules for the formation in accounting of information about the state and movement of intangible assets are prescribed in PBU 14/2007. In accordance with this provision, intangible assets are accepted for accounting at the original cost formed on the date of their receipt by the enterprise.

Moreover, this cost includes all costs for the acquisition/creation of intangible assets and bringing it to a usable state. Clause 10 of PBU 14/2007 indicates those costs by the amount of which the cost of intangible assets accepted for accounting cannot be increased. If the intangible asset was transferred as a gift, then such an asset is accounted for at the current market (expert) price.

Accounting for other assets

Almost all assets are registered at their actual cost. Features of accounting for assets in foreign currency are contained in PBU 3/2006, intangible assets - in PBU 14/2007, inventories - in PBU 5/01, accounting for financial investments - in PBU 19/02. The procedure and rules for accounting for assets such as fixed assets are prescribed in PBU 6/01.

You can familiarize yourself with the features of accounting for various types of assets in the following articles:

• low-liquidity (overdue debts, securities that are not quoted on the stock market, etc.);
• medium-liquid (fixed assets that are in demand);
• highly liquid (examples - cash or money in a bank account, government securities, etc.).

Results

In accordance with the structure of the balance sheet, assets can be divided into current and non-current - such a division indicates how intensively assets participate in business turnover during the reporting period. The accounting procedure for various types of assets is established in special accounting provisions.

For healthy and quality sex life It is important to determine the sexual role of each partner. It is known that there are several roles of partners, namely active, passive and generalist. First you need to figure out who is an asset and a liability in sex. It should be remembered that both roles are equal.

Assets

Let's consider what an asset is. The asset often acts as a partner from whom the initiative in sex comes. The active is called so because it produces active actions over the passive in sex. The assets themselves recognize the pleasure that comes from inducing the other partner into a passive role. However, the sexual role also manifests itself in Everyday life. For example, an active person in sex will show clear dominance in oral communication with a person who manifests himself as a passive person in sex. When visiting a restaurant, the active will offer to pay the bill, and when entering the premises, the passive will be let in first. It is believed that assets dominate over liabilities in any situation, but in real life this is not entirely true.

Passive

Now we need to figure out who the passive is. A partner who plays a passive role in sex, takes on the actions of an active partner, and in other conditions often follows the lead of the active one, listens to his desires and rarely puts forward his own proposals. Often the younger partner plays a passive role. However, one should not think that people with low self-esteem or those who prefer to “stay back” in sex are passive. Passives are very often people who are active social life and have influence, but in sexual matters they prefer to relax and give an active role to their partner.

Station wagon

A universalist is considered to be a person who from time to time prefers to change his own role: to be either an asset or a liability. In this case, a pair for a station wagon can be either a station wagon, an asset or a liability. But pairs with two assets or two liabilities are quite difficult to come across. According to statistics, 57% of people consider themselves generalists in bed, 24% are inclined to take an active role and 19% to a passive role in sex. If partners often change roles in sex, then they should be considered generalists.