8 pound gun 1 26 model. Armament of armies
Caliber of rifled small arms
The most popular pistol calibers:
577 (14.7 mm) - the largest of the serial ones, the Eley revolver (Great Britain);
45 (11.4 mm) - the "national" caliber of the United States, most common in the Wild West. In 1911, the Colt M1911 automatic pistol of this caliber entered service with the Army and Navy and, having been modernized several times, served until 1985, when the US Armed Forces switched to 9mm for the Beretta_92.
38; .357(9mm) - currently considered optimal for hand weapons(less - the bullet is too “weak”, more - the gun is too heavy).
25 (6.35 mm) - TOZ-8.
2.7 mm - the smallest of the serial ones, had a “Hummingbird” pistol of the Pieper system (Belgium).
Caliber of smoothbore hunting weapons
For smoothbore hunting rifles, calibers are measured differently: caliber number means number of bullets, which can be cast from 1 English pound of lead (453.6 g). The bullets must be spherical, identical in mass and diameter, which is equal to the internal diameter of the barrel in its middle part. The smaller the trunk diameter, the more quantity bullets Thus twenty gauge is less than sixteen, A sixteenth less than twelfth.
| Caliber designation | Designation option | Barrel diameter, mm | Varieties |
|---|---|---|---|
| 36 | .410 | 10.4 | - |
| 32 | .50 | 12.5 | - |
| 28 | - | 13.8 | - |
| 24 | - | 14.7 | - |
| 20 | - | 15.6 (15.5 magnum) | - |
| 16 | - | 16.8 | - |
| 12 | - | 18.5 (18.2 magnum) | - |
| 10 | - | 19.7 | - |
| 4 | - | 26.5 | - |
In the designation of cartridges for smooth-bore weapons, as in the designation of cartridges for rifled weapons, it is customary to indicate the length of the sleeve, for example: 12/70 - 12 gauge cartridge with a sleeve 70 mm long. The most common case lengths: 65, 70, 76 (magnum). Along with them there are: 60 and 89 (super magnum). The most common hunting rifles in Russia are 12 gauge. There are (in descending order of prevalence) 16, 20, 36 (.410), 32, 28, and the spread of caliber 36 (.410) is due solely to the release of Saiga carbines of the corresponding caliber.
The actual bore diameter of a given caliber in each country may differ from those indicated within certain limits. In addition, we should not forget that the shotgun barrel hunting weapons usually has various types constrictions (chokes), through which not any bullet of its caliber can pass through without damaging the barrel, so in many cases bullets are made according to the diameter of the choke and are equipped with easily cut sealing bands, which are cut off when passing through the choke. It should be noted that the common caliber of signal pistols - 26.5 mm - is nothing more than the 4th hunting caliber.
Caliber of Russian artillery, aerial bombs, torpedoes and rockets
In Europe the term artillery caliber appeared in 1546, when Hartmann of Nuremberg developed a device called the Hartmann scale. It was a prismatic tetrahedral ruler. On one side the units of measurement (inches) were marked, on the other three the actual dimensions, depending on the weight in pounds, of the iron, lead and stone cores respectively.
Example(approximately):
1 face - mark lead kernels weighing 1 lb - corresponds to 1.5 inches
2nd face - iron cores 1 lb. - from 2.5
3rd side - stone cores 1 lb. - from 3
Thus, knowing either the size or weight of the projectile, it was possible to easily assemble, and most importantly, manufacture ammunition. A similar system existed in the world for about 300 years.
In Russia before Peter 1, no standards existed. At the beginning of the 18th century, on the instructions of Peter the Great, Feldzeichmeister General Count Bruce developed a domestic caliber system based on the Hartmann scale. She divided the tools according to artillery weight projectile (cast iron core). The unit of measurement was the artillery pound - a cast iron ball with a diameter of 2 inches and a weight of 115 spools (about 490 grams). A scale was also created that correlated artillery weight with the diameter of the bore, that is, with what we now call caliber. It did not matter what types of projectiles the gun fired - buckshot, bombs or anything else. Only the theoretical artillery weight that a gun could fire given its size was taken into account. This system was introduced by royal decree in the city and lasted for a century and a half.
Example:
3-pound gun, 3 pound gun- official name;
artillery weight 3 pounds- the main characteristics of the weapon.
scale size 2.8 inches- bore diameter, an auxiliary characteristic of the gun.
In practice, it was a small cannon that fired cannonballs weighing about 1.5 kg and had a caliber (in our understanding) of about 70 mm.
D. E. Kozlovsky in his book translates Russian artillery weights into metric calibers:
3 lbs - 76 mm.
Explosive shells (bombs) occupied a special place in this system. Their weight was measured in pounds (1 pood = 40 trade pounds = approx. 16.3 kg). This is due to the fact that the bombs were hollow, with explosives inside, that is, made of materials of different densities. During their production, it was much more convenient to operate with generally accepted weight units.
D. Kozlovsky gives the following. ratios:
1/4 pood - 120 mm
A special weapon was intended for bombs - a bombard, or mortar. Its tactical and technical characteristics, combat missions and calibration system allow us to talk about special form artillery. In practice, small bombards often fired ordinary cannonballs, and then the same gun had different calibers- general at 12 pounds and special at 10 pounds.
The introduction of calibers, among other things, became a good financial incentive for soldiers and officers. Thus, in the “Book of Marine Charter”, printed in St. Petersburg in 1720, in the chapter “On rewarding” the amounts of reward payments for guns taken from the enemy are given:
30 pound - 300 rubles
In the second half of the 19th century, with the introduction of rifled artillery, the scale was adjusted due to changes in the characteristics of the projectile, but the principle remained the same.
Interesting fact: Nowadays artillery pieces, calibrated by weight, are still in service. This is due to the fact that in Great Britain a similar system was maintained until the end of the Second World War. Upon its completion, a large number of guns were sold and transferred to countries like this. called Third world. In the WB itself, 25-pound (87.6 mm) guns were in service until the end of the 70s. last century, and now remain in fireworks units.
In 1877, the inch system was introduced. At the same time, the previous sizes on the “bruce” scale had nothing to do with the new system. True, the “Bryusov” scale and artillery weight remained for some time after 1877 due to the fact that many obsolete guns remained in the army.
Example:
The “six-inch” of the cruiser “Aurora”, from which the October Revolution began, had a caliber of 6 inches or 152 mm.
From 1917 to the present. time caliber is measured in millimeters. In the USSR and Russia it is measured by the rifling fields (the smallest bore diameter). In the USA, UK and others. other countries according to their bottoms (largest diameter), but also in millimeters.
Sometimes the caliber of a gun is used to measure the length of the barrel.
Examples:
153 mm howitzer, 20 calibers (or 153-20). Finding out the barrel length is quite simple.
24-pounder gun, 10 calibers. Here you first need to find out in which system the gun is calibrated.
The caliber of aircraft bombs adopted in Russia is measured by mass, that is, in kilograms and tons.
The caliber of torpedoes is measured in mm. by their diameter.
Caliber rockets(unmanaged
The first rapid-firing 18-pounder Mk I gun entered service with the Royal Artillery in 1904, and by 1914 it had become the standard field gun in service with British and Commonwealth armies. Some of its samples were even produced in India. The design of the 18-pounder gun was based on designs from the Woolwich plant, Elswick and Vickers workshops. The gun barrel was wrapped in wire, had a simple breech and was mounted on a carriage with a trunk. A regular shield was provided. Shrapnel was used as ammunition.
Very soon the basic model of the gun was modified. Firstly, the inner tube of the gun barrel became removable, although when this gun went to war in 1914, it was practically no different from the basic version. The return springs of the gun, which returned the barrel to its original position after recoil, could not withstand prolonged firing and broke, which turned the gun into a pile of iron. All the gunsmiths could do was change the springs, which took a lot of time and effort. This continued until a modification of this gun appeared in the army. A completely new hydropneumatic recoil mechanism was developed, which was mounted inside the existing spring housing, making the gun more reliable.
During the First World War, the gun was subjected to another modernization. The original carriage included a trunk that was suitable for horse-drawn traction. However, this trunk went under the breech, which limited the elevation angle, and therefore the firing range. The result was the 18-pounder Mk IV gun (modifications were designated by numbers). In fact, this was a new development. First of all, the Mk IV was equipped with a box-shaped frame, which ensured that the barrel was raised at a greater angle and increased the firing range, in addition, a new bolt mechanism of the Asbury model was proposed.
The new recoil mechanism, located under the gun barrel, used the free piston principle, using oil and compressed air for smoother and more reliable movement. The cradle has been changed. The result was a fully rotating gun. It not only had an increased firing range, but was also more stable and had a high rate of fire - for a trained crew, 30 rounds per minute was common.
By the time the 18-pounder Mk IV entered production the war had already ended, but it was the weapon of choice for the Royal Artillery between the wars. By that time, the gun began to be supplied not only to the troops of Britain and the Commonwealth countries. Since 1917, a large batch of these guns was acquired by the US Army. Later they appeared in Ireland, the Baltic countries and China. Most of the 18-pounder guns found their use during the Second World War, and the last gun was removed from service with the Irish Army only in the 70s of the twentieth century.
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An important advantage of the Russian cavalry was its excellent cavalry, which, if inferior to anyone, was only inferior to the cavalry of the English army. At the same time, both the horses themselves and their dressage were at their best.
Artillery
And finally, the Russian artillery was most decisively transformed. As a study by the commission of General A. A. Arakcheev showed, artillery had previously been underestimated, and actual artillery fire was 6–10 times superior to small arms fire. And this meant that it was fire field artillery ensured the success of the army that had it in sufficient quantity. But at the same time, major shortcomings in the composition and organization of Russian artillery were revealed. The artillery was extremely varied in caliber, which made it difficult to control fire and supply ammunition. In addition, there were no horses in permanent composition batteries Usually mobilized horses were used, often of questionable condition, which had a bad effect on mobility. In addition, this did not provide sufficient speed for deploying guns into position and removing them from position.Russian foot artillery
To solve these problems, Arakcheev introduced “artillery” horses, which should “never be separated from the company.” In 1803, according to the model French artillery, standard charging boxes were introduced on the limbers, which made it possible to sharply reduce the time it took to prepare batteries for firing, since the ammunition necessary for combat moved along with the gun and ended up directly in position and in a convenient container. In 1805, artillery was unified with a sharp reduction in the number of artillery systems and calibers used. The carriages, limbers, harness and charging boxes were also unified. The low-powered regimental artillery was effectively eliminated, and its role was now to be filled by light artillery companies of 6-pounders and 1/4-pound unicorns.
Charging box
Old style 6-pounder gun
Organizationally, the artillery was consolidated into artillery brigades within infantry divisions. Such brigades consisted of battery and light companies. In addition, there were horse artillery companies as part of the cavalry corps and separate companies that were not part of the divisions.
In general, Russian artillery took first place in the world in terms of specific power (weight of a salvo per number of barrels). At the same time, it was distinguished by its harmonious organization and, thanks to the constant high-quality horse composition and the reduction in the weight of the guns, excellent mobility on the battlefield and on the march.
Field artillery charging box
Field artillery charging box
French army
The French army improved throughout the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. And very often she was an innovator in military affairs. For example, it was in the French army that they first switched to the widespread use of shock column tactics. After clashes with the Russian army in 1805–1807, it underwent a smaller scale of reform than the Russian army, as it demonstrated its superiority. Basically, the reform of this period was expressed in the abandonment of semi-brigades and the restoration of the regimental level.
Infantry
The French infantry corps, which was the main strategic and operational unit of the French army, did not have such a clear and fixed structure as the Russian one. In addition, unlike the Russian corps, it was the highest organizational unit (for the Russians it was an army that included several corps) and, including all three types of troops, could conduct completely independent actions in the strategic direction without additional reinforcement. It consisted of 2–5 infantry divisions and 1–2 cavalry brigades or divisions, as well as corps artillery, which partly compensated for the French divisional artillery, which was weaker than in the Russian army.
The infantry division consisted of 3 brigades of 2 regiments each and usually 2 artillery batteries. The regiment consisted of 4 line and one reserve battalion. True, this division was not rigid. For example, in Davout’s 1st Infantry Corps, the regiments consisted of 5 line battalions and 1 reserve, but the brigade consisted of one regiment, that is, in fact, there was no regimental link. The battalion consisted of 6 companies, 1 grenadier, 4 fusiliers and one voltigeur.
Voltigeurs were an analogue of Russian rangers, but, unlike the latter, most often they did not stand out in separate brigades, regiments and battalions, but were dispersed as part of line battalions. This did not make it possible to use them separately as fighting forces on the battlefield. But this order made it possible to better organize the interaction of battalion columns and rifle chains in the division’s battle formations. This also allowed the French to use more complex ones than in the Russian army, battle formations divisions.
Voltigeurs were considered light infantry. They were armed with both smooth-bore guns and rifled carbines, as well as cutlasses. Voltigeurs, unlike Russian rangers, did not seriously rely on single actions away from their troops and were mainly trained to act in loose formation in the battle formations of divisions and regiments - therefore they were better prepared for such actions.
Their percentage in French units was somewhat lower than the percentage of rangers in the Russian army, which was compensated by a higher percentage in allied units, for example, in Marshal Davout’s Westphalian Corps.
French line infantry
Fusilier companies were the line infantry of the French army. Linear infantry, as in the Russian army, was intended for a bayonet attack in battalion columns or for a salvo firefight in a deployed linear formation. But unlike the Russian infantry, the French fusiliers deployed not in a 4-rank, but in a 3-rank formation. This difference was due best characteristics French guns and the level of training of the infantry. In practice, this meant that the French battalion, firing in deployed formation, had approximately a 25% advantage in fire performance. The line infantry were armed with smoothbore rifles with a bayonet. In the training of fusiliers, much more time was devoted to drill training and actions in close formation, mainly with an attack orientation.
French voltigeurs
The French grenadiers were noticeably different from the Russians. Grenadier companies were also elite, but differed in the principle of formation - to be enrolled there, a soldier had to have 4 years of service or 2 campaigns behind him. Four privates and one corporal in the grenadier company were sappers. Their distinctive feature traditionally had a leather apron and a large beard (a tradition that continues today in the French army) - they had to be strong and tall, since they walked in front of the assault columns and had to open doors, windows, gates and walls with their large axes populated areas where the enemy was holed up. However, in practice, those with the thickest beards were often hired as sappers.
In general, the French infantry, in its organization and composition, was maximally adapted to achieve success in active, attacking operations in field battle.
Cavalry
The French cavalry, in contrast to the Russian, was considered primarily as impact force on the battlefield, so its basis was made up of cuirassier and carabinieri units and also horse-jaeger units intended for the battlefield. In addition, there were hussar, dragoon and uhlan regiments. The last ones were mostly Polish.Because of this composition, the French cavalry was used to a limited extent as an independent force. operational force, but had greater significance on the battlefield than the Russian one. Napoleon again began to use cavalry as a ram when breaking through the enemy front, although this was considered unprofitable in the era of the total armament of armies small arms and the high saturation of armies with field artillery. Heavy cavalry made it possible to quickly break the distance and overthrow the enemy. The main thing was to bring her into battle in right moment.
"Old Guard", grenadiers
Cuirassiers were practically no different from Russians and also represented men-at-arms, perfectly suited for breaking infantry squares. The weapons were similar, only instead of cuirassier carbines, blunderbusses were used, adapted for firing at infantry at point-blank range at full gallop. The carabinieri of the French army differed from the cuirassiers essentially only in their uniforms and in the same way could successfully attack infantry.
The hussars, whose weapons and uniforms were modeled on the Hungarian cavalrymen, acted as light cavalry capable of pursuing the enemy, engaging with enemy cavalry and performing rapid maneuvers. Actually, the name “hussars” was borrowed from the Hungarian “huzzar”.
The lancers, another part of the light cavalry, were Polish cavalry with their traditional weapons, including the pike. Expectations that the pike would significantly increase the capabilities of cavalry in the fight against infantry did not materialize. But the pike turned out to be useful in battles with cavalry.
Saxon cuirassiers
An important innovation in Napoleon's army was the mounted chasseurs. They were light cavalry, but, like cuirassiers, they were used for action in the thick of battle. Mounted rangers were intended mainly for conducting fire combat both from horseback and on foot.
Napoleon's cavalry demonstrated its capabilities by overthrowing the enemy at Austerlitz and breaking through his front at Wagram.
Cuirassiers and carabiniers were consolidated into heavy cavalry divisions, lancers, hussars and horse huntsmen into light ones. The division included 2–3 brigades of two regiments and sometimes an artillery regiment. But in heavy divisions there were often brigades of the same regiment. Each regiment consisted of 4 squadrons.
The French cavalry corps consisted of 1–2 heavy, 1 light cavalry divisions and sometimes corps artillery. These corps were an important component of attack tactics and were used primarily for rapid frontal attacks and development of success on the battlefield. It was the French who were the first in Europe of that period to use large masses of cavalry in battle.
Despite having excellent training and weapons, the French cavalry had one big disadvantage. Due to the limited capabilities of the stud farms of Napoleon's empire and heavy losses, the French cavalry had, on average, a worse cavalry composition than the Russian cavalry. This limited the mobility of the French cavalry and prevented them from being used on greater depth. Although in a frontal attack on the battlefield this did not matter much.
Artillery
French artillery was at the forefront of its fleet and organization even before the French Revolution. Faced with the superiority of enemy artillery in the mid-18th century, the French were the first to undertake a radical and strictly thought-out reorganization. The great engineer and artilleryman General Gribeauval introduced such generally accepted innovations as limbers with standardized charging boxes, new frame sights, vertical aiming screw mechanisms, “long-range” buckshot in tin caps, and returned to cap loading.In 1803, Napoleon carried out another reform that affected the number of calibers. For example, 8-pounder and 4-pounder guns were replaced with 6-pounder ones, since, according to Napoleon's observations, in battle the guns of both old calibers were used in the same way and the differences between them were not taken into account. A longer howitzer of a slightly reduced caliber was introduced to achieve greater range, which made it possible to unify the ammunition with 24-pounder siege guns.
By the time of the invasion of Russia, French artillery was reduced to 8-gun companies with 6 guns and 2 howitzers, which made it possible to use the battery for a wide variety of purposes, although it complicated fire control and supplying the battery with ammunition. Reserve (or corps) artillery had batteries of 12-pounder and 8-pounder guns and large-caliber howitzers and was intended for long-range combat and the destruction of fortifications and suppression of enemy artillery. Divisional artillery was represented mainly by 6-pound and 4-pound cannons and medium-caliber howitzers (24 pounds) and was used in the division's combat formations at the starting positions for direct fire support. The regimental artillery had a different organization of batteries - 4-guns and was equipped with 3-pounder and 4-pounder cannons. She was supposed to accompany the attacking infantry with fire and wheels.
In terms of mobility and firepower per number of guns, French field artillery was somewhat weaker than Russian due to large quantity light 3-pound and 4-pound guns. But it included both heavy long-range guns and regimental artillery, intended for operations in infantry combat formations not only in defense, but also in the offensive (which allowed it to be used more flexibly), and had more powerful artillery systems in heavy artillery.
Armament of armies
Russian army
IN early XIX century, the Russian army was faced with the enemy's superiority in small arms. This fact was all the more unpleasant because since the time of Peter the Russian small arms was at the proper global level. But the very first clashes between the Russian army and the French showed the superiority of the French gun of the 1777 model over Russian guns. But not only did French weapons provide tactical advantage, it was also more monotonous. And in the Russian army by 1808 the situation was such that 28-caliber guns were in service. At the same time, the guns were both domestically produced and foreign.In 1805, a new, very reliable gun was adopted. But due to the unification of the cartridge with the old one, it turned out to be heavy and with powerful recoil with a modest range and accuracy of fire.
Infantry pistol model 1809
In 1808, relying on captured French guns of the 1777 model and purchased English guns of the 1794 model, Tula gunsmiths managed to develop a model that was not inferior to them. The new gun had, following the example of foreign prototypes, a caliber reduced from 19 mm to 17.8 mm and a reduced weight from 5.16 kg to 4.46 kg. It was possible to increase the initial bullet speed and accuracy of fire. They were also able to increase the number of hits on a standard 1.8 to 1.22 arshin target from 100 steps to more than half the bullets, while when shooting from the old gun the norm was a quarter of the bullets hit. Maximum range shooting reached 300 steps. To speed up loading, all types of guns used paper cartridges containing a bullet and a powder charge.
Gun flintlocks
In 1805, new models of screw guns were created for non-commissioned officers and huntsman rifles. These were rifled weapons that provided the ability to fire at a distance of up to 1 thousand steps, and at 500 steps they showed the same accuracy as a gun of the 1808 model at 100. Also, based on the gun of the 1808 model, cavalry guns were developed.
But, despite the successes in rearming the army, only half of the army managed to rearm with the new model guns. Another disadvantage was the use of an old bayonet - shorter than the French ones, and designed for older, longer guns, which was especially noticeable when repelling cavalry attacks. True, the percentage of rangers armed with rifle weapons has increased noticeably. Now screw guns and fittings were available in the Jaeger regiments at the rate of 12 per company and in the cavalry units, except for the hussars, at the rate of 16 per squadron.
6-inch long (left) and 24-pounder (right) French howitzers
In general, the small arms of the Russian army in 1812 can be assessed as somewhat worse than the French, but at the level of the general armament of the “Great Army”, taking into account the armament of the troops of the allied and subject states.
The characteristics of the main guns in service with the Russian army were as follows.
Model 1805 infantry rifle. Its weight (without bayonet) is 5.16 kg, length 145.8 cm (with bayonet 183 cm). Caliber – 19 mm, bullet weight – 30 g, gunpowder weight – 10.7 g. Maximum firing range 250–300 steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target more than 1/2) – 75 steps.
Infantry rifle model 1808. Its weight (without bayonet) is 4.47 kg, length 145.8 cm (with bayonet 183 cm). Caliber - 17.8 mm, bullet weight - 23.8 g, gunpowder weight - 9.9 g. Maximum firing range is 300 steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) - 100 steps.
Model 1808 infantry rifle
Dragoon rifle model 1809. Its weight (without bayonet) is 3.73 kg. Caliber - 17.8 mm, bullet weight - 23.8 g, gunpowder weight - 9.6 g. Maximum firing range is 200 steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) - 75 steps.
Dragoon rifle model 1809
Model 1805 rifle. Weight 4.26 kg. Caliber - 16.5 mm, bullet weight - 23.8 g. Maximum firing range is 1 thousand steps, effective aimed shooting range (the probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) - 500 steps.
Cavalry fitting of the 1803 model. Weight 2.65 kg. Caliber – 16.5 mm, bullet weight – 23.8 g, gunpowder weight – 7 g. Maximum firing range is 900 steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) – 300 steps.
Cavalry fitting, model 1803
However, due to the lower rate of fire of small arms (compared to artillery) and the shorter range of smoothbore rifles (compared to buckshot), the role of small arms fire in relation to artillery was small, which smoothed out the effect of the difference in small arms.
Jaeger fitting
In the field of artillery, the picture was more favorable for the Russian army. Thanks to the reform, the most used calibers remained in service. These are respectively 12-pounder and 6-pounder guns and 1/2- and 1/4-pound unicorns. The remaining artillery systems were lightened and standardized across carriages. Maintenance of the guns has been simplified. Artillery companies received a mixed composition of guns and howitzers, selected according to the weight of the artillery system - and this allowed flexible use firepower and at the same time equal mobility of all guns in the artillery company. The mobility and weight of a volley of artillery companies were considered more important than range. Therefore, from the 12-pounder guns, medium and small-proportion guns were left; 12-pounder large-proportion guns, not suitable for rapid transportation and deployment, remained only for fortress and siege artillery. The same fate befell the 1-pound unicorn.
1/4 – pound unicorn in section
Sectional view of a 12-pounder small-proportion gun
In addition, much attention was paid to maximizing the rate of fire and ease of loading. For this reason, the gap between the core and the walls of the bore was made larger than that of French guns. Also, for guns of small proportions, the barrel was made shorter. This simplified loading the cannon with a cap, which contained a projectile, wad and gunpowder. But at the same time, such measures reduced the accuracy and range of fire due to the worse obturation of the projectile core in the barrel bore.
Lighting shells
Unitary loading shots
Quite a specific weapon of the Russian army were unicorns. The field artillery of other countries included howitzers, which differed from cannons in having a much shorter and thin-walled barrel. They were intended to fire mainly grenades and bombs and had a lower muzzle velocity and a steeper trajectory. In the Russian army, instead of field howitzers, unicorns were used, which, in fact, occupied an intermediate position between a cannon and a howitzer.
The characteristics of the guns in service with the Russian army were as follows.
12-pounder medium proportion gun
12-pounder model 1805 gun
Gun weight - 800 kg (50 pounds), system weight - 1624 kg (101.5 pounds), caliber - 4.76 inches (121 mm), barrel length - 16.5 caliber, harness - 6 horses.
Firing range: cannonball - 2.8 km (1300 fathoms), grenade - 1.1 km (500 fathoms), buckshot - more than 300 meters (150 fathoms).
12-pounder gun of smaller proportion:
12-pounder small proportion gun
Gun weight - 480 kg (30 pounds), system weight - 1210 kg (75.6 pounds), caliber - 4.76 inches (121 mm), barrel length - 13 calibers, harness - 6 horses.
Firing range: cannonball - 2.6 km (1300 fathoms), grenade - 1.1 km (500 fathoms), buckshot - more than 300 meters (150 fathoms).
6-pounder gun
Model 1805 6-pounder gun
Gun weight - 355 kg (22.2 pounds), system weight - 980 kg (61 pounds), caliber - 3.76 inches (95 mm), barrel length - 17 calibers, harness - 6 horses for cavalry and 4 for foot artillery .
Firing range: cannonball - 2.2 km (1 thousand fathoms), grenade - about 900 m (400 fathoms), buckshot - more than 300 meters (150 fathoms).
1/2 pound unicorn
Gun weight - 680 kg (42.5 pounds), system weight - 1810 kg (113 pounds), caliber - 6.1 inches (155 mm), barrel length - 10.5 caliber, harness - 6 horses.
Firing range: cannonball - 2.2 km (1 thousand fathoms), grenade - 1.3 km (600 fathoms), buckshot - 550 meters (250 fathoms).
1/4 pound unicorn:
Gun weight - 345 kg (21.6 pounds), system weight - 950 kg (59.3 pounds), caliber - 4.84 inches (123 mm), barrel length - 10.5 caliber, harness - 4 horses (6 - equestrian).
Firing range: cannonball - 1.3 km (600 fathoms), grenade - about 900 m (400 fathoms).
If we take into account the number of guns in the army and their superiority in rate of fire over small arms (up to 9 rounds/min. versus 4 rounds/min. for smoothbore guns and 1–2 rounds/min. for rifled guns), then it becomes clear that It was the artillery pieces that determined the firepower of the army.
Markevich quadrant
Sight (diopter) of the Markevich system
Kabanov's sight
1/4 – pound unicorn model 1805
Unicorn breech with wingguard and scope mount
As the main tactical system, Russian artillery used those developed by Count Kutaisov “ General rules for artillery in a field battle,” approved by Emperor Alexander I and sent to the troops as instructions. Here is the content of these “Rules”.
"1. In a field battle, shots at 500 fathoms are doubtful, at 300 fathoms they are quite accurate, and at 200 and 100 fathoms they are fatal; for the last three distances our new buckshots can also be used. Consequently, when the enemy is still at first range, you should shoot at him rarely, in order to have time to aim your gun more accurately and make it difficult for him to move with your shots; at the second distance, shoot more often in order to stop or at least prolong his approach, and finally strike with all possible speed in order to knock him over and destroy him.
2. From the beginning of the battle, hide the number of your artillery, but increase it as the case continues, so that your point of attack will be hidden from the enemy, and if he were attacking, he would meet artillery where he might not have expected it.
3. When the real intention of the enemy has not yet been noticed, the batteries should consist of a small number of guns and be scattered in different places. In this situation, you are a small target, and you yourself have more means of harming him with indirect and cross shots and complicating his enterprises.
4. Batteries of a large number of guns should be placed in such cases when it is necessary to make a breach in the enemy’s line or to stop his strong desire to reach some point, or when it is necessary to knock him out of some position.
5. Avoid placing batteries on very elevated, steep places; on the contrary, batteries of unicorns can be placed with great benefit behind small elevations, which would only cover them, for almost all of their shots, except grapeshot, are mounted.
TOOLS
Guns.
In the French field artillery, as in the Russian, the guns were cast from bronze with a composition of 11 ± 1 parts of tin to 100 parts of copper.
There were 5 types of guns: the Gribovalevsky 4-, 8- and 12-pounders, adopted for service in 1765, as well as the 6- and 12-pounder systems of the 11th year (according to the republican calendar, i.e. 1803 according to the Gregorian). New 12-lb. the gun was 278 pounds (136 kg) lighter than the old one.
The Gribovalev guns had the usual division for those times into a muzzle, swivel and breech, and they weighed 150 cannonballs, and in the XI year system, the appearance of all guns was simplified as much as possible - almost no decoration was left, and their weight was equal to 130 cannonballs. I note that the 6-pound guns were completely new, and were not obtained as a result of drilling out the 4-pound Griboval guns, as Nilus writes. We tried to drill only long Valer 4-lb. guns.
Channel ended with a flat bottom with a 1/8 caliber rounding. The fuse has a diameter of 2.5 lines. Note that the French inch was duodecimal, as opposed to English decimal) drilled at an angle in the seed screw.
Diameter trunnions was equal to the diameter of the kernels, and they all had shoulders. The axis of the trunnions of the Gribovalev guns is 1/12 of the core diameter below the axis of the gun.
Dolphins had the form of a rectangular octagonal bracket.
Vingrad was 1 caliber in diameter.
Front sight usually had the appearance of a tide on the rear slope of the muzzle thickening, which did not protrude beyond the dimensions of the latter, but was sometimes indicated by engraving.
Torel- frustum.
Aim was simpler in design than even Markevich’s sight. It consisted of a copper plate embedded in a torel with a vertical cutout and a moving bar in it, which was fixed with a screw at the required height.
The relative length of all guns is 17 3/4 cores. The length of the channel for the Gribovalev guns is 16 5/6 cores, for the guns of the XI year system - 17.
Each French cannon had its name embossed in a ribbon on the front of the muzzle of the gun. On the breech they first stamped the monogram of Louis XVI, then French Republic and finally, Napoleon's coat of arms. On the left trunnion is the weight of the gun, on the right is the weight in pounds, and after the adoption of the metric system - in kilograms. On the torel belt there is the date, place of manufacture and the name of the craftsman. France had many more foundries than Russia; the main ones were, in order of decreasing importance, in Strasbourg, Douai, Metz, Turin and Paris.
The system of the 11th year, like the Gribovalev system in its time, had many opponents. Even under Napoleon, in 1810, it was decided to change the design of the 6-pounder. guns according to the Gribovalev model, but it seems that it was never implemented. After the Restoration 6-lb. the guns were completely cancelled.
| Gribeauval system | Year XI system | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| V parts |
12-lb. | 8-lb. | 4-lb. | V parts |
12-lb. | 6-lb. | ||
| f. d.l. T. | f. d.l. T. | f. d.l. T. | f. d.l. T. | f. d.l. T. | ||||
| Caliber | C | 0.4.5.9 | 0.3.11.0 | 0.3.1.4 | 0.4.5.9 | 0.3.6.6 | ||
| Core diameter | D=12p | 0.4.4.9 | 0.3.10.0 | 0.3.0.4 | D | 0.4.4.9 | 0.3.5.6 | |
| Length | guns without propeller | L = 17 3/4 D | 6.6.0.0 | 5.8.0.0 | 4.6.0.0 | 17 3/4 D | 6.5.11.3 | 5.1.4.11 |
| channel | 16 5 / 6 D | 6.1.11.8 | 5.4.5.10 | 4.3.2.9 | 17D | 6.2.8.9 | 4.10.9.6 | |
| breech | 1/3 L | 2.2.0.0 | 1.10.8.0 | 1.6.0.0 | ||||
| swivel part | 1/6L | 1.1.0.0 | 0.11.4.0 | 0.9.0.0 | ||||
| muzzle without head | 1/2 L - 2D | 2.6.2.6 | 2.2.4.0 | 1.8.11.4 | ||||
| heads | 2D | 0.8.9.6 | 0.7.8.0 | 0.6.0.7 | 2D | 0.8.9.6 | 0.6.11.0 | |
| all vingrad | 1 6 / 12 D | 0.6.7.1 | 0.5.9.0 | 0.4.6.6 | 0.6.5.0 | 0.5.2.3 | ||
| 2.6.5.3 | 2.2.6.0 | 1.9.1.8 | 2.6.11.1 | 2.0.0.3 | ||||
| from the axle of the trunnions to the axis of the gun | 1/12 D | 0.0.4.6 | 0.0.3.10 | 0.0.3 1 / 3 | 0.0.3.5 | |||
| Thickness walls |
at the end of the breech | 9 5 / 8 p. | 0.3.6.4 | 0.3.0.11 | 0.2.5.1 | |||
| at the beginning of the breech | 8 15 / 16 p.m. | 0.3.3.4 | 0.2.10.3 | 0.2.3.0 | ||||
| at the end of the swivel part | 8 1/4 p. | 0.3.0.3 | 0.2.7.7 | 0.2.0.11 | ||||
| at the beginning of the swivel part | 7 1/3 p. | 0.2.8.3 | 0.2.4.1 | 0.1.10.2 | ||||
| at the end of the muzzle | 6 3 / 16 p | 0.2.3.3 | 0.1.11.9 | 0.1.6.9 | ||||
| at the head frieze | 4 5 / 18 p. | 0.1.6.10 | 0.1.4.5 | 0.1.0.11 | ||||
| at the head | 7 1/3 p. | 0.2.8.3 | 0.2.4.1 | 0.1.10.2 | 0.2.7.9 | 0.2.0.6 | ||
| at departure | 4 5 / 18 p. | 0.1.6.10 | 0.1.4.5 | 0.1.0.11 | ||||
| Diameter | at the toreli | 34p | 1.0.5.6 | 0.10.10.6 | 0.8.7.4 | 0.11.9.9 | 0.9.4.7 | |
| at the head | 26 2 / 3 p | 0.9.10.3 | 0.8.7.3 | 0.6.9.8 | 0.9.9.3 | 0.7.7.6 | ||
| Wingrad necks | 8p | 0.2.11.2 | 0.2.6.8 | 0.2.0.2 | ||||
| in the middle of the vingrad's hand | D | 0.4.4.9 | 0.3.10.0 | 0.3.0.4 | D | 0.4.4.9 | 0.3.5.6 | |
| and trunnion length | D | 0.4.4.9 | 0.3.10.0 | 0.3.0.4 | D | 0.4.4.9 | 0.3.5.6 | |
| seeds | 0.0.2.6 | 0.0.2.6 | 0.0.2.6 | 0.0.2.6 | 0.0.2.6 | |||
| Thickness | dolphins | 8 / 24 C | 0.1.5.0 | 0.1.3.0 | 0.1.0.0 | |||
| shoulders near the trunnions | 4p | |||||||
| shoulders near the gun | 1 1/2 p. | |||||||
| Weight of guns, lbs. | 1808 | 1186 | 590 | 1530 | 790 | |||
Howitzers.
The field artillery was armed with 3 types of howitzers: the 6-inch Gribovalevskaya and the elongated one of the same caliber (along) a howitzer adopted outside any system, and a 24-pounder of the XI year, the model for which was the 7-pounder (by stone weight) Austrian. Since the elongated howitzer appeared in the period between the adoption of the Gribeauval system and the XI year, its appearance was appropriate: the barrel had the same friezes as the Gribeauval guns, and the carriage was similar to the carriages of the XI year. By the way, in the literature, 6-inch howitzers are often mistakenly called 6-pound howitzers, which gives rise to the illusion that they are smaller in caliber than 24-pounders, the caliber of which was equal to the caliber of 24-pounders. guns. The history of the appearance of these howitzers is as follows: at the beginning of the revolutionary wars, the French noticed the insufficient power of the Gribovalev howitzers, so very quickly, in 1795, they copied the Prussian 10-pound (by stone weight) howitzer. That's what they called her - a l "instar des prussiens, those. “Prussian model” (other names: a grande portee- “long-range”, de la garde- “guards”). True, very few of them were made (about 20), and the French made up for the deficiency with the same Prussian howitzers - of the 20 large-caliber howitzers that Napoleon took on his campaign to Russia, most, if not all, were Prussian.
In documents of that time, 24-lb. howitzers, together with howitzers of similar caliber from other countries, were collectively called obusiers de 5 pouces 6 lignes(howitzers caliber 5 inches 6 lines), although they had a caliber of 5 "7" "2"", and large-caliber howitzers were called obusiers de 6 pouces 4 lignes.
The chambers of all howitzers were cylindrical. Length of howitzers without turrets and wings in grenade diameters:
- 6" Gribovalevskaya - 4.75
- 6" long-range - 6.5
- 24 lb - 6.75
French howitzers, unlike cannons, did not have names.
| 6" | 24-lb. | 6"
extended |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| f. d.l. T. | f. d.l. T. | f. d.l. T. | ||
| Caliber | 0.6.1.6 | 0.5.7.2 | 0.6.1.6 | |
| Length | channel | 1.6.4.6 | 2.3.9.1 1 / 2 | 2.2.2.3 |
| channel in calibers | 3 | 5 | 4 1 / 3 | |
| chambers | 0.7.0.0 | 0.7.0.0 | 0.9.8.6 | |
| without wingrad | 2.4.4.6 | 3.1.5.1 1 / 2 | 3.3.6.6 | |
| all vingrad | 0.4.9.6 | 0.5.0.3 | 0.7.0.0 | |
| general | 2.9.2.0 | 3.6.5.4 1 / 2 | 3.10.6.6 | |
| from the torsion to the rear of the trunnions | 1.1.6.6 | 1.2.5.5 1 / 2 | 1.4.7.0 | |
| trunnions | 0.3.9.0 | 0.3.9.0 | 0.4.6.0 | |
| from the axle of the trunnions to the axis of the gun | 0.0.6.0 | 0.0.2.0 | ||
| Diameter | chambers | 0.3.0.0 | 0.2.11.0 | 0.3.10.6 |
| trunnions | 0.3.9.0 | 0.3.9.0 | 0.4.9.2 | |
| seeds | 0.0.2.6 | 0.0.2.6 | 0.0.2.6 | |
| at the toreli | 0.11.0.0 | 0.9.4.7 1 / 2 | 1.1.9.0 | |
| at highest point heads | 0.11.1.6 | 0.9.4.7 1 / 2 | 0.11.7.6 | |
| Distance between the last two diameters | 2.3.9.6 | 3.1.0.0 | 3.3.1.6 | |
| Weight, lbs. | 650 | 600 | 1368 | |
| Charge to full chamber, lbs. un. | 1.12 | 1.10 | 4.8 | |
The carriages of the French guns had two features: firstly, all of them, with the exception of the 6" Gribovalevsky howitzer, had iron axles; secondly, a simpler lifting mechanism consisting of a vertical screw rotating in a bronze bushing, on which rests a board connected hinge (hooks and loops for carriages of the XI year system) with a front cushion. Such a lifting mechanism was more reliable and made it possible to quickly move from the traveling position to the combat position and back by turning the bushing with the screw 90°. At the same time, carriages 12 and 8 -pounder guns had an additional traveling pair of sockets for the trunnions, which facilitated transportation, but made it difficult to move into a combat position. This was one of the reasons for the adoption of 6-pounder guns, which did not have such sockets. Another reason was that the opposing powers had precisely such calibers, which made it possible to use captured ammunition, which was facilitated by the fact that the caliber of the 6-pounder French guns was almost the largest among similar guns in other countries. To end this topic, I will also say that the French artillery was completely rearmed with guns of the XI year system only by the end of 1808, and Napoleon did not take a single 8-pounder and only 32 4-pounders on the Russian campaign. guns (4 companies of artillery of the Young Guard). All these calibers were transferred to the army that fought against the Spaniards, who at one time adopted the Griboval system.
The carriage adopted in 1803 for the new 12-lb. guns were not suitable for old ones, because the new guns had 16 lines less distance between the ends of the shoulders. This flaw was then corrected.
There were 4 types of axes in total:
- for 12 lb. guns;
- for 8-, 6-lb. guns, 6" long-range and 24-pound howitzers;
- for 4-lb. cannons, charging boxes, carts and forges;
- wooden for 6" Gribovalevsky howitzer.
The guns had a carriage box in which several shells were stored.
The French artillery did not have any special mounted guns. The horse artillery initially used Gribovalev howitzers and 8-pounders. guns, then 24-lb. howitzers and 6-pound. guns of the XI year system. 4-lb. the guns were never used in horse artillery, despite repeated mentions in modern publications.
All guns except the 4-pounder. guns, had 4 rules. Two of them, as usual, were inserted into brackets on the trunk cushion, and the other two into special brackets on the frames. At 4-lb. guns there were only 3 rules.
Each weapon was assigned one transportation 44 feet long, 11 lines in diameter, and weighing 18 pounds. LENDERS
The limbers of the French guns had almost the same design as the Russian ones: two wheels, an axle (iron, unlike the wooden Russian one), a drawbar, two lugs. The difference between the Gribovalevsky limbers was the absence of a box and the fact that the king pin was located above the axle. In the Gribeauval system there were 3 types of limbers:
- for 12-, 8-lb. guns, howitzers and charging box
- for 4-lb. guns
- for forge and cart
As you can see, the French artillery used 7 types of wheels. In this respect, it was inferior to the Russian one, which had only 2 species.
A limber with a box was developed for the guns of the XI year system, but it was never introduced, and the old Gribovalevskie limbers from 12-lb. were used for the new guns. guns.
Gribeauval believed that for a 4-lb. 3-4 horses will be enough for a gun, for an 8-pounder. and 6" howitzers - also 4, and for a 12-pounder - 6 horses. But experience has shown that the team of the last three guns should be increased by 2 horses.
French charging boxes were a long narrow box with a gable iron lid and 4 wheels. Initially there were three charging boxes:
- for 4- and 8-lb. guns,
- for 12 lb. guns and
- for 6" howitzers.
In the year XI system, a new charging box was proposed, but the Gribovalevsky one was retained with corresponding changes to the internal space for the new 6-lb. and 24-lb. shells.
In 1791, a “flying” flight was organized. (volante) artillery, armed with 8-pound cannons and 6" howitzers, in which the servants were seated on charging boxes specially adapted for this purpose. These boxes had handrails, footrests and a leather-covered rounded lid, on which 8 people sat, and such boxes were called " wurst" (from German "Wurst" - sausage). With the introduction of normal horse artillery in 1792, "wurst" were abolished.
Napoleon considered it necessary to carry one and a half ammunition with him, i.e. about 300 shells per gun: full ammunition at the guns and half in the artillery park.
| gun | When | Stock | 1/2 stock | Total snar. |
Of them | In the charging box | In the fire monitor box |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| charger boxes |
snar. | charger boxes |
snar. | cores or pomegranate |
buckshot | cores or pomegranate |
buckshot | Total snar. |
cores or pomegranate |
kart. | ||||
| far | near | |||||||||||||
| 12-lb. | Gribeauval | 3 | 213 | 153 | 60 | 48 | 12 | 8 | 68 | 9 | ||||
| 1812 | 3 | 224 | 1,5 | 108 | 332 | 278 | 56 | 60 | 12 | 72 | 6 | 2 | ||
| 8-lb. | Gribeauval | 2 | 199 | 139 | 60 | 62 | 10 | 20 | 92 | 15 | ||||
| 1806 | 2 | 199 | 1 | 92 | 291 | 231 | 60 | 72 | 20 | 92 | 15 | |||
| 4-lb. | Gribeauval | 1 | 168 | 118 | 50 | 100 | 26 | 24 | 150 | 18 | ||||
| 1806 | 1 | 168 | 0,5 | 75 | 243 | 198 | 45 | 120 | 30 | 150 | 18 | |||
| 6" howitzer | Gribeauval | 3 | 160 | 147 | 13 | 49 | 3 | 52 | 4 | |||||
| 1812 | 3 | 160 | 1,5 | 78 | 238 | 220,5 | 17,5 | 49 | 3 | 52 | 4 | |||
| 6-lb. | 1812 | 1,5 | 231 | 0,75 | 105 | 336 | 279 | 57 | 116 | 24 | 140 | 18 | 3 | |
| 24-lb. howitzer | 1812 | 2 | 156 | 1,5 | 112,5 | 268,5 | 256 | 12,5 | 72 | 3 | 75 | 4 | 2 | |
Wurst charging box for 8-lb. The gun contained 66 shells, and for a 6" howitzer - 30 shells.
AMMUNITION
French gunpowder was slightly different in composition from Russian: 75 parts of saltpeter, 12.5 parts of sulfur and 12.5 coal versus 75:10:15.
The minimum clearance of the French guns was less than that of the Russians - only 1 line, the maximum - 2 lines, so the average core diameter is 1.5 lines less than the caliber.
Cores they were not lubricated to the pins, but were attached using two strips of tin nailed crosswise to the pins. The spies looked like truncated cones. The depth of the cup in the spiegel was approximately 1/4 of the diameter of the core. French spies for 12- and 6-lb. cores were 1.7 and 1.4 times lighter than Russians, respectively.
Unlike the Russians, in French caps they did not put tow on top of the gunpowder, but tied the cap in two places: around the groove in the spigot and under the sppiel; and the cap was not tied on top of the core.
The French artillery did not have much artillery weight, and the mass of the cannonball corresponded to the caliber, i.e. A 12 pound cannonball weighed exactly 12 pounds, etc.
| 12 | 8 | 6 | 4 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| fun. un. | fun. un. | fun. un. | fun. un. | ||
| Powder weight | 4 | 2 1 / 2 | 2 | 1 1 / 2 | |
| Finished charge weight | 16.11 | 11.2 | 8 1 / 2 | 5.12 | |
| d.l. T. | d.l. T. | d.l. T. | d.l. T. | ||
| Powder charge height | 8.3 | 6.9 | 6.3 | 6.1 | |
| Total charge height | 13.6 | 11.6 | 10.8 | 9.11 | |
| Spiegel diameter | up | 4.0.9 | 3.6.0 | 3.4.0 | 2.9.4 |
| at the bottom | 3.7.0 | 3.0.6 | 3.2.0 | 2.7.6 | |
| Spiral height | 2.0.0 | 1.10.0 | 1.10.0 | 1.6.0 | |
| Spiegel cup depth | 1.1.0 | 0.11.0 | 0.10.0 | 0.8.0 | |
| Tin strips | length | 14.0.0 | 12.0.0 | 11.0.0 | 10.0.0 |
| width | 0.5.0 | 0.5.0 | 0.5.0 | 0.4.0 | |
Grenades (obus, where obusier- howitzer; actually grenades - grenades- in the French army they were manual) had the same design as the Russians.
Composition for the tube channel: 5 parts pulp, 3 saltpeter and 2 sulfur. A whole tube for a 6" grenade burned for 30-40 seconds.
The 24-pound grenade had a spigot, since the large length of the channel did not allow the grenade to be installed correctly by hand.
The French field artillery did not have special incendiary shells, instead they used grenades with pieces of incendiary composition placed inside.
Buckshot, as in Russian artillery, consisted of a tin cup with an iron bottom, and wrought iron bullets poured in a special order, and was also divided into long-range ( grande- large) and near ( petite- small). Actually, Russian grapeshot was copied from the French after the campaigns of 1805-1807.
The experience of military operations showed that the need for short-range grapeshot was small, and it was canceled. And in general, throughout the Napoleonic wars, there was a tendency towards a decrease specific gravity buckshot in the total number of shells, which indicates a change in tactics - the predominance of long-range combat.
Buckshot for 12-pound and 8-pound. the guns were not connected to the charge in the cap, since together they would be too long and heavy, so that the armored bag could tear, and for 6- and 4-lb. guns, the powder charge was tied to the buckshot using a wooden shpiel, unlike Russian buckshots, which did not have shpiels. Buckshot for 6" howitzers was nailed to a spiegel, which had the shape of a wooden hemisphere.
| 12 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 6" | 24 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| d.l. T. | d.l. T. | d.l. T. | d.l. T. | d.l. T. | d.l. T. | ||||||
| Bullet diameter | №1 | 1.5.0 | 1.2.9 | 1.1.6 | 0.11.10 | 1.5.0 | 1.2.9 | ||||
| №2 | 1.0.0 | 0.10.9 | 0.10.6 | ||||||||
| №3 | 0.11.6 | 0.10.2 | |||||||||
| Tin cylinder | sheet length | 13.11.3 | 12.2.6 | 11.1.0 | 9.9.3 | 18.9.0 | |||||
| height for buckshot | large | 9.0.0 | 7.6.0 | 7.9.0 | 6.4.0 | 8.0.0 | |||||
| small | 8.4.0 | 7.5.0 | 7.3.0 | ||||||||
| Diameter of tray and lid | 4.3.0 | 3.8.6 | 3.5.0 | 2.11.0 | 5.10.0 | ||||||
| Pallet thickness | 0.3.6 | 0.3.0 | 0.3.0 | 0.2.6 | 0.4.0 | ||||||
| Cover thickness | 0.1.0 | 0.1.0 | 0.1.0 | 0.1.0 | 0.1.0 | ||||||
| Height | finished buckshot (without sppiegel for 6- and 4-lb.) |
large | 8.3.0 | 6.9.0 | 7.0.0 | 5.7.0 | 7.4.0 | ||||
| small | 7.6.0 | 6.8.0 | 6.6.6 | ||||||||
| powder charge | 8.7.0 | 7.4.0 | 7.1.0 | 7.0.0 | 6.6.0 | ||||||
| Number of bullets | for large buckshot No. 1 | 41 | 41 | 41 | 41 | 60 | 76 | ||||
| for small buckshot | №2 | 80 | 112 | 80 | 112 | 4 №1 | 63 | ||||
| №3 | 32 | 32 | 59 №2 | ||||||||
| fun. un. | fun. un. | fun. un. | fun. un. | fun. un. | fun. un. | ||||||
| Empty glass weight with tray | 1.12 | 1.9 | 0.14 | ||||||||
| Pallet weight | 1.5 | 0.6 | |||||||||
| Approximate weight | finished large buckshot | 20.14 | 14.6 | 7.8 | 32.8 | ||||||
| finished small buckshot | 20.4 | 14.7 | 8.9 | ||||||||
| Powder charge | 4.4 | 2.12 | 2.4 | 1.12 | 1.6 | 2.0 | |||||
ORGANIZATION
The organization of French artillery was radically different from Russian. When in Russia guns, service personnel and convoys were brought together, in the French army all this was separated.
1792. Field artillery is divided into reserve and regimental. In reserve - 12-, 8-, 4-lb. guns and 6" howitzers, in the regimental - only 4-pounder guns. All guns are divided into divisions of 8 guns of the same caliber, each division is served by one company of artillerymen. In total - 7 artillery regiments, each regiment has 20 companies. 9 companies are formed horse artillery.
1793. New 11 horse batteries were created, making a total of 20. The number of howitzers was increased, instead of 1/6 - 1/3 of the total number of guns. They are no longer combined into special batteries.
1799. In French armies consists of: 693 guns, 173 howitzers, 2262 charging boxes. Regimental guns were abolished. A cavalry company of the guard was created.
1803. Year XI system adopted. By decree of the 10th floreal (April 30) of the XI year, 1 company was added to each foot artillery battalion, and the 7th company was also added to the 6th horse artillery regiment. Now each of the 16 battalions now has 11 companies, and the foot regiment has 22 companies. In total there were 8 regiments of foot and 6 regiments of horse artillery. All 17 additional companies were intended for service in the colonies.
1806. The horse artillery of the guard was consolidated into a regiment of 6 companies in 3 squadrons.
1808. Guard foot artillery was created - 6 companies of 84 people each. Horse Guards Artillery consists of 2 squadrons of 2 companies each. In this composition it will exist until 1815.
1810. Foot artillery - 9 regiments. The 7th Horse Artillery Regiment was created, but it was soon disbanded and its companies were distributed between the 1st and 4th regiments.
1811. Napoleon recreated the regimental artillery, transferring to it a huge number of captured 3-pounder cannons, mainly Prussian and Austrian. Each regiment was usually assigned 4 such guns.
1812. B Great Army there were 1372 guns. Most of them remained in the fields of Russia. After the end of the war, 875 captured or abandoned guns were taken to Moscow to create a monument, which, fortunately, was not built. Of these 875 guns, only 41% (358) were of French origin. The rest, in order of decreasing number, are Austrian, Prussian, Italian, Neapolitan, Bavarian, Dutch, Saxon, Württemberg, Spanish, Polish, Westphalian, English (Hanoverian) and Baden.
The regimental artillery ceased to exist.
The foot companies consisted of 6 cannons and 2 howitzers, but there were also pure cannon companies, for example, all 4 companies of the Young Guard were equipped with 8 4-pounder cannons. Horse companies had 4 cannons and 2 howitzers. Each division was assigned 1 infantry and 1 cavalry company, each heavy cavalry division - 2 cavalry companies, each light - 1. The corps usually had 2 companies of reserve artillery with 12 pounds. cannons and 6" howitzers.
1813. The 1st and 3rd regiments of horse artillery each had 7 companies, and each of the 9 infantry regiments had 28 companies. The foot artillery of the guard has 16 companies. In 1813-1814 there was a cavalry company of the Young Guard.
During the Empire, the number of guns in the French artillery increased by exactly 50%:
| Quantity | Initial state |
Absolute increase |
Relates. increase |
Final state |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Guard. | Lin. | Total | Guard. | Lin. | Total | Guard. | Lin. | Total | ||
| Foot company | - | 176 | 176 | 16 | 76 | 92 | 52 % | 16 | 252 | 268 |
| Mounted mouth | 2 | 36 | 38 | 4 | 6 | 10 | 26 % | 6 | 42 | 48 |
| Guns | 15 | 1 624 | 1 639 | 175 | 644 | 819 | 50 % | 190 | 2 268 | 2 458 |
| Artillery convoy company | 2 | 40 | 42 | 14 | 30 | 44 | 105 % | 16 | 70 | 86 |
Since this question, to be honest, is simply SICK of me, and there are a bunch of “experts” who very often poke me into land instructions on the firing range of guns and other similar issues, I decided to make a post to solve this problem once and for all.
First of all, a little theory - if you do not take fortress artillery, then a land cannon in battle encounters rather flimsy protection. These can be earthen fortifications, lunettes, barriers using wood or stone, but the distinctive property of these fortifications will be their relative low strength. That is, if these are wooden spears, then they are dug into the ground. If the stones are piled up, but not cemented, etc.
At sea, in linear battles (or in battles between fortresses and ships), cannon cores had to overcome quite serious protection in the form of the “armor” (hull) of the ship, and often this protection was multi-layered, as for example is clearly visible here:
This protection had a total thickness of 60 to 100 centimeters (that is, up to a meter). Most often, even the most powerful guns could not penetrate it, and shooting at ships essentially came down to maximum hits in the hull (if we are talking specifically about causing critical damage/sinking the ship). This maximum of hits gradually undermined the protection, potholes appeared somewhere, chips appeared somewhere, connections were broken somewhere, the wood gradually sagged and broke, most often in the area of the upper deck or gun ports, and finally the critical moment came when " the armor" stopped holding.
If we talk about analogies, then perhaps the most accurate imitation of this explanation I came across in the film “Death Race” with Statham:
In the film, the role of armor is played by a 6-inch armor plate at the back of Statham’s car, which competitors shoot at with all types of weapons. Sooner or later, this plate receives critical damage and can no longer withstand hits. The meaning is absolutely the same.
Now let's move on to the numbers. First of all, we note that the Gribovalevsky land cannons could fire as much as 2-2.5 km, but absolutely no one used such a range. Why? Yes, for two simple things - there were no sights for such distances yet, and the dispersion of fire was very high. Therefore, in the Gribovalevsky instructions for ground artillery we see the following figures
Effective fire distances for guns of various calibers
If we open the English naval shooting manuals (for example, from 1832), we will see the following figures:
For long guns:
Maximum sighting range 500-400 meters (sorry, here and below I am simplifying the English yard to an ordinary meter; for those who need it, they will convert it into exact values)
Effective target firing range - 200 meters
Pistol range - 50 meters.
For carronades:
maximum sighting range - 200 meters
effective sighting range - 50 meters
pistol distance - 10 meters.
Why do the values of land and sea systems differ so much? Were naval guns really worse?
No, they were no worse, and sometimes even better. It’s just that the admirals laid down such values because it was not about maximum, A sighting range, and secondly, from these ranges could cause damage to enemy ships. That is, in reality, naval guns could fire much further, but the accuracy of the fire and the damage from it were very bad at distances above the recommended ones. The question is - was it possible to use guns beyond the maximum effective range? The answer is why not? For example, the accuracy of a carronade over 200 meters is non-existent. But who prevents, for example, from conducting unaimed fire with carronades not on the sides, but on the sails of ships? Nobody! The area of the sails is much larger than the part of the side being hit, therefore, according to the theory of probability, such fire may well be effective. Yes, the speed of the cannonball at this distance is not enough to break through a bulwark or something wooden, but tearing a sail or knocking down a yard is quite enough.
One more thing should not be forgotten - ground artillery fires from a fixed platform (ground, fortress wall, etc.) at a target that is stationary or slowly moving relative to the gun/battery. Even the galloping speed of a horse is 15-18 km/h, in sea terms - 8-8.5 knots, that is, the speed of an ordinary frigate. But most often the cavalry goes to the battery(speaking nautical term- into "longitudinal fire"), and does not jump along the battery(the meaning of the cavalry attack is clear - to suppress this very battery, and not to run away from its fire). The walking speed of infantry (110 steps per minute at a step of 70 cm) is significantly lower - approximately 4.6 km/h or 2.5 knots, but again - infantry goes towards the battery, not along it.
Naval artillery has a completely different task - there the enemy moves precisely along the battery, since the movement is most often parallel relative to each other, and this leaves an additional imprint on the accuracy (or, if you like, inaccuracy) of shooting and on the effective combat distance.
Oddly enough, but land artillery, operations against ships, most often used naval instructions. This is understandable - ships, especially battleships, are a very specific enemy. And here it is necessary to introduce such a concept as the probability of hitting the target, which directly depended on the number of guns firing at the target. It is clear that an airborne salvo creates a kind of “cloud” of nuclei, which covers the target. As far as I understand, in the case of long distances this probability distribution of hits is akin to Gaussian, at short distances it is linear and uniform. That is, as is the case in the movie with Statham decisive role What matters is the number of hits per unit of time.
Now let's move from theory to practice.
The first debate on this topic arose for me a long time ago, regarding Toulon of the 1793 model. Let me remind you that Bonaparte then captured the forts of Eguiet and Balaguier, located on one side of the exit to Toulon harbor. The width of the passage from the harbor itself is 1200 meters. The question is: could the guns of these forts clearly block the exit of ships from Toulon?
The answer is obvious - no, they couldn’t. And this is even though (according to Nilus) "A 12-pound core with a charge of 4 pounds at a distance of about 300 fathoms goes deep: into the ground by 7-9 feet, into a tree by 2.5 feet, into a stone by 4 inches. 300 fathoms is about 650 m; 2.5 ft. = 0.75 m." Still, the sides of the ships are clearly not land, and we will leave what kind of tree Nilus had in mind - to the author’s conscience.
The next issue of our program was my supposedly delusional ideas of shelling the brig "Mercury" with grapeshot. And again, the author of the opus about my nonsense gave a breakdown for land buckshot (the weight of one bullet is 23 grams). Well, how many times have I said - such buckshot was never used at sea!
In the same Russian fleet there were the following types of buckshot: short-range and long-range buckshot. The charge for both buckshots is 1.64 kg. The weight of the long-range buckshot was 10.9 kg, it had 48 bullets (each weighing 227 grams). The weight of the short-range buckshot is 11.2 kg, it contains 94 bullets (each weighing 119 grams). The maximum firing range of short-range buckshot is up to 400 meters, long-range up to 700. The British and French used bullets weighing 384 and 452 grams in buckshot on 32-pound and 24-pound guns! So it’s one thing to have buckshot in a hunting rifle for birds, and another thing to have buckshot for battleship. She is also on board any small ship (for example, brig) can cause quite a lot of damage, tearing sails, breaking yards, etc.
