Novgorod land in the XII - early XIII centuries. Novgorod Principality: form of government, religion, culture

Despite the fact that after 882 the center of the Russian land moved to Kyiv, the Novgorod land managed to maintain its independence.

In 980, the Novgorod prince deprived the Kyiv prince of power with the help of the Varangian squad;

In the second half of the 12th century, Vladimir Monomakh took various measures to strengthen the position of the central government in the Novgorod land. In 1117, despite the discontent of the Novgorod boyars, Vsevolod Mstislavovich ascended the throne in Novgorod.

Novgorod and, located in the north-west, were part of the Kyiv land in the 12th century. In 1348, Pskov, part of the Novgorod land, became a large trade and craft center and separated from Novgorod, becoming an independent republic.

State and political system of the Novgorod feudal republic

Home political feature The Novgorod land in the 12th century had a republican form of government, unlike other Russian princely lands.

The highest state body of the Novgorod Republic was considered (parliament-meeting).

The Veche elected (expelled) princes, decided issues related to war and peace, drew up legislative acts and carried out trials over the leaders of the highest executive bodies state power.

The prince (usually from) was called upon to rule the veche. The prince was a symbol of the state. Together with the mayor, the prince performed judicial functions, appointed judges and bailiffs.

The archbishop is the head of the church, had some privileges, including in court, he was also the chairman of the Boyar Council, called “Ospoda” in Novgorod, and “Lord” in Pskov.

Posadnik was elected by the veche for a certain period of time, had certain judicial powers, and decided issues related to the life of the Novgorod Republic.

Economy of Novgorod land

Most of the population in Novgorod was engaged in agriculture. Until the 13th century, agriculture in the Novgorod land developed extremely slowly. This was facilitated by external factors: low yields, epidemics, death of livestock, raids by robbers. In the 13th century, clearing (a farming system based on cutting and burning forests) was replaced by a new three-field system, which was more efficient. The most produced grain here was rye. Other grains were also grown. Some types of vegetables were also grown. In the Novgorod waters there was fish, which was successfully sold. Beekeeping (honey farming) was developed. Thanks to the abundance in the Novgorod forests different types animals, Novgorod was considered a huge exporter of furs to Europe.

Culture of Novgorod land

Novgorodians used birch bark letters to transmit written information. Novgorod styles of architecture and painting are also widely known. The main religion here was Orthodoxy. The Novgorod language differed from the language of other Russian principalities, called the “Novgorod dialect”.

Fall of the Novgorod Republic

Since the 14th century, the Moscow and Tver principalities tried to subjugate Novgorod to themselves. The Novgorod supreme power was against the collection of tribute by Moscow and asked for support from Lithuania.

The Moscow prince, alarmed by the brewing Novgorod-Lithuanian alliance, accused Novgorod of treason and after the Battle of Shelon (1471), as well as his subsequent campaign against Novgorod in 1478, contributed to the annexation of the Novgorod Republic to. Thanks to this, Moscow inherited the previous relations of the Novgorod Republic with its neighbors. The territory of Novgorod land during the era of the Muscovite kingdom (16th - 17th centuries) was divided into 5 pyatyns: Vodskaya, Shelonskaya, Obonezhskaya, Derevskaya and Bezhetskaya. With the help of graveyards (a unit of administrative division), the geographical location of villages was determined, and the population and their property for taxes were counted.

On March 21, 1499, the son of Ivan 3 became the Grand Duke of Novgorod and Pskov. In April 1502, Vasily became co-ruler of Ivan 3, and after his death in 1505 - sole monarch.

The most extensive Russian possession in the appanage era was the Novgorod land, which included the suburbs of Novgorod - Pskov, Staraya Russa, Velikiye Luki, Torzhok, Ladoga, vast northern and eastern territories where predominantly Finno-Ugric tribes lived. By the end of the 12th century. Novgorod belongs to Perm, Pechora, Yugra (the region on both slopes of the Northern Urals). In the Novgorod land there was a hierarchy of cities. Novgorod occupied the leading position. The remaining cities had the status of suburbs.

Novgorod dominated the most important trade routes. Merchant caravans from the Dnieper walked along the Lovat through Lake Ilmen along the Volkhov to Ladoga: here the path forked along the Neva to the Baltic, to Sweden, Denmark, to the Hansa - a trade union of North German cities; along the Svir and Sheken - to the Volga to the northeastern principalities, to Bulgaria and further to the east. In the city there were foreign trading yards - "German" and "Gothic". In turn, Novgorod merchants had courts in many principalities and countries - in Kyiv, Lübeck, on the island. Gotland. Inexhaustible and varied forest resources made Novgorod merchants tempting partners. Particularly strong trade relations existed with the Hansa.

The harsh climate and poor soils did not contribute to the development of agriculture in the Novgorod land. In lean years, it found itself dependent on neighboring principalities - suppliers of grain. It does not follow from this, however, that the rural population did not engage in arable farming. In the vast domains of the Novgorod boyars lived hundreds of smerds engaged in agricultural labor. Cattle breeding, vegetable gardening and horticulture were relatively developed. Nature itself, with its numerous rivers and vast forests, encouraged Novgorodians to engage in crafts. For fur, fish tooth (walrus bone), wax and others natural resources went to the thickets of the forest and the polar tundra. The Novgorodians forced the aboriginal tribes Izhora, Karela, Vod, Pechera, Yugra, and Em to pay tribute. Tributary relations were hardly overly burdensome; as a rule, they were peaceful and with the payment of tribute, trade exchanges began.

Archaeological excavations have revealed a multi-meter cultural layer in the city center. By the 13th century. it was a large, well-organized and fortified city. Its population consisted of artisans of various specialties. The craft character of the city was reflected in its toponymy, hence the names of the streets Shchitnaya, Goncharnaya, Kuznetskaya, etc.

Researchers have not come to a consensus whether Novgorod artisans had workshops like Western European ones. There is no doubt, however, that some beginnings of associations along professional lines existed. This made it easier to practice the craft and allowed them to defend corporate interests.

Trade and craft residents made up the majority of the population of Novgorod. Their strength lay in their numbers and unity. The voice of the lower classes was clearly heard at the city meeting, and the ruling elite could not help but take this into account. Nevertheless, Novgorod merchants and artisans did not have real power. The leading positions in the political life of the city were occupied by the boyars.

Historically, the Novgorod boyars managed to maintain their isolation and relative independence. Thus, the study of birch bark letters allowed historians to assume that tribute in the Novgorod land was administered not by princes, but by boyars.

Quite quickly, large land ownership developed in the North-West of Rus'. Moreover, we are talking about boyar land ownership, since with the acquisition of independence, the Novgorodians did not allow the emergence of princely land ownership. Other boyar possessions were so vast that they surpassed the principalities. The boyars themselves preferred to live in the city. Thus, the interests of the city and the Novgorod boyars were closely intertwined. Feudal exploitation and profits received from participation in trade operations became the main sources of welfare for the boyars.

Another feature of the Novgorod boyars is their corporate spirit. Unlike other lands, in independent Novgorod the boyar title was hereditary. The princes, deprived of the opportunity to form the local elite and endow it with land holdings, lost effective leverage over the ruling class. The isolation of the Novgorod boyars made it little dependent on the prince; 30-40 boyar clans occupied leading positions in the life of the city, monopolizing the highest government positions. The growing role of the boyars was so great that many researchers define the Novgorod Republic as boyar

The feudal lords of non-boyar origin in Novgorod included the so-called live people. This rather heterogeneous group included large and small landowners. Somewhat disadvantaged in their legal status- not all positions were available to them - living people did not play an independent role and usually joined boyar groups.

The boyars, living people, merchants, trade and craft people, community farmers made up the free population of the Novgorod land. The dependents were slaves and stinkers.

Unlike North-Eastern Rus', where the monarchical principle took over, Novgorod history is marked by the further development of veche institutions that have proven their viability.

It has become typical for Novgorod vocation prince to reign. Relations with the prince were formalized by an agreement, the violation of which entailed his expulsion. The prince did not have the right to own estates, much less grant villages to his entourage. Even the prince’s residence was moved outside the boundaries of Detinets, to Gorodishche. This extraterritoriality is a kind of confirmation of the foreignness of the princely power in relation to Novgorod institutions.

At the same time, the Novgorodians could not completely do without the prince. In the minds of people of that time, the prince was a military leader, a defender of borders. A professional warrior, he appeared in Novgorod with his squad, for whom war was a common thing. According to V. O. Klyuchevsky, the prince was needed as a “hired watchman.” In addition, the prince was the recipient of the tribute that Novgorod received from the conquered lands. He also resolved many litigations and was the highest court. In real life, the prince acted as a symbol of the unity of the republic, equalizing it in communication with the surrounding principalities, where their Rurikovichs sat.

Since the 14th century The Novgorod veche preferred to choose the holder of the grand ducal label as its prince. Since most often these were Tver and then Moscow princes, they sent their governors to the city. At the same time, all traditions were observed - the princes pledged to keep “Novgorod in the old days, without offense”, the Novgorodians - to accept and obey the princely governors. In practice, the princes, called upon to protect the integrity of the republic, did not miss an opportunity to tear away this or that volost. The initiative was made by Ivan Kalita, who tried to annex the Dvina land to the Moscow principality. There was a sharp struggle for the cities of Volok, Torzhok, and Vologda.

Princes usually did not stay at the Settlement. Over the course of 200 years, from 1095 to 1304, changes in princely power occurred 58 times!

Novgorodskaya politic system- this is a kind of federation of self-governing communities and corporations - Novgorod sides and streets, the highest body for which was veche - people's assembly. The veche summoned and expelled princes, ratifying decisions that were of vital importance for the city.

The Volkhov River divided Novgorod into two sides - the left-bank Sofia and the right-bank Torgovaya. The sides, in turn, were divided into ends. Novgorodskie ends - administrative and political units of the city (Slavensky, Nerevsky, Lyudin, Zagorodsky, Plotnitsky) had the right to collect their own Konchansky veche; Konchan elders formalized claims against the executive branch and determined ways to fight for their interests. At the city meeting, the ends acted as original “parties”. Veche democracy presupposed decision-making according to the old expression “everyone will agree on one speech.” Novgorod charters gained strength when they were sealed with the seals of the ends. The Novgorod militia consisted of military detachments that arose from the ends. The ends, in turn, were divided into streets with their elected street elders.

At the city meeting, the highest officials of the republic were elected - mayor, thousand, ruler (archbishop). The central place in the executive power was occupied by the institution of mayors. In the Novgorod Republic this position was elective. The posadniks controlled the activities of the prince; domestic and foreign policy was concentrated in their hands. Posadniks were chosen from boyar families.

The post of mayor was temporary. The two acting posadniks were called sedate posadniks. At the end of the term, they gave up their seats. Over time, the number of posadniks increased - this reflected the acute internal struggle in the city, the desire of each of the boyar groups and the city districts behind them to influence the affairs of the republic.

The functions of the thousand included control over the collection of taxes, participation in the commercial court, and leadership of the militia of the city and district. The Novgorod archbishop had not only ecclesiastical, but also secular power. A meeting of mayors was held under his chairmanship.

The veche republican order permeated the entire structure of Novgorod. However, we should not exaggerate veche democracy. It was limited primarily by the boyars, who concentrated in their hands executive branch and led the meeting.

Novgorod was not alone. Freed from its dependence, Pskov created its own sovereign Pskov feudal republic. The veche order was strong in Vyatka, which indicated that in Russian history there were not only autocratic development prospects. However, when the time came to gather lands, Novgorod and Pskov, torn by internal contradictions, could not resist the strong monarchical power.

The political history of Novgorod is different from political history North-Eastern or Southern Rus'. The successful functioning of the Novgorod Republic depended on the consent of its constituent parts. Even after major social upheavals, Novgorodians found ways to gain stability. Along with boyar groups and clans, ordinary Novgorodians, “black people,” took part in political processes, and the latter’s voice was much more significant in comparison with other regions of appanage Rus'.

Internal clashes in Novgorod were caused by for various reasons. Most often, the struggle was around the institution of posadnichestvo. Each of the warring parties pursued the goal of retaining an influential position for their protege. The consequence was the frequent change of princes associated with one or another mayor, and the mayors themselves. This brought destabilization into the internal life of the city. Gradually, a tradition began to form in Novgorod when the veche “parties” avoided entering into agreements with the princes.

The Novgorod veche, as the highest body of democracy, turned out to be able to control the activities of the mayors. In 1209, the veche jointly opposed the abuses of members of the elected communal administration, headed by the mayor Dmitry Miroshkinich. The latter was not supported even by the Nerevsky End, whose protégé he was.

From the second half of the 13th century. oligarchic tendencies were noticeably growing in the political life of Novgorod. This, in particular, found expression in the appearance of a boyar territorial representative council under the mayor, from which the mayor was elected for a period of one year. Such a system restrained political rivalry between Konchan representatives and strengthened the position of the Novgorod boyars.

The policy of the top leaders has more than once caused the “black people” to speak out. The uprising of 1418 went beyond discontent with one unpopular boyar. To the sound of the veche bell, the rebels rushed to Prusskaya Street, where the Novgorod aristocracy settled. The boyars and their slaves met the residents of the Trade Side with weapons. Then the common people of the Sofia side joined the latter. Only the intervention of the Novgorod ruler stopped the bloodshed. The dispute was transferred into judicial proceedings, in which the clergy acted as an arbitrator.

The Novgorod Republic, especially during its heyday, played a huge role in Russian history. The city became one of the largest and most beautiful cities of medieval Europe. The harsh and majestic architecture of Novgorod amazed contemporaries. But Novgorod was not only majestic. Its political and military strength was such that, as an outpost of the Russian land on its western borders, it repelled the aggression of the German knights, which threatened the loss of national identity.

The history of the Novgorod land is, firstly, the history of one of the largest cities of the Middle Ages, which demonstrated closeness to the European type of development, and, secondly, the history of a powerful state that stretched from the Baltic to Arctic Ocean and the Urals.

The most ancient core of the Novgorod land was an interethnic confederation of Slavic (Slovenes, Krivichi) and Finno-Ugric (Merya, Chud) tribes. Its political and economic center, the city of Novgorod, was located on both banks of the Volkhov, near the source of this river from Lake Ilmen. Volkhov divided the city into two sides: the eastern - Trade and western - Sofia. By the end of the 13th century. The division of the city into five main administrative districts was finally determined - the ends of Slavensky (in the eastern part of the city), Nerevsky, Lyudin (on the Sofia side), Plotnitsky, Zagorodsky. The territory around Novgorod was divided into five provinces, which later received the name Pyatyn. To the northwest of Novgorod, between the Volkhov and Luga rivers, lay the Vodskaya Pyatina; to the northeast, on both sides of Lake Onega to the White Sea - Obonezhskaya; to the southwest, on both sides of the Sheloni River - Shelonskaya; to the southeast, between Msta and Lovat - Derevskaya; in the direction of the Volga - Bezhetskaya. To the north and east of Pyatina lay the Novgorod “colonies” - Zavolochye on Northern Dvina, Tre on the Kola Peninsula, Pechora, Perm, Vyatka. Already in the 12th century. all these lands paid tribute to Novgorod. To seize colonies and exploit their wealth, the Novgorod boyars widely used robber explorers - “ushkuiniks”.

In Pyatina there were the suburbs of Novgorod: Ladoga, Staraya Russa, Torzhok, Izborsk, Koporye. The largest suburb was Pskov, which over time became an independent republic and began to be called " younger brother Novgorod".

Agriculture has long been developed in the Novgorod land. However, poor soils significantly reduced the efficiency of grain production. Therefore, in case of crop failures, Novgorod depended on neighboring Russian lands. At the same time, natural and climatic conditions were favorable for the development of cattle breeding. Hunting, fishing, and beekeeping became widespread. An important source of Novgorod's wealth was the robbery of colonial lands, from where furs, silver, wax and other commercial items came.

The level of handicraft production in Novgorod was no lower than in the famous centers of Western Europe and the Middle East. Skilled blacksmiths, tanners, jewelers, gunsmiths, weavers, coopers and other specialists worked here. The vast majority of craft workshops were located in rich boyar estates, the owners of which exploited the labor of artisans. A large boyar family had an exhaustive range of different industries. While promoting boyar consolidation, this system of organizing urban ownership at the same time resolutely opposed the consolidation of artisans on a professional basis. Participation of artisans different professions in a single economic organization the boyar clan became an insurmountable obstacle to their unification into guild organizations.

Foreign trade of Novgorod was largely subordinated to the needs of crafts: craft raw materials were imported - non-ferrous metals, gems, amber, boxwood, cloth, etc. Salt was imported for a long time until its local deposits were discovered. The main items of Novgorod export to Western Europe were furs, walrus tusks, wax, lard, flax, hemp.

Trade relations between Novgorod and Scandinavia go back to a very early time. Novgorod merchants visited Byzantium, the countries of the East, and traded in remote Russian cities. In the 12th century. Novgorodians had their own guest house in the city of Visby on the island of Gotland. In Novgorod itself there were two courts of foreign merchants: Gothic (the inhabitants of the island of Gotland were called Goths) and German. From the second half of the 12th century. increased trade of Novgorodians with the Baltic German cities begins, which was subsequently formed Hanseatic League. Emperor Frederick II gave Novgorod merchants the right to duty-free trade in Lübeck.

The large Novgorod merchants were organized into hundreds, which were somewhat similar to Western European merchant guilds. The most influential and organized was the association of wax merchants (wax traders) “Ivanovo Sto”, which existed at the Church of John the Baptist in Opoki.

Large areas of the city were the hereditary property of large boyar families. The owners of neighboring city estates were descended from one common ancestor. It has been established that the urban estates of the boyars themselves did not change their boundaries throughout the 10th-15th centuries. The emergence of the patrimonial system in the Novgorod land dates back only to the beginning of the 12th century, when the boyars began to actively acquire “villages”. Before this, boyar land ownership existed not in private, but in corporate form. The fact is that the local aristocracy, which apparently traced its origins back to the tribal nobility, took an active part in collecting state revenues and controlling them. This distinguished Novgorod from the southern Russian lands, where undivided princely control over state revenues (polyudya system) reigned. By turning into a special corporation, the Novgorod boyars separated themselves from the princely druzhina organization. It fully retained the collection of state revenues during the patrimonial period, which consolidated the top of Novgorod society and gave them the means and opportunities for effective fight with princely power.

The socio-political development of the Novgorod land initially had its own specifics. Princely power has always been secondary in relation to Novgorod. Already under Yaroslav the Wise, the Novgorodians achieved significant political successes. The memory of Rurik’s calling and the established practice of concluding an agreement (“row”) with the prince ideologically prepared the triumph of republican order in Novgorod. Around 1117, the Novgorodians became “free princes,” that is, they openly declared their right to expel the prince, regardless of the will of Kiev, and in 1126 they themselves elected a mayor (before that, the mayor was either sent from Kiev or appointed by the prince from composition of the squad).

An important milestone on the path to the complete independence of Novgorod from Kyiv were the events of 1132-1136. After the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Mstislav Vladimirovich, his son Vsevolod, who occupied the Novgorod table, decided to leave Novgorod and occupy Pereyaslavl. When he, having failed to achieve success in the south, returned to Novgorod, the Novgorod veche kicked him out. In 1136, the Novgorodians took Vsevolod and his entire family into custody. The prince was accused of “not watching the stink,” he wanted to go reign in Pereyaslavl, he was the first to flee the battlefield in the war with the Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky.

It is traditionally accepted that with the victory of the boyars over the princely power in 1136, the order of the feudal boyar republic finally triumphed in Novgorod. From that time on, the boyars began to exert a decisive influence on the choice of the prince.

Initially, none of the princely families of Rus' managed to gain a foothold in Novgorod for long time, but since the 30s. XIII century Only representatives of the Suzdal branch reigned there. In total, throughout the XII-XIII centuries. The change of princely power in Novgorod took place about 60 times. The supreme power in Novgorod was in the hands of the citywide veche. It was engaged in legislative activities, concluded and terminated contracts with the prince, elected all senior officials, resolved issues of war and peace, and established the duties of the population. The prince was an integral part of the republican administrative apparatus, but his functions were sharply limited. They boiled down mainly to protecting Novgorod from external danger. The prince obliged to strictly fulfill the conditions of the “row” with the Novgorodians, otherwise they could “show the way” to him. The prince's judicial rights were limited; he could not subject Novgorod men to repression “without guilt”; he was forbidden to acquire land in the volosts, that is, on the outskirts of the Novgorod land. But the princely government often took on mediation functions and reconciled warring boyar factions.

From among the ranks and under the control of the boyars, the veche elected a mayor, who over time concentrated all executive power in his hands. He convened the veche and carried out its decisions, entered into agreements with the prince. In addition, the mayor supervised the activities of all officials, together with the prince he led military campaigns, carried out judicial functions, and represented in foreign relations.

The next most senior official of Novgorod was Tysyatsky. Initially he was appointed prince, but from the end of the 12th century. also began to be elected. For a long time (until the second half of the 14th century), representatives of the non-boyar population - lesser people, merchants - were thousands. Tysyatsky controlled the tax system, monitored order in the city, and in wartime led the militia.

A major role in the life of Novgorod was played by the bishop - the bishop (later the archbishop). From the middle of the 12th century. the spiritual shepherd also began to be chosen by the Novgorodians themselves. The veche named three candidates. After this, on the other bank of the Volkhov, in the St. Sophia Cathedral, one of the three most authoritative ministers of the church was chosen by lot with the help of a child or a blind man. The hierarch chosen in this way was sent to the metropolitan in Kyiv for initiation. The first Novgorod ruler to go through a similar procedure was Arkady. The election took place in 1156.

The Novgorod ruler was the custodian of the city treasury, was in charge of state lands, and participated in the leadership foreign policy, controlled the standard of weights and measures, had its own regiment. Any land transactions were considered invalid without his sanction. The Novgorod Chronicle was kept at the bishop's court. The archbishop's position was for life, although it happened that bishops went into a monastery or were expelled by decision of the veche.

There were also other officials in Novgorod. At the head were the “Konchansky” elders, at the head of the streets were the “Ulichansky” elders. They were elected at the appropriate (“Konchansky” and “Ulichansky”) meetings.

One of the significant issues in the history of Novgorod has always been identifying the degree of democracy of its political system. Many historians of the 19th-20th centuries. They saw in the Novgorod Republic a model of “democracy” (N.M. Karamzin, I.Ya. Froyanov), the antithesis of the monarchy. There is a widespread belief that the entire male population of the city participated in the veche meeting of Novgorod - from boyars to simple artisans and traders. However, real power in the Novgorod Republic belonged to the feudal lords (boyars and lesser) and the richest merchants. There was a clear tendency towards an oligarchic form of government (V.L. Yanin). Over time, the boyars created a special body - the council “gentlemen”. The meetings of this unofficial government of Novgorod were held in the chambers of the ruler on the Sofia side and under his chairmanship. The council prepared the agenda for veche meetings, developed measures of influence at the veche, and exercised supervision over officials of the republic.

The veche square of Novgorod, which was located near the St. Nicholas Cathedral on the Trade Side, did not exceed the size of a boyar’s estate. There was a tribune (“degree”) for the leaders of the republic, and benches for the other participants were also located here. According to calculations by V.L. Ioannina, a maximum of 400-500 people could be accommodated here, which corresponded to the number of rich boyar estates in Novgorod. It is clear that places on the benches could be occupied primarily by wealthy homeowners. Apparently, the advantages of the republican system and its external democracy were based not on the crowdedness of the citywide veche, but on its openness, as well as on the multi-stage veche system of the city. If the citywide veche was, in fact, an artificial body, the result of the creation of the Inter-Konchan confederation, then the lower levels of the veche (“Konchansky” and “Ulichansky”) were genetically descended from the most ancient popular assemblies. But they were the ones the most important means organizing the internal political struggle of the boyars for power. It was easier to incite and channel the political emotions of all social groups of the end or street.

Under normal conditions, the boyars had no need to convene a veche and appeal to the will of the lower classes. Therefore, the citywide council was not a daily governing body. Chronicle memories of him are separated by years. The veche assumed full power only in emergency cases: in the event of the rejection of an unwanted prince, an enemy invasion, etc.

A state of emergency in Novgorod was usually accompanied by the arrest of the prince, mayor or other representatives of the republican administration, and the robbery of the property of persons outlawed. But elements of the veche system formed a unique mentality of the Novgorodians. If in South-Western Rus' the boyars executed princes, then in Novgorod they were not killed, but elected officials in the veche did not stand on ceremony and were dealt with with all cruelty.

The internal life of Novgorod was characterized by social tension, which often resulted in urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-1229, etc.). Although the urban lower classes took a direct part in movements of this kind, it would be an exaggeration to consider these uprisings as a manifestation of class struggle. In each specific case, some groups of Novgorodians led by their boyars fought against other groups with their boyars. It was a struggle of interests, a struggle between “Ulichanskaya” and “Konchanskaya”. But the street crowd, the "black people" played decisive role in robberies and pogroms, the victims of which were representatives of some boyar clan.

It can be considered that the self-assertion of the Novgorod boyars as a participant in corporate power, in contrast to the boyars of the southern principalities, led not to centrifugal, but to centripetal consequences in the political and economic fields. Having achieved the limitation of princely power, the boyars of Novgorod did not give the princes the opportunity to tear the Novgorod land apart.

The territory of Novgorod land developed gradually. Its center was the ancient region of Slavic settlement, located in the basin of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov, Lovat, Meta and Mologa rivers. The extreme northern point was the city of Ladoga - a strong fortress at the mouth of the Volkhov. Subsequently, this ancient region acquired new territories, some of which organically merged with the original core of the Novgorod land, others formed a kind of colony of Novgorod.

In the XII - XIII centuries. Novgorod owned lands in the north along Lake Onega, the Lake Ladoga basin and the northern shores of the Gulf of Finland. In the west, Novgorod fortified itself in the Peipsi land, where the city of Yuryev (Tartu), founded by Yaroslav the Wise, became its stronghold. But the growth of Novgorod's possessions was particularly rapid in the northeastern direction, where Novgorod owned a strip of land stretching to the Urals and beyond the Urals.

The Novgorod lands themselves were divided into five large areas of Pyatina, corresponding to the five ends (districts) of Novgorod. To the northwest of Novgorod, towards the Gulf of Finland, the Vodskaya Pyatina ran, it covered the lands of the Finnish Vod tribe; to the southwest, on both sides of the Shelona River - Shelonskaya Pyatina; to the southeast, between the Dostaya and Lovatyo rivers - Derevskaya Pyatina; to the northeast (N White Sea but both sides of Lake Onega are Onega Pyatina; beyond Derevskop and Onega Pyatina, to the southeast, lay Bezhetskaya Pyatina.

In addition to Pyatina, a huge space was occupied by Novgorod volosts - Zavolochye, or Dvina land - in the Northern Dvina region. Perm land - along the course of the Vychegda and its tributaries, on both sides of the Pechora - the Pechora region, to the east of the Northern Urals - Yugra, to the north, within the Onega and Ladoga lakes - Korela, and finally, on the Kola Peninsula - the so-called Tersky coast.

The population of the Novgorod land was mainly engaged in agriculture, primarily farming, which formed the basis of the Novgorod economy. Novgorod boyars and clergy had extensive estates. Merchant land ownership was also developed here.

In the agriculture of the Novgorod patches, the arable system prevailed; cutting was preserved only in the extreme northern regions. Due to unfavorable soil and climatic conditions, harvests were not high, therefore, despite the widespread use of agriculture, it still did not cover the needs of the Novgorod population for bread. Part of the grain had to be imported from other Russian lands, mainly from Rostov-Suzdal and Ryazan. In lean years, which were a frequent occurrence in the life of the Novgorod land, the import of grain acquired decisive importance.

Along with agriculture and cattle breeding, the population of the Novgorod land was engaged in various trades: hunting for fur and sea animals, fishing, bee farming, salt development in Staraya Russa and Vychegda, Dobycha iron ore in Votskaya Pyatina. In the center of the Novgorod land - Novgorod and its suburb - Pskov, craft and trade flourished. Novgorod has long been famous for its artisans, carpenters, potters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths; in addition, shoemakers, tanners, felt makers, bridge workers and many other artisans of various specialties lived there. Novgorodian carpenters were sent to work in Kyiv and became so famous for their art that the term “Novgorodian” often meant “carpenter.”

Internal and international trade. The most important trade routes of that time passed through Novgorod Northern Europe to the Black Sea basin and from Western countries to countries of Eastern Europe. This has long contributed to the development of crafts and trade in it.

Enterprising Novgorod merchants already in the 10th century. sailed in their fragile little boats along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” reaching the shores of Byzantium. Extensive exchange existed between Novgorod and European states. At first, Novgorod was connected with the island of Gotland - a large shopping center Northwestern Europe. In Novgorod itself there was a Gothic court - a trading colony, surrounded by a high wall, with barns and houses for resident foreign merchants. In the second half of the 12th century. Close trade ties between Novgorod and the union of North German cities (Hansa) were established. A new German trading court was built in Novgorod, and a new trading colony grew up. On the territory of these trading colonies, foreign merchants were inviolable. A special charter “Skra” regulated the life of the trading colony.

Cloth, metals, weapons and other goods came to Novgorod from abroad. Linen, hemp, flax, lard, wax, etc. were transported from Novgorod to different countries. The role of Novgorod as a mediator in exchanges between the West and the East was significant. Eastern goods for Europe traveled along the Volga to Novgorod, and then to Western countries. Only Tatar-Mongol yoke and the dominance of the Golden Horde undermined this intermediary significance of Novgorod.

No less important role For Novgorod, trade played within the Novgorod Republic itself and with North-Eastern Russia, from where it received the bread it needed. The need for bread has always forced Novgorod to value its relations with the Vladimir-Suzdal princes.

The numerous and powerful Novgorod merchants had their own organizations similar to Western European merchant guilds. The most powerful of them was the so-called “Ivanovo hundred”, which had great privileges. It elected five elders from among itself, who, together with the thousand, were in charge of all trade affairs and the trade court in Novgorod, established measures of weight, measures of length, and monitored the correctness of trade itself.

The structure of the Novgorod economy determined its social and political system. The ruling class in Novgorod were secular and spiritual feudal lords, landowners and wealthy Novgorod merchants. Vast land holdings were in the hands of the Novgorod boyars and the church. One of the foreign travelers - Lalua - testifies that in Novgorod there were such lords who owned lands for hundreds of miles. An example is the boyar family Boretsky, which owned vast territories along the White Sea and Northern Dvina.

In addition to the boyars and the church, there were also large landowners in Novgorod who were engaged in various trades. These are the so-called “living people”.

The owners of estates exploited the labor of feudal-dependent people - “ladles”, “guarantors”, “old people”. The main form of exploitation of the feudal-dependent population in the Novgorod land was the collection of quitrents.

Large feudal lords were masters of the situation not only in their estates, but also in the city. Together with the merchant elite, they formed the city patriciate, in whose hands was the economic and political life of Novgorod.

The peculiarities of the socio-economic development of Novgorod determined the establishment of a special political system in it, different from other Russian lands. Initially, prince-governors, sent by the great princes of Kyiv, sat in Novgorod. They appointed mayors and mayors. But the strong Novgorod boyars and rich townspeople were increasingly reluctant to submit to the henchmen of the Kyiv prince. In 1136, the Novgorodians rebelled against Prince Vsevolod and, says the chronicler, “they brought Prince Vsevolod into the bishop’s courtyard with his wife and children, his mother-in-law and the guard. 30 husband per day with a weapon.” Then Vsevolod was exiled to Pskov. From this time on, a new political order was established in Novgorod.

The supreme body in Novgorod became the veche - the people's assembly. The veche was usually convened by the mayor or tysyatsky. It was convened on the trading side of the Yaroslavl courtyard with the ringing of the veche bell. Biryuchi and underlings were sent to the ends to call people to the veche gathering. All free people, men, could participate in the meeting. The Veche had great powers. It elected a posadnik, a thousand, previously appointed by a prince, a Novgorod bishop, declared war, made peace, discussed and approved legislative acts, tried posadniks, a thousand, a sotsky for crimes, and concluded treaties with foreign powers. The veche finally invited the prince, and sometimes expelled him (“showed him the way”), replacing him with a new one.

Executive power in Novgorod was concentrated in the hands of the mayor and the thousand. The mayor was elected for an indefinite term, he controlled the prince, monitored the activities of the Novgorod authorities, and was in his hands Supreme Court Republic, the right to remove and appoint officials. In case of military danger, the mayor went on a campaign as an assistant to the prince. By order of the mayor, the veche, which he headed, gathered by ringing the bell. The mayor received foreign ambassadors and, in the absence of the prince, commanded the Novgorod army. Tysyatsky was the first assistant to the mayor, commanded separate detachments during the war, and in peacetime he was in charge of trade affairs and the commercial court.

The so-called poralye, i.e., was in favor of the mayor and tysyatsky. known income from the plow; This income served the mayor and the thousand as a certain salary.

The political life of Novgorod was greatly influenced by the Novgorod bishop, and from 1165 - by the archbishop. The church court was in his hands, he was in charge of relations between Novgorod and foreign states, and most importantly, he was the largest of the Novgorod feudal lords.

With the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod from Novgorod in 1136, the Novgorodians did not completely eliminate the prince, but the importance and role of the prince in Novgorod changed dramatically. The Novgorodians now themselves elected (invited) one or another prince at the veche, concluding a “row” agreement with him, which extremely limited the rights and range of activities of the prince. The prince could not declare war or make peace without an agreement with the veche. He did not have the right to acquire land in the Novgorod possessions. He could collect tribute, but only in certain volosts assigned to him. In all his activities, the prince was controlled by the mayor. In short, the Novgorod prince was a “fed” prince. He was only a military specialist who was supposed to be at the head of the Novgorod army in times of military danger. Judicial and administrative functions were taken away from him and transferred to the initial people - the townspeople and the thousand.

The Novgorod princes, as a rule, were the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, the most powerful of the Russian princes. They persistently sought to subjugate Veliky Novgorod to their power, but the latter resolutely fought for its liberties.

The defeat of the Suzdal troops in 1216 on the Lipitsa River ended this struggle. Novgorod finally turned into a feudal boyar republic.

Formed in Novgorod and separated from it in the 14th century. In Pskov, the veche system existed until their annexation to Moscow.

It should be noted that the veche system in Novgorod was by no means a democracy. In fact, all power was in the hands of the Novgorod elite. Next to the veche, the Novgorod elite created their own aristocratic body - the council of gentlemen. It included the sedate (i.e. active) posadnik and tysyatsky, former posadniks and tysyatsky, and elders of the Novgorod ends. The chairman of the council of gentlemen was the Novgorod archbishop. The council of gentlemen met in the archbishop's chambers and decided in advance all matters that were brought before the veche meeting. Gradually, the council of gentlemen began to replace the veche resolutions with their decisions.

The people protested against the violence of the masters. The veche life of Novgorod knows more than one example of a clash between the feudal nobility and the general population.

During the period of state fragmentation of Rus', completely the city of Novgorod has passed a special path. While the foundations of state power were being laid in the main territory of the former country at that time, tendencies toward democracy were spreading in Novgorod. The different political culture that developed there, as well as the different value orientations of the residents, were very different from the collective values ​​and traditions of the central government of Moscow Rus'.

Novgorod, located in the north-west, was relatively protected from attacks by the Tatar-Mongols in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. This, according to researchers, allowed the city to form a special version of the development of Russian civilization.

Territory of the Novgorod Principality

Novgorod land in its scale (13-15 centuries) was a huge state that could compete in territory with any European kingdoms. In addition to Novgorod itself, the Novgorod principality included the Pskov lands, Ladoga, Yuryev, Torzhok and many other territories. Through Novgorod, access along the Neva to Baltic Sea and along the Northern Dvina to Bely. In the south, the lands extended to Torzhok, Velikiye Luki and Volokolamsk. In the north-east Principality of Novgorod included the Urals. In these territories, cities such as Vyatka, Vologda, Pskov, etc. arose. What distinguished Novgorod from other principalities (central and southern) was that it faced Europe, protecting Russian borders from the aggression of Swedish and German feudal lords.

In the thirteenth century, the city of Novgorod already had its own rich legal and political culture. At the beginning of the ninth century, Yaroslav the Wise, refusing to pay tribute to Kyiv, laid the foundation for the independence and isolation of Novgorod.

In 1136, Novgorod experienced a popular uprising, the purpose of which was to remove the prince with a restriction of his rights, as well as to secure power for the mayor, who was to be elected at the veche. In addition, the Novgorod people demanded the right to remove and install princes at their own request. A special agreement prohibited the prince from distributing volosts, judging the people of Novgorod, trading with European countries (besides the Novgorodians themselves), distributing immunities (special privileges), and even hunting outside a certain urban area. The income of the princes was also limited. And finally, as had happened before in Europe, the entire princely court was evicted from the city to the “Rurik settlement”. This was done in order to limit the possibility of seizing city power by military means. The independence of the Novgorod principality came to an end in 1478, when it finally became part of the Moscow state.