The main features of liberalism. What is liberalism and what are its features?

Liberals– representatives of an ideological and socio-political movement that unites supporters of representative government and individual freedom, and in economics – freedom of enterprise.

general information

Liberalism originated in Western Europe in the era of struggle against absolutism and domination Catholic Church(16th–18th centuries). The foundation of the ideology was laid during the period of the European Enlightenment (J. Locke, C. Montesquieu, Voltaire). Physiocratic economists formulated the popular slogan “don’t interfere with action,” which expressed the idea of ​​state non-interference in the economy. The rationale for this principle was given by the English economists A. Smith and D. Ricardo. In the 18th–19th centuries. the social environment of liberals was predominantly bourgeois strata. Radical liberals associated with democracy played important role in the American Revolution (embodied in the US Constitution of 1787). 19th–20th centuries The main provisions of liberalism were formed: civil society, individual rights and freedoms, the rule of law, democratic political institutions, freedom of private enterprise and trade.

Principles of liberalism

The essential features of liberalism are determined by the etymology of the word itself (Latin Liberaly - free).

The main principles of liberalism in the political sphere are:

• personal freedom, the priority of the individual in relation to the state, recognition of the right of all people to self-realization. It should be noted that in the ideology of liberalism, individual freedom coincides with political freedom and the “natural rights” of man, the most important of which are the right to life, liberty and private property;
• restriction of the scope of state activities; protection of private life – primarily from the arbitrariness of the state; “the curbing of the state through a constitution that guarantees individual freedom of action within the limits of the law;
• the principle of political pluralism, freedom of thought, speech, and belief.
• delimitation of the sphere of activity of the state and civil society, non-interference of the former in the affairs of the latter;
• in the economic sphere – freedom of individual and group entrepreneurial activity, self-regulation of the economy according to the laws of competition and free market, non-interference of the state in the economic sphere, inviolability of private property;
• in the spiritual sphere – freedom of conscience, i.e. the right of citizens to profess (or not to profess) any religion, the right to formulate their moral duties, etc.

Success and development of the direction

In its completed classical form, liberalism established itself in the government of Great Britain, the USA, France and a number of other European states in the second half of the 19th century. But already at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. a decline in the influence of liberal ideology is revealed, which developed into a crisis that lasted until the 30s of the 20th century, which was associated with the new socio-political realities of this period.

On the one hand, free competition left without state control led to self-destruction market economy as a result of the concentration of production and the formation of monopolies, ruined small and medium-sized enterprises, on the other hand, unlimited property rights caused a powerful labor movement, economic and political upheavals, especially evident in the late 20s - early 30s. XX century All this forced us to reconsider a number of liberal attitudes and value guidelines.

Thus, within the framework of classical liberalism, neoliberalism is formed, the origin of which many scientists associate with the activities of American President F. D. Roosevelt (1933–1945). The rethink affected primarily the economic and social role of the state. The new form of liberalism is based on the ideas of the English economist D. Keynes.

Neoliberalism

As a result of lengthy discussions and theoretical searches in the first half of the 20th century. Certain basic principles of classical liberalism were revised and an updated concept of “social liberalism” was developed - neoliberalism.

The neoliberal program was based on ideas such as:

• consensus between managers and managed;
• the need for mass participation in the political process;
• democratization of the adoption procedure political decisions(the principle of “political justice”);
• limited government regulation economic and social spheres;
• state restrictions on the activities of monopolies;
• certain (limited) guarantees social rights(rights to work, to education, to benefits in old age, etc.).

In addition, neoliberalism involves protecting the individual from abuse and negative consequences market system. The core values ​​of neoliberalism were borrowed by other ideological movements. It is attractive because it serves as the ideological basis for the legal equality of individuals and the rule of law.

Forms

Classical liberalism

Liberalism is the most widespread ideological movement that was formed in late XVII-XVIII centuries as the ideology of the bourgeois class. John Locke (1632–1704), an English philosopher, is considered the founder of classical liberalism. He was the first to clearly separate concepts such as personality, society, state, and singled out legislative and executive branch. Locke's political theory, set out in “Two Treatises on Government,” is directed against patriarchal absolutism and views the socio-political process as the development of human society from a state of nature to civil society and self-government.

The main purpose of government from his point of view is to protect the rights of citizens to life, liberty and property, and in order to secure natural rights, equality and freedom, people agree to establish a state. Locke formulated the idea of ​​the rule of law, arguing that in a state absolutely any organ must obey the law. In his opinion, the legislative power in the state should be separated from the executive (including judicial and external relations), and the government itself must also strictly obey the law.

Social liberalism and conservative liberalism

At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. representatives of liberal movements began to feel a crisis in the ideas of classical liberalism associated with the aggravation of social contradictions and the spread of socialist ideas. Under these conditions, new trends in liberalism emerged - “ social liberalism" and "conservative liberalism." In “social liberalism” the main ideas boiled down to the fact that the state had social functions, and was given the responsibility of providing for the most disadvantaged sections of society. “Conservative liberalism,” on the contrary, rejected any social activity of the state. Under the influence of the further development of social processes, the internal evolution of liberalism took place, and in the 30s of the 20th century, neoliberalism was born. Researchers associate the beginning of neoliberalism with the “New Deal” of the American president.

Political liberalism

Political liberalism is the belief that individuals are the basis of law and society and that public institutions exist to help empower individuals with real power, without kowtowing to elites. This belief in political philosophy and political science is called “methodological individualism.” It is based on the idea that each person knows best what is best for him. The English Magna Carta (1215) provides an example of a political document that extends some individual rights further than the prerogative of the monarch. The key point is the social contract, according to which laws are made with the consent of society for its benefit and protection of social norms, and every citizen is subject to these laws. Particular emphasis is placed on the rule of law, in particular, liberalism assumes that the state has sufficient power to enforce it. Modern political liberalism also includes the condition of universal suffrage, regardless of sex, race or property; Liberal democracy is considered the most preferable system. Political liberalism means a movement for liberal democracy and against absolutism or authoritarianism.

Economic liberalism

Economic liberalism advocates individual rights to property and freedom of contract. The motto of this form of liberalism is “free private enterprise.” Preference is given to capitalism based on the principle of laissez-faire, which means the abolition of government subsidies and legal barriers to trade. Economic liberals believe that the market does not need government regulation. Some of them are ready to allow government oversight of monopolies and cartels, others argue that market monopolization arises only as a consequence of government action. Economic liberalism argues that the prices of goods and services should be determined by the free choices of individuals, i.e., market forces. Some accept the presence of market forces even in areas where the state traditionally maintains a monopoly, such as security or justice. Economic liberalism views economic inequality, which arises from unequal bargaining power, as a natural result of competition in the absence of coercion. Currently, this form is most expressed in libertarianism; other varieties are minarchism and anarcho-capitalism. Thus, economic liberalism is for private property and against government regulation.

Cultural liberalism

Cultural liberalism focuses on individual rights related to consciousness and lifestyle, including issues such as sexual, religious, academic freedom, and protection from government interference in personal life. As John Stuart Mill said in his essay “On Liberty”: “The only object which justifies the interference of men, individually or collectively, in the activities of other men, is self-defense. It is permissible to exercise power over a member of a civilized society against his will only for the purpose of preventing harm to others.” Cultural liberalism, to varying degrees, objects to government regulation of such areas as literature and art, as well as such issues as the activities of academia, gambling, prostitution, age of consent for sexual relations, abortion, use contraception, euthanasia, alcohol and other drug use. The Netherlands is probably the country with the highest level of cultural liberalism today, which, however, does not prevent the country from proclaiming a policy of multiculturalism.

Third generation liberalism

Third generation liberalism was a consequence of the post-war struggle of third world countries against colonialism. Today it is more associated with certain aspirations than with legal norms. Its goal is to fight against the concentration of power, material resources and technology in a group of developed countries. Activists of this movement emphasize the collective right of society to peace, to self-determination, to economic development and access to the commonwealth ( Natural resources, scientific knowledge, cultural monuments). These rights belong to the “third generation” and are reflected in Article 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Defenders of collective international rights Human Rights Watch also pay close attention to issues of international ecology and humanitarian assistance.

Bottom line

In all of the above forms of liberalism, it is assumed that there must be a balance between the responsibilities of government and individuals and that the function of the state should be limited to those tasks that cannot be adequately performed by the private sector. All forms of liberalism aim at legislative protection of human dignity and personal autonomy, and all argue that the abolition of restrictions on individual activities contributes to the improvement of society. Modern liberalism in most developed countries is a mixture of all these forms. In third world countries, “third generation liberalism” – the movement for a healthy living environment and against colonialism – often comes to the fore. The basis of liberalism as a political and legal doctrine is the idea of ​​the absolute value and self-sufficiency of the individual. According to the liberal concept, it is not society that precedes and socializes individuals, but independent individuals who, in accordance with their own will and reason, create society itself - all social institutions, including political and legal institutions.

Liberalism in modern Russia

Liberalism is widespread to one degree or another in all modern developed countries. However, in modern Russia the term has acquired a significant negative connotation, since liberalism is often understood as destructive economic and political reforms, carried out under the rule of Gorbachev and Yeltsin, a high level of chaos and corruption, covered up by an orientation toward Western countries. In this interpretation, liberalism is widely criticized due to fears of further destruction of the country and loss of its independence. Modern liberalization often leads to a decrease in social protection, and “price liberalization” is a euphemism for “increasing prices.”

Radical liberals in Russia are usually considered to be admirers of the West (“creative class”), including in their ranks very specific individuals (Valeria Novodvorskaya, Pavel Shekhtman, etc.) who hate Russia and the USSR as such, for example, comparing them with Nazi Germany, and Stalin and Putin - with Hitler, deifying the USA. Well-known resources of this kind: Echo of Moscow, The New Times, Ej, etc. The opposition identified itself as liberal, holding mass protests against Russian authorities in 2011–2012 due to disagreement with the nomination and election of Putin for a third term. But it is interesting that at the same time, Russian President Vladimir Putin, for example, called himself a liberal, liberal reforms were proclaimed by Dmitry Medvedev when he was president of Russia.

Liberalism- this is where the principle of limited intervention in social relations is implemented.

Liberal content public relations manifests itself in the presence of a system of pressure control organs political power designed to guarantee individual freedom and ensure the protection of citizens' rights. The basis of the system is private enterprise, organized on market principles.

The combination of liberal and democratic principles of social relations allows us to distinguish a political system called “ liberal democracy" Modern Western political scientists believe that this concept denotes an ideal that has not yet been realized, therefore they propose to designate the regimes of democratically developed countries with the term “Western polyarchy” (rule of the many). In other political systems it is implemented liberal-authoritarian mode. Basically we're talking about only about a greater or lesser degree of manifestation in all political systems.

Liberalism and neoliberalism

Liberalism emerged as an independent ideological movement (worldview) at the end of the 17th century. thanks to the works of such scientists as J. Locke, III. Montesquieu, J. Mill, A. Smith and others. The fundamental ideas and guidelines of classical liberalism were formulated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789 and the French Constitution of 1791. The very concept of “liberalism” entered the socio-political lexicon in early XIX V. In the Spanish parliament (Cortes), a group of nationalist legate deputies were called “liberals”. Liberalism as an ideology was finally formed by the middle of the 19th century.

The basis of liberal ideology is the concept of the priority of personal rights and freedoms over all others (society, state). At the same time, of all freedoms, preference is given to economic freedoms (freedom of entrepreneurship, priority of private property).

The fundamental features of liberalism are:

• individual freedom;
• respect and observance of human rights;
• freedom of private ownership and entrepreneurship;
• priority of equality of opportunity over social equality;
• legal equality of citizens;
• contractual system of state education (separation of the state from civil society);
• separation of powers, the idea of ​​free elections of all institutions of power;
• non-intervention of the state in privacy.

However, following the classical model of liberal ideology led to the polarization of society. Unlimited liberalism in economics and politics did not ensure social harmony and justice. Free, unrestricted competition contributed to the absorption of weaker competitors by stronger competitors. Monopolies dominated all sectors of the economy. A similar situation developed in politics. The ideas of liberalism began to experience a crisis. Some researchers even began to talk about the “decline” of liberal ideas.

As a result of lengthy discussions and theoretical searches in the first half of the 20th century. certain basic principles of classical liberalism were revised and an updated concept of “social liberalism” was developed - neoliberalism.

The neoliberal program was based on ideas such as:

• consensus between managers and managed;
• the need for mass participation in the political process;
• democratization of the procedure for making political decisions (the principle of “political justice”);
• limited government regulation of economic and social spheres;
• state restrictions on the activities of monopolies;
• guarantees of certain (limited) social rights (the right to work, to education, to benefits in old age, etc.).

In addition, neoliberalism involves protecting the individual from the abuses and negative consequences of the market system.

The core values ​​of neoliberalism were borrowed by other ideological movements. It is attractive because it serves as the ideological basis for the legal equality of individuals and the rule of law.

(from the Latin liberalis - free) first appeared in literature in the 19th century, although it formed as a current of socio-political thought much earlier. The ideology arose in response to the powerless situation of citizens in the conditions absolute monarchy.

The main achievements of classical liberalism are the development of the “Social Contract Theory”, as well as the concepts of natural rights of the individual and the theory of separation of powers. The authors of “The Theory of Social Contract” were D. Locke, C. Montesquieu and J.-J. Rousseau. According to it, the origin of the state, civil society and law is based on agreement between people. The social contract implies that people partially renounce their sovereignty and transfer it to the state in exchange for ensuring their rights and freedoms. The key principle is that a legitimate governing body must be obtained with the consent of the governed and it has only those rights that are delegated to it by the citizens.

Based on these characteristics, supporters of liberalism did not recognize absolute monarchy and believed that such power corrupts, because it has no limiting principles. Therefore, the first insisted on the expediency of the separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. Thus, a system of checks and balances is created and there is no scope for arbitrariness. A similar idea is described in detail in the works of Montesquieu.

Ideological liberalism developed the principle of natural inalienable rights of a citizen, including the right to life, freedom and property. Possession of them does not depend on belonging to any class, but is given by nature.

Classical liberalism

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a form of classical liberalism emerged. His ideologists include Bentham, Mill, and Spencer. Supporters of classical liberalism placed individual interests rather than public interests at the forefront. Moreover, the priority of individualism was defended by them in a radical extreme form. This distinguished classical liberalism from the form in which it originally existed.

Another important principle was anti-paternalism, which assumed minimal government intervention in private life and the economy. State participation in economic life should be limited to the creation of a free market for goods and labor. Freedom was perceived by liberals as a key value, the main guarantee of which was private property. Accordingly, economic freedom had the highest priority.

Thus, the basic values ​​of classical liberalism were individual freedom, the inviolability of private property and minimal state participation. However, in practice, such a model did not contribute to the formation of the common good and led to social stratification. This led to the spread of the neoliberal model.

Modern liberalism

In the last third of the 19th century, a new movement began to take shape -. Its formation was due to the crisis of liberal teaching, which came as close as possible to conservative ideology and did not take into account the interests of a widespread layer - the working class.

As a leading advantage political system justice and harmony among the governed were proclaimed. Neoliberalism also sought to reconcile the values ​​of equality and freedom.

Neoliberals no longer insisted that a person should be guided by selfish interests, but should contribute to the formation of the common good. And although individuality is the highest goal, it is possible only with a close relationship with society. Man began to be perceived as a social being.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the need for government participation in the economic sphere for a fair distribution of benefits also became apparent. In particular, the functions of the state included the need to create an education system, establish a minimum wage and control working conditions, provide unemployment or sickness benefits, etc.

In contrast to them are libertarians who advocate the preservation of the basic principles of liberalism - free enterprise, as well as the inviolability of natural freedoms.

Introduction

Relevance of the problem. The state is the main institution; it organizes, directs and controls the joint activities and relationships of people, social groups, classes and associations. The state represents a form of organization of political power in society.

Today a lot is said and written about the crisis of the democratic state. Famous French political thinker R. Aron in the book “Democracy and Totalitarianism” writes: “One can dream of an ideal constitutional regime without any imperfections, but one cannot imagine that all political figures care simultaneously about both the private interests they represent and the interests the community at large they are obligated to serve; It is impossible to imagine a regime where the competition of ideas is free, and the press is impartial, where all citizens are aware of the need for mutual support in any conflicts” Aron R. Democracy and totalitarianism. - M.: Open Society Foundation, 1993. - P. 131..

Many experts state the fact that the current crisis of democracy has several manifestations. This is a crisis of statehood, a crisis of forms of participation and political activity, a crisis of citizenship. The famous American political scientist S. Lipset notes: Americans’ trust in the authorities, in everyone state institutions in the USA is steadily declining Mushinsky V. ABC of politics. - M.: Avangard, 2002. - P. 54..

As for Russia, the formula for the crisis state of democracy, defined by R. Aron as “not yet,” is quite applicable to it. Indeed, there are no deep roots of democracy in Russia ( people's power), not to mention liberal (constitutional) democracy, i.e. the power of the people, respecting the rights of every person. Today in Russia there is a contradictory situation. On the one hand, it can be argued that democracy has allowed enough deep roots. At the same time, many studies indicate that in Russia the alienation of citizens from politics and, above all, from power is growing. They are still to an immeasurably greater extent the object of politics than its subject. Those seeking power hear about the urgent needs of ordinary people only during election campaigns, but once in power, they immediately forget about them and their needs. The responsibility of the authorities for the results of their leadership and management of society is less than ever.

The purpose of the work is an analysis of the relationship between a liberal and a democratic state. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

· study the features of a liberal state, its characteristics;

· consider the features of a democratic state, its basic principles;

· identify similarities and differences between liberalism and democracy.

The concept of a liberal state, its characteristics

The liberal (semi-democratic) regime was characteristic of developed countries in the 19th century. In the 20th century it formed in a row developing countries, approaching developed ( South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand), as well as as a result of the elimination of the command-administrative system in post-socialist countries of Eastern Europe(Russia, Bulgaria, Romania).

The significance of the liberal regime is such that some scientists believe: the liberal regime is not actually a regime for the exercise of power, but a condition for the existence of civilization itself at a certain stage of its development, even the final result, which ends the entire evolution of the political organization of society, most effective form such an organization. But it is difficult to agree with the last statement, since at present time is running the evolution of political regimes and even such a form as the liberal democratic regime. New trends in the development of civilization, the desire of man to escape from environmental, nuclear and other disasters give rise to new forms of defining state power, for example, the role of the UN is increasing, international rapid reaction forces are emerging, contradictions between human rights and nations, peoples, etc. are growing. Theory of State and Law / Ed. A.V. Vengerova. - M.: Infra-N, 1999. - P. 159.

In the theory of state and law, political methods and methods of exercising power that are based on a system of the most democratic and humanistic principles are also called liberal. These principles primarily characterize the economic sphere of relations between the individual and the state. Under a liberal regime in this area, a person has property, rights and freedoms, is economically independent and on this basis becomes politically independent. In relation to the individual and the state, priority remains with the individual, etc.

The liberal regime defends the value of individualism, contrasting it with collectivist principles in the organization of political and economic life, which, according to a number of scientists, ultimately lead to totalitarian forms of government. The liberal regime is determined, first of all, by the needs of the commodity-money, market organization of the economy. The market requires equal, free, independent partners. A liberal state proclaims the formal equality of all citizens. In a liberal society, freedom of speech, opinions, forms of ownership is proclaimed, and space is given to private initiative. Individual rights and freedoms are not only enshrined in the constitution, but also become enforceable in practice.

Thus, economic basis liberalism leaves private property. The state frees producers from its tutelage and does not interfere in the economic life of people, but only establishes the general framework of free competition between producers and the conditions of economic life. It also acts as an arbiter in resolving disputes between them. In the later stages of liberalism, legitimate government intervention in economic and social processes acquires a socially oriented character, which is determined by many factors: the need to rationally distribute economic resources, solve environmental problems, participate in the peaceful division of labor, prevent international conflicts etc. Theory of State and Law / Ed. A.V. Vengerova. - M.: Infra-N, 1999. - P. 160.

A liberal regime allows the existence of an opposition; moreover, under liberalism, the state takes all measures to ensure the existence of an opposition that represents interests, and creates special procedures for taking into account these interests. Pluralism, and above all, multi-party system, are necessary attributes of a liberal society. In addition, under a liberal political regime, there are many associations, public organizations, corporations, sections, and clubs that unite people based on their interests. Organizations are emerging that allow citizens to express their political, professional, religious, social, everyday, local, national interests and needs. These associations form the foundation of civil society and do not leave the citizen face to face with government authorities, which are usually inclined to impose their decisions and even abuse their capabilities.

Under liberalism, state power is formed through elections, the outcome of which depends not only on the opinion of the people, but also on the financial capabilities of certain parties necessary to conduct election campaigns. Public administration is carried out on the basis of the principle of separation of powers. A system of checks and balances helps reduce opportunities for abuse of power. Government decisions are adopted by a majority vote. IN public administration decentralization is used: the central government takes upon itself to resolve only those issues that the local government cannot resolve A.P. Tsygankov. Modern political regimes. - M.: Open Society Foundation, 1995. - P. 153..

Of course, one should not apologize the liberal regime, since it also has its own problems, the main ones being social protection certain categories of citizens, stratification of society, actual inequality of starting opportunities, etc. The most effective use of this regime becomes possible only in a society characterized by a high level of economic and social development. The population must have a sufficiently high political, intellectual and moral consciousness, and legal culture. At the same time, it should be noted that liberalism today is the most attractive and desirable political regime for many states. A liberal regime can only exist on a democratic basis; it grows out of the democratic regime itself.

More often than in a democratic regime, the state has to resort to various forms coercive influence, because the social base of the ruling elite is quite narrow. Low level The life of numerous sections of society gives rise to marginality and a tendency to violent actions to achieve their social goals. Therefore, democratic institutions, including the legal opposition, function as if on the surface of public life, only weakly penetrating into the thickness of society.

A liberal state is characterized by such specific features Yu.A. Kudryavtsev. Political regime: classification criteria and main types // Jurisprudence. - 2002. - No. 1. - P. 199.:

· formalism of the law and formal equality of rights; a liberal state is a formal legal state that does not recognize social and other differences between citizens;

· priority of individual rights and freedoms of citizens, non-interference in their private affairs, property rights and social relations. There is still no law limiting working hours in England;

· limiting multi-party system to old (“traditional”) parties. Exclusion of new parties from participation in power. Liberal states of the interwar period prohibited the activities of communist and sometimes social democratic parties, as well as the propaganda of the ideas of socialism in the press. These measures were taken under laws on the protection constitutional order from promoting his violent overthrow. In many cases it was about limiting democracy;

· government of a parliamentary majority and the absence of a strong counterbalance.

The ideology of the liberal state can be briefly summarized in two well-known expressions. One thing that does not have an exact translation from French into Russian is laissez faire, which roughly means: do not interfere with an individual from going about his business. The second is very short: “The State is the Night Watchman” by A.P. Butenko. The state: its yesterday’s and today’s interpretations // State and law. - 1993. - No. 7. - P. 97..

The theoretical core of liberalism consists of: 1) the doctrine of the “state of nature”; 2) the theory of “social contract”; 3) the theory of “people's sovereignty”; 4) inalienable human rights (life, freedom, property, resistance to oppression, etc.).

The basic principles of liberalism are: absolute value; personality and its commitment to freedom, expressed in human rights; the principle of individual freedom as social: benefits, i.e. benefits; for the whole society; law as a sphere of realization of freedom, balancing the rights of an individual and other people, as a guarantee of security; the rule of law rather than people, the reduction of issues of power to issues of law; separation of powers As a condition for the rule of law, independence of the judiciary, subordination of political power to the judiciary; the rule of law as an instrument of social control; priority of human rights over state rights.

The main value of liberalism is freedom. Freedom is a value in all ideological doctrines, only the interpretation of freedom as a value modern civilization they differ significantly. Freedom in liberalism is a phenomenon from economic sphere: By freedom, liberals initially understood the liberation of the individual from medieval dependence on the state and guilds. IN; In politics, the requirement of freedom meant the right to act according to one’s own will, and, above all, the right to fully enjoy inalienable human rights, limited only by the freedom of other people. Once the liberals came into focus, such a restrictor of freedom as other people with equal rights, then it followed that the idea of ​​freedom was supplemented by the requirement of equality (equality as a requirement, but not an empirical fact).

The development of liberal principles is reflected in the diverse theories created by convinced supporters of liberalism. For example, the principle of individual freedom as a social benefit is reflected in the theories of the free market, religious tolerance, etc. The above-mentioned liberal principles of interpretation of the law are expressed in the theories of constitutional law, the rule of law, etc. And the principle of the priority of human rights over state rights state was developed in the theory of the “night watchman state”, according to which it is necessary to limit the volume and scope; the activities of the state in protecting human rights, his life, property, inaction; negative freedom (“freedom from” - from oppression, exploitation, etc.); abstract freedom - like human freedom in general. any person; individual freedom: most important view, freedom - freedom of enterprise.

Despite the presence of common liberal values ​​and principles in Western classical liberalism of the 17th-18th centuries. serious disagreements emerged in the interpretation of the list and hierarchy of inalienable human rights, including on the issue of their guarantees and forms of implementation. As a result, two currents arose: the bourgeois-elite, defending the interests and rights of owners and demanding non-interference of the state in socio-economic relations, and the democratic, which believes that since rights should be extended to everyone, the state needs to create conditions for this. Before late XIX V. liberalism was dominated by the first direction, based on their understanding of private property as inalienable right people and defending the idea that political rights should be granted only to owners who will conscientiously manage the country’s national wealth and pass reasonable laws, since they have something to answer for the results of their political activities: their property. Manchester school of classical liberalism of the first half of the 19th century. with its preaching of market determinism or the social Darwinist school of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, the founder of which was G. Spencer, are typical examples of this direction. In the USA, followers of these views maintained their positions until the 30s.

The democratic trend in liberalism was developed by B. Franklin and T. Jefferson in the USA. Fighting for the realization of the “American dream”, the liberal democratic government of the United States in the 60s. XIX century under President A. Lincoln, approved an act on the right of every American over 21 years of age to acquire full ownership of 64 grams of land from the state fund, which marked the beginning of the success of the farmer's path in agricultural production. The democratic direction strengthened its position and became the dominant form of liberalism at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. During this period, it conducted an active dialogue with socialism and borrowed a number of important ideas from the latter. The democratic trend came out under the name of “social liberalism”.

For example, M. Weber spoke from the position of social liberalism. Among politicians who shared the beliefs of social liberalism were D. Lloyd George, W. Wilson, T. Roosevelt. Social liberalism achieved particular success in the field of practical politics in the 30s and 40s, which coincided with the “New Deal” policy in the United States, developed back in the 20s. D. Keynes as a theoretical model and implemented by F.D. Roosevelt. The model of “neo-capitalism”, developed in the USA, was proposed and successfully used in the conditions of post-war devastation in Western Europe to restore the liberal democratic foundations of life. In the second half of the 20th century. social liberalism has become firmly dominant in the liberal tradition, so when someone calls himself a liberal today, one must think that he shares not the views of two hundred years ago, but the views of the modern type of liberalism. Their essence is as follows: Grachev M.N. Democracy: research methods, perspective analysis. - M.: VLADOS, 2004. - P. 34..

1. Private property has a private-public nature, since not only owners participate in its creation, multiplication, and protection.

2. The state has the right to regulate private property relations. In this regard, an important place in liberal theory is occupied by the problem of state manipulation of the production and market mechanism of supply and demand and the concept of planning.

3. The liberal theory of industrial democracy develops the idea of ​​worker participation in management (in production, supervisory boards over the activities of the administration with the participation of workers).

4. The classical liberal theory of the state as a “night watchman” has been replaced by the concept of the “welfare state”: every member of society is entitled to a living wage; public policy should promote economic stability and prevent social disruption; One of the highest goals of public policy is full employment.

In the 20th century the majority of people are hired workers, to reduce the painful consequences of their economic dependence and helplessness in the face of the modern economy.

An important place in modern liberalism belongs to the concept of social justice, built on the principles of rewarding the individual for enterprise and talent, and at the same time taking into account the need to redistribute social wealth in the interests of the least protected groups.

In 2012, through the efforts All-Russian Center To study public opinion (VTsIOM), a survey was conducted in which Russians were asked to explain who a liberal is. More than half of the participants in this test (more precisely, 56%) found it difficult to disclose this term. It is unlikely that this situation has changed radically in a few years, and therefore let’s look at what principles liberalism professes and what this socio-political and philosophical movement actually consists of.

Who is a liberal?

In the most general outline we can say that a person who is an adherent of this trend welcomes and approves of the idea of ​​​​limited intervention by government bodies in the The basis of this system is based on a private enterprise economy, which, in turn, is organized on market principles.

Answering the question of who a liberal is, many experts argue that he is someone who considers political, personal and economic freedom to be the highest priority in the life of the state and society. For supporters of this ideology, the freedoms and rights of each person are a kind of legal basis on which, in their opinion, the economic and social order should be built. Now let's look at who a liberal democrat is. This is a person who, while defending freedom, is an opponent of authoritarianism. according to Western political scientists, this is the ideal that many strive for the developed countries. However, this term can be discussed not only from a political point of view. In its original meaning, this word called all freethinkers and freethinkers. Sometimes these included those who in society were prone to excessive indulgence.

Modern liberals

As an independent worldview, the ideological movement in question arose at the end of the 17th century. The basis for its development was the works of such famous authors as J. Locke, A. Smith and J. Mill. At that time, it was believed that freedom of enterprise and non-interference of the state in private life would inevitably lead to prosperity and improved well-being of society. However, as it turned out later, classic model liberalism has not justified itself. Free competition, uncontrolled by the state, led to the emergence of monopolies that inflated prices. Interested lobby groups have emerged in politics. All this made legal equality impossible and significantly narrowed the opportunities for everyone who wanted to start a business. In the 80-90s. In the 19th century, the ideas of liberalism began to experience a serious crisis. As a result of long-term theoretical searches, at the beginning of the 20th century, a new concept was developed, called neoliberalism or social liberalism. Its supporters advocate protecting the individual from negative consequences and abuses in market system. In classical liberalism, the state was something of a “night watchman.” Modern liberals recognized that this was a mistake and included in their program ideas such as:

Russian liberals

In polytypic discussions of the modern Russian Federation, this trend causes a lot of controversy. For some, liberals are conformists playing along with the West, while for others they are a panacea that can save the country from the undivided power of the state. This discrepancy is to a large extent due to the fact that several varieties of this ideology are operating simultaneously on Russian territory. The most notable of them are liberal fundamentalism (represented by Alexey Venediktov, editor-in-chief of the Echo Moscow station), neoliberalism (represented by social liberalism (Yabloko party) and legal liberalism (Republican Party and PARNAS party).