Types of language norms briefly. The concept of a language norm
A person is manifested, first of all, in its correctness. It covers not just one side of the language, but concerns absolutely everyone, necessarily both for oral and oral language.
Linguistic norms are the rules on the basis of which certain means of language are used at a certain stage of its development. It is also the generally accepted, exemplary use of phrases, sentences and words in speech.
The following languages are distinguished:
Word formation (norms for the formation of new words);
Orthoepic (or pronunciation norms);
Morphological;
Spelling;
Lexical;
Syntactic;
Punctuation;
Intonation.
Some of them are typical for both and some are only for oral or only for written.
Language norms are a historically formed phenomenon. Some of them appeared a long time ago and have remained unchanged to this day, while others have disappeared. Some even come into conflict. For example, the German word “applicant” comes from a Middle Latin word meaning “one who is going to leave”, and today it is used to describe someone who, on the contrary, is going to enroll to study. That is, over time the norm of using this word has changed.
Orthoepic language norms are also not stable. For example, the borrowed word “bankrupt” was written as “bankrupt” before the 18th century. Until the end of the 19th century, both forms were used, and then it won and became the norm after all. new form its use.
The pronunciation of the combination -chn- has also undergone changes. Thus, explanatory dictionaries of the 1935-1940s present different norms than those that exist today. For example, in the words “toy, snack bar” the combination -chn- was pronounced as -shn-, which is now completely unacceptable. Some words have retained a double variant: bakery, decently.
Morphological language norms also change. This can be clearly seen in the example of the endings of nouns. male in the plural and nominative case. The fact is that some have the ending -s, while others have the ending -a. This is due to the existence of the dual number form in the Old Russian language until the 13th century, which was used when it was necessary to indicate two objects. Thus, three variants of endings were obtained: zero for singular nouns, ending -a to indicate two objects, and ending -ы to indicate the number of objects exceeding two. At first, the ending -a was preserved in those words that denoted paired objects: eye, side, etc. Gradually it almost replaced the ending -ы in other words as well.
But animate nouns in the plural mostly retain the ending -y: accountants, drivers, engineers, lecturers, inspectors and inspectors, but professors.
Sometimes you also need to take into account For example, the word “teacher” with the meaning “teacher” has in the nominative case plural the ending is “I”, and with the meaning “chapter of teaching” - the ending is -i; the word “leaf” (of paper) has the ending -ы, and the word “leaf” (of wood) has the ending -я.
The multivariance of norms testifies to the incredible richness of the Russian language. But at the same time, this creates certain difficulties, since it becomes necessary to choose the right option from this number. This can be done correctly only if the characteristics of each option and its syntactic coloring are known. As a result of a detailed study of the use in and written) different options Linguistic scientists have created special dictionaries and explanatory dictionaries, which record language norms characteristic of modern literary language.
And accentological norms. Lexical and phraseological norms
Plan
1. The concept of a language norm, its characteristics.
2. Standard options.
3. Degrees of normativity of linguistic units.
4. Types of norms.
5. Norms of oral speech.
5.1. Orthoepic norms.
5.2. Accentological norms.
6. Norms of oral and writing.
6.1. Lexical norms.
6.2. Phraseological norms.
Speech culture, as mentioned earlier, is a multifaceted concept. It is based on the idea of a “speech ideal” that exists in the human mind, a model in accordance with which correct, competent speech should be constructed.
Norm is the dominant concept of speech culture. In the Big Explanatory Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language D.N. Ushakova meaning of the word norm is defined as: “legalized establishment, usual mandatory order, state.” Thus, the norm reflects, first of all, customs and traditions, streamlines communication and is the result of the socio-historical selection of one option from several possible ones.
Language norms- these are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of the literary language (rules of pronunciation, word usage, use morphological forms different parts speech, syntactic constructions, etc.). This is a historically established uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements, recorded in grammars and standard dictionaries.
Language norms are characterized by a number of features:
1) relative stability;
2) common use;
3) universally binding;
4) compliance with the use, tradition and capabilities of the language system.
Norms reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language and are supported by language practice.
The sources of norms are the speech of educated people, the works of writers, as well as the most authoritative means mass media.
Functions of the norm:
1) ensures that speakers of a given language can correctly understand each other;
2) inhibits the penetration of dialectal, colloquial, colloquial, slang elements into the literary language;
3) develops linguistic taste.
Language norms are a historical phenomenon. They change over time, reflecting changes in the use of language. The sources of changes in norms are:
Colloquial speech (cf., for example, colloquial options such as Ringing- along with lit. callsIt; cottage cheese- along with lit. cottage cheese; [de]kan along with lit [d'e]kan);
Colloquial speech (for example, in some dictionaries they are recorded as acceptable colloquial stress options agreement, phenomenon, which until recently were colloquial, non-normative variants);
Dialects (for example, in the Russian literary language there are a number of words that are dialectal in origin: spider, snowstorm, taiga, life);
Professional jargons (cf. variants of stress actively penetrating into modern everyday speech whooping cough, syringes, adopted in the speech of health workers).
Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which exist in a language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by native speakers. Language options- these are two or more ways of pronunciation, stress, formation of grammatical forms, etc. The emergence of variants is explained by the development of language: some linguistic phenomena become obsolete and fall out of use, while others appear.
In this case, the options may be equal – normative, acceptable in literary speech ( bakery And bulo [sh]aya; barge And barge; Mordvin And Mordvin ov ).
More often, only one of the options is recognized as normative, the others are assessed as unacceptable, incorrect, violating the literary norm ( drivers and wrong. driverA; catholOg and wrong. catalog).
Unequal options. As a rule, variants of the norm specialize in one way or another. Very often the options are stylistic specialization: neutral – high; literary - colloquial ( stylistic options ). Wed. stylistically neutral pronunciation of the reduced vowel in words like s[a]net, p[a]et, m[a]dern and the pronunciation of the sound [o] in the same words, characteristic of a high, specifically bookish style: s[o]no, p[o]et, m[o]dern; neutral (soft) pronunciation of sounds [g], [k], [x] in words like jump up, jump up, jump up and bookish, characteristic of the Old Moscow noma solid pronunciation these sounds: flutter, flutter, jump up. Wed. also lit. contract, locksmith And and decomposition contract, locksmith I.
Often options are specialized in terms of their degree of modernity(chronological options ). For example: modern creamy and outdated plum[sh]ny.
In addition, the options may have differences in meaning ( semantic options ): moves(move, move) and drives(set in motion, encourage, force to act).
Based on the relationship between the norm and the variant, three degrees of normativity of linguistic units are distinguished.
Standard I degree. A strict, rigid norm that does not allow options. In such cases, the options in the dictionaries are accompanied by prohibitive marks: choice s – not right. choice A; shi[n’e]l – not right. shi[ne]l; motionSolicitation – not right. petition; pampered – not rec. spoiled. In relation to linguistic facts located outside literary norm, it is more correct to talk not about options, but about speech errors.
Standard II degree. The norm is neutral, allowing equal options. For example: a loop And a loop; pool And ba[sse]yn; stack And haystack. In dictionaries similar options united by union And.
Standard III degree. A flexible norm that allows the use of colloquial, outdated forms. Variants of the norm in such cases are accompanied by marks add.(acceptable), add. outdated(acceptable obsolete). For example: Augustovsky – add. Augustovskiy; budo[chn]ik and additional mouth budo[sh]ik.
Variants of norms in the modern Russian literary language are represented very widely. In order to choose the right option, you need to refer to special dictionaries: spelling dictionaries, stress dictionaries, difficulty dictionaries, explanatory dictionaries, etc.
Language norms are mandatory for both oral and written speech. The typology of norms covers all levels of the language system: pronunciation, stress, word formation, morphology, syntax, spelling, and punctuation are subject to norms.
In accordance with the main levels of the language system and the areas of use of linguistic means, the following types of norms are distinguished.
Types of norms
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| Norms of oral speech | Standards of writing | Norms of oral and written speech |
| - accentological(norms for stress setting); - orthoepic(pronunciation standards) | - spelling(spelling standards); - punctuation(punctuation norms) | - lexical(norms of word usage); - phraseological(norms for the use of phraseological units); - word-formative(norms for word formation); - morphological(norms for the formation of forms of words of various parts of speech); - syntactic(norms for constructing syntactic constructions) |
Oral speech is spoken speech. It uses a system phonetic means expressions, which include: speech sounds, word stress, phrasal stress, intonation.
Specific to oral speech are pronunciation norms (orthoepic) and stress norms (accentological).
Norms of oral speech are reflected in special dictionaries(see, for example: Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language: pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms/ ed. R.I. Avanesova. – M., 2001; Ageenko F.L., Zarva M.V. Dictionary of accents for radio and television workers. – M., 2000).
5.1. Orthoepic norms- these are the norms of literary pronunciation.
Orthoepia (from Greek. orthos – straight, correct and epic – speech) is a set of rules of oral speech that ensure the unity of its sound design in accordance with the norms historically established in the literary language.
The following groups of orthoepic norms are distinguished:
Pronunciation of vowel sounds: forest - in l[i]su; horn – r[a]ga;
Pronunciation of consonants: teeth – tooth[n], o[t]take – o[d]give;
Pronunciation of individual consonant combinations: in [zh’zh’]i, [sh’sh’]astye; kone[sh]o;
Pronunciation of consonants in individual grammatical forms (in adjective forms: elastic[gy] – elastic[g’y]; in verb forms: took [sa] – took [s’a], I’m staying [s] – I’m staying [s’];
Pronunciation of words of foreign origin: pyu[re], [t’e]terror, b[o]a.
Let us dwell on individual, difficult cases of pronunciation, when the speaker needs to choose the correct option from a number of existing ones.
The Russian literary language is characterized by the pronunciation of [g] plosive. The pronunciation of the [γ] fricative is dialectal and non-normative. However, in a number of words the norm requires the pronunciation of the sound [γ], which, when deafened, turns into [x]: [ γ ]Lord, Bo[γ]a – Bo[x].
In Russian literary pronunciation there used to be a fairly significant range of everyday words in which instead of letter combinations CHN was pronounced ShN. Now, under the influence of spelling, there are quite a few such words left. Yes, pronunciation ShN preserved as obligatory in words kone[sh]o, naro[sh]o and in patronymics: Ilin[sh]a, Savvi[sh]na, Nikiti[sh]a(cf. the spelling of these words: Ilyinichna, Savvichna, Nikitichna).
A number of words allow variations in pronunciation CHN And ShN: decent And orderly, brown And bun[sh]aya, milk[chn]itsa And milk [sh]itsa. In some words, the pronunciation of ShN is perceived as outdated: lavo[sh]ik, grain[sh]evy, apple[sh]ny.
In scientific and technical terminology, as well as in words of a bookish nature, it is never pronounced ShN. Wed: flowing, heart (attack), milky (path), celibate.
Consonant group Thu in words what to nothing pronounced like PC: [pcs]o, [pcs]oby, not [pcs]o. In other cases - like Thu: not [that] about, according to [reading] and, according to [reading] a, [that] y, [reading].
For pronunciation foreign words The following trends are characteristic of the modern Russian literary language.
Foreign words are subject to the phonetic patterns in force in the language, so the majority of foreign words in pronunciation do not differ from Russian ones. However, some words retain their pronunciation features. This concerns
1) pronunciation of unstressed ABOUT;
2) pronunciation of the consonant before E.
1. In some groups of borrowed words that have limited use, (unstable) unstressed sound is maintained ABOUT. These include:
Foreign proper names: Voltaire, Zola, Jaurès, Chopin;
Language norm- a historically determined set of commonly used linguistic means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as the most suitable in a specific historical period. A norm is one of the essential properties of a language, ensuring its functioning and historical continuity due to its inherent stability, although not excluding the variability of linguistic means and noticeable historical variability, since the norm is designed, on the one hand, to preserve speech traditions, and on the other, to satisfy current and the changing needs of society.
Fixing the norm
The language norm is fixed in normative dictionaries and grammars. A significant role in the dissemination and preservation of norms belongs to fiction, theater , school education and media .
Some names and names (for example, names of geographical objects) may exist in the language in various forms(options), however, usually only one of them is normalized form, that is, in a form that is mandatory for use in scientific, reference and educational publications, as well as in periodicals.
Literary norm
A special case of a linguistic norm is a literary norm.
A literary norm is distinguished by a number of properties: it is uniform and universally binding for all speakers of a given language; it is conservative and aimed at preserving the means and rules for their use accumulated in a given society by previous generations. At the same time, it is not static, but, firstly, changes over time and, secondly, provides for dynamic interaction different ways linguistic expression depending on the conditions of communication.
History of ideas about the norm
Classification of norms
Natural and artificial norms
If the spontaneous use of linguistic means by different speakers of a given language is characterized by identity, we speak of a linguistic norm that has developed natural way. If there is no identity, the norm is determined purposefully(artificially). Artificial norms are established as a result rule-making activities of linguists through the preparation and publication of authoritative dictionaries and reference books, as well as legislative acts on various aspects of language use. Establishing a norm is usually done in one of the following ways:
- preference for one of the variants of spontaneous use based on higher frequency this option compared to alternatives;
- preference for one of the variants of spontaneous use based on its correspondence to the internal patterns of a given language identified by linguists;
- recognition of several variants of spontaneous use as corresponding to the language norm.
In addition to the main methods indicated above, other grounds are sometimes used to establish one or another linguistic norm, including aesthetic, ethical, political, etc.
Descriptive and prescriptive norms
There are various approaches to establishing norms, among which two main ones can be distinguished:
- descriptive(descriptive), in which the establishment of norms is carried out primarily on the basis of an analysis of the actual use of certain linguistic phenomena by native speakers;
- prescriptive(prescriptive), in which the establishment of a norm is carried out primarily on the basis of the authoritative conclusion of linguists about the correctness or incorrectness of a particular use.
In their pure form, neither one nor the other approach is usually used, however, the linguistic traditions of a particular country usually give preference to one of them. Prescriptive rule-making usually presupposes a disdainful attitude towards dialects and other regional or social variants of the language, the presence of strict and developed spelling and punctuation rules, and uniformity school curriculum language learning, etc. At the same time, the descriptive approach is often expressed in the absence of strictly established rules in some aspects of the language (for example, punctuation), a loyal attitude to dialects, fixation large quantity various uses in dictionaries, etc.
By levels and aspects of language
The concept of norm applies to all levels of language. In accordance with level correlation and specificity, the following types of language norms are distinguished:
- lexical- ensure the correct choice of words;
- accentological- provide for the correct placement of stress;
- orthoepic- describe the correct pronunciation of words;
- spelling- consolidate the uniformity of speech transmission in writing;
- morphological- rules of inflection and word formation described in grammars;
- syntactic- regulate the correct construction of grammatical structures.
Morphological and syntactic norms are included in the number grammatical rules .
Notes
Literature
- Language in law. In which? // Russian newspaper. - 2002. (About trying legislative regulation language use in Russia.)
- Mitrofanova A. Globalization and language policy // Top manager. - 2004. - № 625. (About languages, politics and their influence on each other.)
Links
- Federal Law of June 1, 2005 No. 53-FZ “On the State Language of the Russian Federation”. (Retrieved November 6, 2010)
- Language norm. Encyclopedia "Around the World". Archived from the original on May 19, 2012. (Retrieved November 6, 2010)
- Language and speech norms // Portal for support of Russian as a foreign language
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
See what “Language norm” is in other dictionaries:
Language norm- a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication. N. as a set of stable and unified linguistic means and rules for their use, consciously... ... Pedagogical speech science
Language norm- A set of rules for the selection and use of language elements that operate at various levels of language. In accordance with this, spelling, lexical, grammatical, syntactic, and stylistic norms are distinguished. The totality of approved with... ... Dictionary of socio linguistic terms
language norm- Historically accepted in a given language community (preferred) choice of one of the functional, paradigmatic and syntagmatic variants of a linguistic sign. The norm regulates the structural, symbolic, linguistic side of speech...
LANGUAGE NORM- a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication... Modern educational process: basic concepts and terms
linguistic norm in literary language- characterized by the universally binding rules of pronunciation, use of words, grammatical forms and stylistic resources. The norms of a literary language are mandatory in social linguistic practice. The scope of their action is the language used in the national... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
A norm that is not supported by the linguistic intuition of the vast majority of native speakers and requires special training. Examples in Russian: correct usage forms of socks/stockings [source not specified 1300 days];... ... Wikipedia
- (lat. norma). 1) measure, sample, rule. 2) the name of the famous Italian lyric opera by Bellini. Dictionary foreign words, included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. NORM is generally an accurate measure of anything: quantity,... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
NORM, norms, women. (lat. norma). 1. Legal establishment. Legal standards. || The usual, recognized mandatory order, state. Language norm. Moral standards. Standard of behavior. Break out of the norm. This is not the norm, but the exception. 2. Established measure... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
Language norms
(norms of a literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of a literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is a pattern of uniform, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by such features as:
— compliance with the structure of the language;
— massive and regular reproducibility in the process speech activity majority of speakers;
— public approval and recognition.
Linguistic norms were not invented by philologists; they reflect a certain stage in the development of the literary language of the entire people. Language norms cannot be introduced or abolished by decree; they cannot be reformed administratively. The activity of linguists who study language norms is different - they identify, describe and codify language norms, as well as explain and promote them.
The main sources of language norms include:
works of classical writers;
works of modern writers who continue classical traditions;
media publications;
common modern usage;
linguistic research data.
The characteristic features of language norms are:
relative stability;
prevalence;
common use;
universal obligatory;
correspondence to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to perform one of the most important functions - cultural.
A speech norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication.
Standardization of speech
- this is its correspondence to the literary and linguistic ideal.
The dynamism of language development and the variability of norms.
“The language system, being in constant use, is created and modified by the collective efforts of those who use it... New things in speech experience that do not fit into the framework of the language system, but that work and are functionally appropriate, lead to restructuring in it, and each successive state of the language system serves as a basis for comparison during subsequent processing speech experience. Thus, in the process of speech functioning, language develops, changes, and at each stage of this development language system inevitably contains elements that have not completed the process of change. Therefore, various fluctuations and variations are inevitable in any language."
The constant development of language leads to changes in literary norms. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. So, for example, before the word z snack shop, toy, bakery, everyday, on purpose, decently, creamy, apple, scrambled eggs pronounced with the sounds [shn]. At the end of the 20th century. such pronunciation as the only (strictly obligatory) norm was preserved only in words on purpose, scrambled eggs. In words bakery, decent Along with the traditional pronunciation [shn], the new pronunciation [chn] is recognized as acceptable. In words everyday, apple the new pronunciation is recommended as the main option, and the old one is allowed as a possible option. In a word creamy the pronunciation [shn] is recognized, although acceptable, as an outdated option, and in words snack bar, toy the new pronunciation [chn] became the only possible normative option.
This example clearly shows that in the history of a literary language the following are possible:
- maintaining the old norm;
- competition between two options, in which dictionaries recommend the traditional option;
- competition of options, in which dictionaries recommend a new option;
— approval of the new option as the only normative one.
An example of a change in lexical norm is the words graduate And enrollee. At the beginning of the 20th century. word graduate denoted a student completing a thesis, and the word diplomanik was a colloquial (stylistic) version of the word diplomant. In the literary norm of the 50-60s. a distinction was made in the use of these words: the word graduate began to be used to refer to a student during the period of preparation and defense thesis(it has lost the stylistic connotation of a colloquial word), and the word graduate began to be used to name the winners of competitions, shows, competitions, marked with a winner’s diploma.
Word enrollee used as a designation for those who graduated high school, and those who entered the university, since both of these concepts in many cases refer to the same person. In the middle of the 20th century. the word for those graduating from high school has become graduate, and the word enrollee in this meaning has fallen out of use.
Changes in language and grammatical rules. In the literature of the 19th century. And colloquial speech words were used at that time dahlia, hall, piano- these were the words female. In modern Russian, the norm is to use these words as masculine words - dahlia, hall, piano.
An example of a change in stylistic norms is the entry into the literary language of dialectal and colloquial words, for example, bully, whiner, background, pandemonium, hype.
Each new generation relies on existing texts, stable figures of speech, and ways of expressing thoughts. From the language of these texts, it selects the most appropriate words and figures of speech, takes what is relevant for itself from what was developed by previous generations, bringing in its own to express new ideas, ideas, a new vision of the world. Naturally, new generations are abandoning what seems archaic, not in tune with the new manner of formulating thoughts, conveying their feelings, attitudes towards people and events. Sometimes they return to archaic forms, giving them new content, new angles of understanding.
Every historical era the norm is a complex phenomenon and exists in rather difficult conditions.
Types of norms.
In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
1) norms of written and oral forms of speech;
2) norms;
3) norms.
The norms common to oral and written speech include:
— lexical norms;
- grammatical norms;
- stylistic norms.
Special norms of written speech are:
- norms;
- norms.
Applicable only to oral speech:
- pronunciation standards;
- norms of stress;
- intonation norms.
Norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and text construction. Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language.
Lexical norms reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.
Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness.
Their violation leads to lexical errors different types(examples of errors from applicants’ essays):
- incorrect choice of a word from a number of units, including confusion, inaccurate choice, incorrect choice of unit
(skeletal type of thinking, analyze the life activity of writers, Nikolaev aggression, Russia experienced many incidents in the internal and foreign policy)
;
- violation of lexical compatibility norms (a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, ingrained foundations, has gone through all stages of human development);
- the contradiction between the speaker’s intention and the emotional-evaluative words (Pushkin correctly chose the path of life and followed it, leaving indelible traces; He made an unsustainable contribution to the development of Russia);
- use
(Lomonosov entered the institute, Raskolnikov studied at the university);
- mixing
(Lomonosov lived hundreds of miles from the capital);
- incorrect use of phraseological units ( Youth was flowing out of him; We need to take him out to fresh water).
Grammar rules are divided into word-formation, morphological and syntactic.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inflectional form that does not correspond to the context (analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear such phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, customized parcel post, patent leather shoes. There is a morphological error in these phrases - the gender of the nouns is incorrectly formed.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation of oral speech. Pronunciation norms of the Russian language are determined primarily by the following phonetic factors:
Stunning voiced consonants at the end of words : du[n], bread[n].
Reduction of unstressed vowels (changes in sound quality)
Assimilation is the likening of consonants in terms of voicedness and deafness at the junction of morphemes: only voiced ones are pronounced before voiced consonants, only voiceless ones are pronounced before voiceless consonants: furnish - o[p]set, run away - [h]escape, fry - and [f]roast.
Loss of some sounds in combinations of consonants: stn, zdn, stl, lnts: holiday is pra[zn]ik, the sun is so[nt]e.
Compliance with spelling norms is an important part of speech culture, because their violation creates in listeners an unpleasant impression of the speech and the speaker himself, and distracts from the perception of the content of the speech. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of accents.
Pronouncing dictionary.
The spelling dictionary fixes the norms of pronunciation and stress.
This dictionary mainly includes the following words:
- pronunciation, which cannot be unambiguously established on the basis of their written appearance;
- having a movable stress in grammatical forms;
- forming some grammatical forms in non-standard ways;
- words that experience fluctuations in stress throughout the entire system of forms or in individual forms.
The dictionary introduces a scale of normativity: some options are considered equal, in other cases one of the options is considered basic and the other acceptable. The dictionary also gives marks indicating the variant of pronunciation of the word in poetic and professional speech.
The following main phenomena are reflected in pronunciation notes:
- softening of consonants, i.e. soft pronunciation consonants influenced by subsequent soft consonants, for example: review, -And;
- changes occurring in consonant clusters, e.g. pronunciation stn like [sn] (local);
- possible pronunciation of one consonant sound (hard or soft) in place of two identical letters, for example: apparatus, -A [ P]; Effect, -a [f b];
- firm pronunciation of consonants followed by a vowel uh in place of spelling combinations with e in words of foreign language origin, for example hotel, -I [ te];
- lack of reduction in words of foreign origin, i.e. pronunciation of unstressed vowel sounds in place of letters oh, oh, ah, which does not comply with the reading rules, for example: bonton, -A [ bo]; nocturne, -a [faculty. But];
- features in the pronunciation of consonants associated with syllable separation in words with side stress, for example head of the laboratory [zaf/l], several m, f.
Word formation in English. Devlin D. Types of phonoscopic examinations carried out during the preliminary investigation and in court
Essay
Topic: Standards of modern Russian language
Introduction
1 The concept of a language norm and its functions
2 Norms of modern Russian language
3 Language norms and speech practice
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
The history and culture of the people is reflected in the language. Moreover, the most essential part of the collective experience of the people, which manifests itself in intellectual activity and in “ inner world» of a person, finds its expression through language in oral speech and in written texts.
The concepts of “normal” and “norm” are important for many species human activity. There are standards for the production of products (for example, at a factory) and normals, i.e. technical requirements requirements that the product must satisfy. Nutritionists talk about nutritional standards, athletes “fit” into certain standards (in running, in jumping). No one doubts the fact that in any civilized society there are norms of relationships between people, norms of etiquette; Each of us has an idea of what is normal for human communication, and what is abnormal, goes beyond the limits of some unwritten norm. And our everyday speech is replete with these words: How are you? - Fine!; Well how are you? - Nothing, it’s normal. Moreover, the norm is invisibly present in our statements that do not contain the words norm or normal. When we say: a comfortable chair, too a dark room, inexpressive singing, we mean certain generally accepted “norms” of chair comfort, room lighting, and expressiveness of singing.
There is a norm in language too. And this is quite natural: language is an integral part of not only a civilized society, but also of any human society in general. Normativity is compliance with language norms, which are perceived by its speakers as an “ideal” or correct model.
The language norm is one of the components of national culture. Therefore, the development of a literary norm, its codification, and the reflection of the normalizing activities of linguists in grammars, dictionaries and reference books are of great social and cultural importance.
All of the above justifies the relevance of this topic.
Purpose of the work: a comprehensive study and analysis of the norms of the modern Russian language.
The work consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.
1 The concept of a language norm and its functions
Norm is one of the central linguistic concepts. Most often, this term is used in combination with “literary norm” and is applied to those varieties of language that are used in the media, in science and education, in diplomacy, lawmaking and legislation, in business and legal proceedings and other areas of “socially important” predominantly public communication. But we can talk about the norm in relation to a territorial dialect or social jargon. Thus, linguists use the term norm in two senses - broad and narrow.
In a broad sense, the norm refers to such means and ways of speech that have been spontaneously formed over many centuries and which usually distinguish one type of language from others. That’s why we can talk about a norm in relation to a territorial dialect: for example, normal for Northern Russian dialects is Okanye, and for Southern Russian dialects - Akanye. Any social or professional jargon is also “normal” in its own way: for example, what is used in trade argot will be rejected as alien by those who speak the jargon of carpenters; established ways of using linguistic means exist in army jargon and in the jargon of musicians-“labukhs”, and speakers of each of these jargons can easily distinguish someone else’s from their own, familiar and therefore normal for them, etc.
In a narrow sense, a norm is the result of the codification of language. Of course, codification is based on the tradition of the existence of language in a given society, on some unwritten but generally accepted ways of using linguistic means. But it is important that codification is the purposeful ordering of everything related to language and its application. The results of codifying activities are reflected in normative dictionaries and grammars.
The norm as a result of codification is inextricably linked with the concept of literary language, which is otherwise called normalized or codified. The territorial dialect, urban vernacular, social and professional jargons are not subject to codification: after all, no one consciously and purposefully makes sure that Vologda residents consistently okal, and residents of the Kursk village Akali, so that sellers, God forbid, do not use the terminology of carpenters, and soldiers - words and expressions of Labouche jargon, and therefore the concept of norm in the narrow sense of this term just discussed is not applicable to such varieties of language - dialects, jargons.
Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena that have occurred and are occurring in the language and are supported by the speech practice of native speakers of a literary language. The main sources of language norms include the works of classical writers and some modern writers, the language of Central Television announcers, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, Scientific research linguists, language system (analogs), opinion of the majority of speakers.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This important function norms – a function of protecting the language. In addition, norms reflect what has developed historically in a language - this is a function of reflecting the history of the language.
Speaking about the essence of a norm, it should be remembered that a norm is not a law. The law constitutes a necessity that does not allow any deviations, while the norm only prescribes how it should be. Let's compare the following examples:
1. A stone thrown up must then fall down (this is a law of nature);
2. A person living in a society must follow the rules of the community, for example, not knocking on the wall with a hammer after 11 pm (these are social norms);
3. Man in progress verbal communication must put accents correctly (these are language norms).
So, the norm only indicates how it should be - this is the function of the prescription.
Thus, a language norm is the traditionally established rules for the use of speech means, i.e. rules of exemplary and generally accepted pronunciation, use of words, phrases and sentences.
2 Norms of modern Russian language
There are written and oral norms.
Written language norms are, first of all, spelling and punctuation norms. For example, the spelling N in the word worker, and НН in the word nameNNik, is subject to certain spelling rules. And the placement of a dash in the sentence Moscow is the capital of Russia is explained by the punctuation norms of the modern Russian language.
Oral norms are divided into grammatical, lexical and orthoepic.
Grammar rules are the rules for using the forms of different parts of speech, as well as the rules for constructing a sentence. The most common grammatical errors associated with the use of the gender of nouns are “railroad rail, French shampoo, big corn, registered parcel, patent leather shoes.” However, rail, shampoo is a masculine noun, and callus, parcel, shoe are feminine, so we should say “railroad rail, French shampoo and large callus, customized parcel, patent leather shoe.”
Lexical norms are the rules for using words in speech. An error is, for example, using the verb lay down instead of putting. Despite the fact that the verbs lay down and put down have the same meaning, put down is a normative literary word, and lay down is a colloquial word. The expressions: I put the book back in its place, etc. are errors. The verb to put should be used: I put the books in place.
Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. (Orthoepy from the Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Compliance with pronunciation standards has important for the quality of our speech. Pronunciation that corresponds to orthoepic norms facilitates and speeds up the communication process, therefore the social role correct pronunciation very great, especially nowadays in our society, where oral speech has become a means of widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and forums.
The norm is conservative and is aimed at preserving the linguistic means and rules for their use accumulated in a given society by previous generations. The unity and universality of the norm are manifested in the fact that representatives of different social strata and groups that make up a given society are obliged to adhere to traditional methods of linguistic expression, as well as those rules and regulations that are contained in grammars and dictionaries and are the result of codification. Deviation from linguistic tradition, from dictionary and grammatical rules and recommendations is considered a violation of the norm. However, it is no secret that at all stages of the development of a literary language, when using it in different communicative conditions, variants of linguistic means are allowed: you can say cottage cheese - and cottage cheese, spotlights - and spotlights, you are right - and you are right, etc.
The norm is based on traditional ways language use and is wary of linguistic innovations. “The norm is recognized as what was, and partly what is, but not at all what will be,” wrote the famous linguist A.M. Peshkovsky. He explained this property of both the literary norm and the literary language itself: “If the literary dialect changed quickly, then each generation could only use the literature of its own and the previous generation, many two. But under such conditions there would be no literature itself, since the literature of each generation is created by all previous literature. If Chekhov had not already understood Pushkin, then Chekhov probably would not have existed. Too thin a layer of soil would provide too little nutrition for literary sprouts. The conservatism of the literary dialect, uniting centuries and generations, creates the possibility of a single powerful centuries-old national literature.” However, the conservatism of a norm does not mean its complete immobility in time. It is another matter that the pace of normative changes is slower than the development of a given national language as a whole. The more developed the literary form of a language is, the better it serves the communicative needs of society, the less it changes from generation to generation of people using this language.
