The first English manufactories arose in. The emergence of manufactories

State Academic University of Humanities

Faculty of Economics

Essay

"The Development of Manufacture in Germany."

Completed by a student of the second group

Artemova E.S.

Checked by the teacher

Khakhladzhiyan A. M.

Moscow 2017

1. Brief Definition manufactory.

2. The origin of manufacturing in Europe.

3. The emergence of manufacture in Germany.

Brief definition of manufacture.

Manufactory(from Latin manu - hand and factura - production) - one of the early forms of capitalist industrial organization, in which craft technology is preserved, but production is already based on cooperation and the technical division of labor among workers. Manufacture is an enterprise based on craft technology, division of labor, and civilian labor; it is a stage of industry that historically precedes large-scale machine production.

Manufactures arose for the first time in Europe in the 16th century in the cities and states of Italy. Later in the Netherlands, England, France. Wool-weaving and cloth-making factories appeared in Florence, where the Ciompi worked, and shipbuilding yards appeared in Venice and Genoa. In Tuscany and Lombardy there are copper and silver mines. Manufactories were free from workshop restrictions and regulations.

Ways of occurrence

The combination of artisans of various specialties in one workshop, thanks to which the product was produced in one place until its final production.

The union of artisans of the same specialty in a common workshop, each of whom continuously performed the same separate operation.

Scattered manufactory

Dispersed manufacturing is a method of organizing production when the manufacturer - the owner of capital (merchant-entrepreneur) - distributes raw materials for sequential processing to small village artisans (home-based artisans). This type of manufacture was most common in the textile industry and in those places where workshop restrictions did not apply. The rural poor who had some property: a house and a tiny plot of land, but could not provide for their family and themselves and therefore looked for additional sources of subsistence, became workers in scattered manufacturing. Having received raw materials, for example, raw wool, the worker processed it into yarn. The yarn was taken by the manufacturer and given to another worker for processing, who turned the yarn into fabric and so on.

Centralized manufactory

Centralized manufacturing is a method of organizing production in which workers process raw materials together in one room. This type of manufacturing was widespread primarily in industries where the technological process involved the joint labor of a large (from ten to hundreds) number of workers performing various operations.

Main industries:

• Textile
• Gornorudnaya
• Metallurgical
• Printing
• Sugared
• Paper
• Porcelain and earthenware

The owners of centralized manufactories were mostly wealthy merchants, and much less often guild masters. Large centralized manufactories were created by states, for example France.

Mixed manufacture

Mixed manufacture produced more complex products, such as watches. Individual parts of the product were made by small artisans with a narrow specialization, and assembly was carried out in the entrepreneur’s workshop.

The origins of manufacturing in Europe.

The process of the origin and development of manufacture in economic developed countries Western Europe meant the growth of capitalism, the decomposition of feudalism. Manufacture replaced the craft of medieval guilds. In the classical form, the process of development of manufacturing took place in England in the 16th-18th centuries, where all three of its forms became widespread, primarily in the textile industry, paper and glass production. The largest manufactories were in metalworking and shipbuilding. In the Netherlands, manufacturing spread in the 16th century, mainly in industries and industrial centers, not associated with workshop restrictions: wool weaving, carpet, textile manufactories with a dispersed system of home production. Manufactories for processing raw materials exported from the colonies were typical. In France in the 16th and 17th centuries, dispersed manufactory arose on the basis of the village cloth and leather industry, centralized manufactory - in book printing and metalworking, in which the production of luxury goods occupied a significant place. Mixed manufacture was more common in silk weaving production. In Germany, mixed manufacturing arose at the beginning of the 17th century, but it did not receive much development until the beginning of the 19th century.
Manufacture was a relatively large capitalist enterprise, but since its base was craft, it did not have decisive advantages over small-scale production. Characteristic feature manufacture was the connection between commercial and industrial capital. Manufactory workers did not form a special class; their composition was characterized by heterogeneity and disunity.
The manufacturing period was characterized by the presence of many small enterprises and work from home. Manufacture had a historically progressive character, contributed to the deepening of the social division of labor, created the prerequisites for industrial production, simplified labor operations, improved tools, led to the specialization of tools, made possible use auxiliary mechanisms and water energy, prepared a cadre of workers for the transition to the machine stage of production that came as a result of the industrial revolution. The emergence of the first manufactories The first manufactories arose in Italy in the 14th century. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. manufactories were created in Germany, England, the Netherlands, and France.

Comparative characteristics England and manufacturing in Germany

The emergence of manufacturing in Germany.

In those countries where the process of primitive accumulation was not accompanied by a corresponding development of capitalism (Spain, Portugal, Italy), a significant part of the expropriated small commodity producers eked out the existence of declassed paupers from generation to generation. During the manufacturing period of the development of capitalism, the share of manufacture in social production remained relatively small; it had not yet broken the bonds that connected it with the forms of production inherited from the Middle Ages. These include the connection between manufacturing, especially dispersed production, and homework, as well as the preservation of land plots by manufacturing workers. The dominance of manual labor implied a relatively high production qualification of manufacturing workers, “a hierarchy of labor forces to which the wage scale corresponds” -

These moments had a divisive effect on the mass of manufacturing workers. The manufacturing proletariat is still very far from possessing the class consciousness that is characteristic of the proletarian “boiled in a factory cauldron.” This was especially true for rural farm laborers, who were doomed by the very working conditions to even greater congestion, darkness and disunity. That is why the proletariat of the manufacturing period is usually called the pre-proletariat. One of the ways of its formation was the decomposition of medieval forms of craft guild production and the medieval class of townspeople. Closed corporations of guild masters in the 16th-17th centuries. guild apprentices were everywhere reduced to a position close to that of the proletarians. Some of the guild craftsmen went bankrupt under the influence of competition from manufactories. A certain layer of other people from among the burghers also went bankrupt, knocked out of the usual rut of the economic life of the medieval city by the revolution.

All these groups - impoverished guild foremen, apprentices and expropriated peasants, who were approaching the proletarians, but had not yet achieved the position of the proletariat in the proper sense of the word - together with the manufacturing workers, in general, constituted those lower strata of the urban population, which were called the plebs. Characterizing social composition urban plebeian opposition in the German Empire on the eve of the Peasant War of 1525, Engels wrote: “It united in itself the decayed components of the old feudal and guild society with the proletarian element of the emerging modern bourgeois society that had not yet developed, barely making its way out” -

In economically more developed countries (the Netherlands, England), where capitalist manufacturing production existed in the 16th century. more widespread, the “emerging proletarian element” in the form of factory workers was much stronger than in the German Empire.

The pre-proletariat, consisting of hired factory workers and uprooted peasants who earned their living in the cities by day labor that did not require membership in a guild, constituted the most revolutionary part of the plebeian opposition.

Manufacture In Germany, at the beginning of the 17th century, a mixed manufacture arose, but due to the general economic backwardness of the country, it did not receive much development until the beginning of the 19th century.

Germany in the XVI-XVIII centuries. haven't been yet a single state, and was part of the Holy Roman Empire.

Scattered manufactories were created in the textile industry, competing with craft workshops. Cloth making, linen weaving, and paper spinning developed. Manufactories are also being formed in the shipbuilding industry in the cities of Northern Germany.

Mining has long been developed here, but the products of iron ore, silver and copper mining were more expensive than in neighboring countries. The fact is that numerous German princes had regalia - a monopoly right to underground wealth. They received a share of the profits, which increased the cost of production. Share companies also acted as developers of underground wealth, and princes often invested in them as well. This is one of the features of the development of German industry during the manufacturing period.

Manufactures as a form of production organization have spread to the traditional industry - brewing.

The largest income continued to come from international trade. The trading houses of the Fuggers, Welsers, and Imhoffs were known in many countries. They invested trading capital not only in financial and usurious transactions and in farming, but also in mining production, and actively participated in operations on the land market.

The development of manufactures prepared the transition to factories and factories, the victory of capitalist production, i.e. market economy. The capital obtained from the sale of manufactured goods was most often invested in the expansion of manufacturing-type enterprises. A “circulation” of capital arose. At the same time, commercial capital accumulated over centuries was gradually transformed into industrial capital (through the construction of centralized manufactories, then factories and factories). This process manifested itself most clearly in the second half of the 18th-19th centuries.

In the late Middle Ages, the formation of money capital became more pronounced, facilitated by an ever-expanding network of market infrastructure institutions.

And when the industrial revolution began in other countries, the import of cheap factory products began to undermine German crafts and manufacturing. Manufactories in Germany (as well as in Russia) were adapted to the conditions of serfdom. There were serf factories with forced labor here. The owner of such a manufactory was a landowner, and his serfs worked on it. There were also scattered manufactories of merchants here. Serfs were also used as workers in such manufactories, who worked in your homes, and received from the manufacturer wages paid rent to their landowner. In general, manufacturing production was poorly developed. In Europe then they said that German money could only be lost French maps into French purses and that no German could write a letter without first buying a sheet of paper from a Dutchman.

The cities retained their medieval character. According to the German historian W. Sombart, the German city dweller was a homebody. He worked in the same house where he lived; shopping was not a custom. There was no public transport yet. In the evenings, the burghers sat in front of the house to relax and talk, and on Sunday they went for a walk outside the city gates.

The genesis of industrial civilization is associated with the development of manufacturing production, since their development as a whole depended on the role of manufactories in the economic structure of the country. Economy XVI-XVIII centuries. can be described as manufactured. Early forms manufactories are typical in the XIV-XV centuries. for large shopping centers oriented towards foreign trade. They were created by merchants and moneylenders. They begin to be found everywhere and represent the main form of industrial production in the second half of the 16th century.

The economic decline of Germany since the second half of the 16th century. touched her too industrial development. Originating in the 15th and early 16th centuries. capitalist production in the form of manufacture did not receive further development. An important reason This was the victory of feudal reaction in the countryside after the suppression of the Peasants' War. For the successful development of manufacturing, it was necessary to spread industry not only in cities, but also in rural areas, where there were no workshop barriers and “patrician routine”. However, “... the widespread restoration of serfdom,” wrote Engels, “was one of the reasons that prevented the development of industry in Germany in the 17th and 18th centuries.” The state of industrial development in Germany was also influenced by the stagnation of German trade, its loss of markets and the presence of foreign competition. As manufacturing production developed in neighboring countries, Germany's guild industry also weakened, suffering from unbearable competition. The economic decline of the cities of Western and Southwestern Germany had the consequence of reducing the capacity of the domestic market for agriculture. But agriculture received a new incentive to expand in the areas east of the Elbe, from which bread (mainly rye) and industrial raw materials were exported abroad. The export of grain and other agricultural products to countries located on new routes of world trade, in which capitalist manufacturing was rapidly developing, seemed very profitable for the feudal lords.

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Manufactory Sumy, Manufactory Kyiv
Manufactory- a large enterprise where manual labor of hired workers was mainly used and division of labor was widely used.

• 1 First manufactories
• 2 Ways of occurrence
• 3 Forms of manufacture
  • 3.1 Scattered manufacture
  • 3.2 Centralized manufacture
  • 3.3 Mixed manufacture
• 4 Manufactories under Peter I
• 5 Links

The first manufactories

Manufactures first appeared in Europe in the 14th century in the cities of Italy. Later in the Netherlands, England, France. Wool-weaving and cloth-making factories appeared in Florence, where the Ciompi worked, and shipbuilding yards appeared in Venice and Genoa. Tuscany and Lombardy - mining copper and silver mines. Manufactories were free from workshop restrictions and regulations.

Ways of occurrence

• the union of artisans of various specialties in one workshop, thanks to which the product was produced in one place until its final production.
• the unification in a common workshop of artisans of the same specialty, each of whom continuously performed the same separate operation.

Forms of manufacture

Scattered manufactory

Dispersed manufacturing is a method of organizing production when the manufacturer - the owner of capital (merchant-entrepreneur) - distributes raw materials for sequential processing to small village artisans (home-based artisans). This type of manufacture was most common in the textile industry and in those places where workshop restrictions did not apply. The rural poor who had some property: a house and a tiny plot of land, but could not provide for their family and themselves and therefore looked for additional sources of livelihood, became workers in scattered manufacturing. Having received raw materials, for example, raw wool, the worker processed it into yarn. The yarn was taken by the manufacturer and given to another worker for processing, who turned the yarn into fabric, etc.

Centralized manufactory

Centralized manufacturing is a method of organizing production in which workers process raw materials together in one room. This type of manufacturing was widespread primarily in industries where the technological process involved the joint labor of a large (from ten to hundreds) number of workers performing various operations.

Main industries:

• Textile
• Gornorudnaya
• Metallurgical
• Printing
• Sugared
• Paper
• Porcelain and earthenware

The owners of centralized manufactories were mostly wealthy merchants, and much less often guild masters. Large centralized manufactories were created by states, for example France.

Mixed manufacture

Mixed manufacture produced more complex products, such as watches. Individual parts of the product were made by small artisans with a narrow specialization, and assembly was carried out in the entrepreneur’s workshop.

Manufactories under Peter I

Types of manufacture: state-owned, patrimonial, possessional, merchant, peasant.

In industry there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and handicraft farms to manufactories. Under Peter, at least 200 new manufactories were founded, and he encouraged their creation in every possible way. Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, but the use of predominantly peasant labor - sessional, assigned, quitrent, etc. - made it a feudal enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state-owned, merchant and landowner. In 1721, industrialists were given the right to buy peasants to assign them to the enterprise (possession peasants).

Assigned peasants, the feudal-dependent population of Russia in the 17th - mid-19th centuries, who were obliged to work in state-owned or private plants and factories instead of paying quitrent and capitation taxes. At the end of the 17th and especially in the 18th centuries, the government, in order to support large-scale industry and provide it with cheap and constant labor, widely practiced assigning state peasants to manufactories in the Urals and Siberia. Usually, assigned peasants were attached to manufactories without a specific period of time, that is, forever. Formally they remained the property of the feudal state, but in practice the industrialists exploited and punished them as their serfs.

State-owned factories used the labor of state peasants, assigned peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines. The merchant manufactories, which produced mainly consumer goods, employed both sessional and quitrent peasants, as well as civilian labor. Landowner enterprises were fully supported by the serfs of the landowner-owner.

Links

• Division of labor and manufacture (Chapter 12 from K. Marx’s book “Capital”)
• Polyak G. B. History of the world economy

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Manufactory Information About

Manufactory- (Late Latin manufactura, from Latin manus - hand and factura - production), a large enterprise where manual labor of hired workers was mainly used and division of labor was widely used. As a characteristic form of capitalist production, manufacturing arose in the countries of Western Europe in the middle of the 16th century, and dominated until the last third of the 18th century.
The prerequisites for its emergence were created by the growth of crafts, commodity production and the resulting differentiation of small commodity producers, the emergence of workshops with hired workers, as well as a large increase in demand and increasing competition. So, as a result, by the middle of the 16th century. V European countries ah, first of all in Italy, and then in England, the first manufactories appeared.
To more clearly imagine the importance of manufactures, you can turn to the book of the Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smith, “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.” This book was published in 1776 and summed up more than a century of the existence of manufactories.
Manufacture arose in two ways:
1) the unification in one workshop of artisans of diverse specialties, through whose hands the product must pass, right up to its final manufacture.

2) the unification in a common workshop of artisans of the same specialty, each of whom continuously performs the same separate operation.

The development of manufacturing production corresponded to 3 forms: scattered, mixed and centralized.

In dispersed manufacturing, the entrepreneur, the owner of capital, bought and sold the product of independent artisans, supplied them with raw materials and tools of production. The small producer was practically cut off from the market, relegated to the position of a hired worker who received wages but continued to work in his home workshop.

Mixed manufactory combined the execution of individual operations in a centralized workshop with work at home (such manufactories arose, as a rule, on the basis of home handicrafts).

The most developed form was centralized manufacturing, which united hired workers (expropriated village artisans, bankrupt artisans in cities, peasants) in one workshop. Centralized manufactories were often imposed by governments.

Manufacture retained the craft method of production, that is, all work was done by hand, but the division of labor was used. That is, each subsequent operation was performed by a separate worker who dealt only with it.

The results of the division of labor were simply stunning. Labor productivity has increased not even hundreds, but thousands of times. Craft workshops of the old type could not withstand competition with manufactories and went bankrupt, while manufactories multiplied and expanded. Appearance manufactory of the 18th century, the nature and purpose of its buildings can be recreated both from descriptions and from graphic images of that time. A characteristic form of large-scale production was the enterprise-estate, which housed production facilities, workers' houses, and even farmland, including vegetable gardens and hayfields.

From the middle of the 17th century. manufacture becomes the dominant form of production, covering an ever-increasing amount of output various types goods and deepening the international division of labor. The sectoral composition of manufactories was largely determined by natural and geographical conditions and historical development of one country or another. Thus, in England, cloth, metallurgical, metalworking and shipbuilding manufactories mainly predominated; in Germany - mining, metalworking and construction, in Holland - textile and shipbuilding.

A significant contribution to the development of manufacturing production was made by the first bourgeois revolutions in Western Europe and the USA: in the Netherlands (1566-1609), in England (1640-1649), France (1789-1794), USA (1775-1783). These revolutions created the conditions for the arrival of political power bourgeoisie, which passed laws aimed at further development manufacturing production, expansion of trade, finance, and the elimination of feudal remnants that hampered the economic development of the country. The main result of bourgeois revolutions is the final victory over feudalism and the establishment of a bourgeois-democratic system. The main direction of activity of the bourgeoisie, which came to political power, was to create favorable conditions for the development of manufactories, to direct all laws in the financial sphere to accumulation Money and protecting the country's domestic market from foreign goods.

Development of manufacturing production in Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. - a topic that has been fairly well studied by researchers. It was studied in detail in the works of M.N. Tikhomirov "The Russian state in the XV-XVI centuries.", V.B. Pavlov - Silvansky, A.V. Muravyov, M.T. Belyavsky.

The first forms of manufacturing production in Russia appeared in the 17th century, but they received widespread development during the reign of Peter I.

As a result of the transformations of Peter I in the first quarter of the 18th century. There was a sharp leap in the development of the manufacturing industry. Compared with end of XVII V. the number of manufactories increased approximately fivefold and in 1725 amounted to 205 enterprises.

Two stages can be traced in Russia's industrial policy: 1700-1717. - the main founder of manufactories - the treasury; from 1717, private individuals began to found manufactories.

Thus, in 1853, the Moscow merchant Kaulin founded the first textile manufactory in Tver on rented land from peasants.

At the same time, the owners of manufactories were exempted from government service. At the first stage, priority was given to the production of products for military needs. At the second stage, industry began to produce products for the population.

By decree of 1722, urban artisans were united into workshops, but unlike Western Europe, they were organized by the state, and not by the artisans themselves, to produce products needed by the army and navy.

In industry there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and handicraft farms to manufactories. Under Peter, no less than 200 new manufactories were founded, and he encouraged their creation in every possible way. Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, but the use of predominantly peasant labor - sessional, assigned, quitrent, etc. - made it a feudal enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state-owned, merchant and landowner-owned. In 1721, industrialists were given the right to buy peasants to assign them to the enterprise (possession peasants).

After the Peasant Reform of 1861, forced labor in industry, including in manufactories, was abolished; a significant part of them grew into factories.

The history of the genesis of the industrial countries of Western Europe is closely connected with the development of manufacturing production in the 16th-18th centuries. on which the economic development of countries as a whole largely depended. A characteristic feature of manufactory compared to the previous simple cooperation was the transition to an operational division of functions in the manufacture of goods, which led to a significant increase in labor productivity. Manufacturing production has historically prepared the preconditions for a large machine industry in the future.

Sources used:

1. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet encyclopedia. 1969 -1978

2. Image of the manufactory: http://all-photo.ru

3.en.wikipedia.org›Wikipedia›;

4. A. Smith “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”

5. Tikhomirov M.N. "The Russian state in the XV-XVII centuries."

Manufactory - a new stage economic development humanity. The article talks about how it arose, reveals the basic concepts and history.

The growth of capitalist processes occurred in economically developed countries located in Western Europe. Feudalism was retreating and losing its positions. A new stage of development was approaching. The manufactory began to replace the medieval workshops. Manufacturing is an enterprise based on the division of labor, handcraft techniques and the labor of hired workers. The heyday of manufacturing production occurred in:

• mid-16th century - last third of the 18th century in Europe;
• the second half of the 17th century - the first half of the 19th century in Russia.

The name of the manufactory is given by two Latin words: manus - “hand”, and factura - “manufacture”. Manufacturing production was an important stage of development, since due to the fact that workers had a narrow specialization and labor was socially divided, the transition to machine production took place.

Why did manufacturing appear?

As history progressed, the growth of handicrafts began to be observed, commodity production increased, and small commodity producers began to be divided into categories. They opened new workshops, hired workers, and accumulated money. To facilitate labor and increase the speed of work, manufacturing production naturally developed.

Where did manufacturing originate?

The emergence of the first manufactories in history occurred in Europe in the 16th century on the territory of modern Italy. After this, Dutch, English, and French enterprises developed.

Associations for the production of woolen products and cloth appeared in Florence; Venice and Genoa are developing shipbuilding. Manufactories producing copper and silver were located in Tuscany and Lombardy.

Freedom of the workshops and the absence of any regulations were features of manufacturing production of that time. In Russia, the first manufactory to emerge was the Cannon Yard (Moscow, 1525). It combined the work of foundries, blacksmiths, solders, carpenters and other artisans. After the Cannon Yard, the Armory Chamber appeared, where gold and silver were minted, enamel and enamel were produced. Other famous Russian manufactories are Khamovny (linen) and Mint.

How manufactories appeared

Manufactures emerged in several different ways. If dispersed manufactory is a home-based manufactory (and everything is clear here), then centralized manufactory united under its roof representatives of several craft specialties, which made it possible to produce a product from start to finish, without moving it from place to place.

In the second case, the workshop united artisans of the same direction who were engaged in the same operation.

What types of manufactories are there?

There are three established forms of such a method of production as manufacture: dispersed and centralized, as well as mixed. Each form has its own characteristics. - this is a system in which the owner of the manufactory supplied artisans with the necessary raw materials and tools, and then sold their finished product.

In a centralized manufactory, all hired workers were located in one workroom. With a mixed form of manufacture, there was a combination of the functions of individual execution of work actions with work in a common workshop. Centralized manufactories had types according to branches of activity. The most common were textile, mining, metallurgical, printing, sugar, paper, porcelain and porcelain.

Centralized manufactory was an ideal form for organizing labor in such industries, where technological process joint work was expected large quantity workers performing various labor operations. The reign of Peter I in the history of manufactories was remembered for the emergence of state-owned, patrimonial, possessional, merchant and peasant industries. At the same time, industry made a sharp reorientation towards manufactories instead of artisans. 200 - that’s exactly how many Peter’s manufactories arose. Despite the capitalist features of manufacturing Russian production, the use of peasant labor made manufactories serf-like.

What is the main difference between centralized and dispersed manufactories?

Historically, both types of production can be clearly distinguished. The main criterion for distinguishing centralized manufacture from dispersed manufacture is the location of the hired workers. In the first case, they all worked under one roof, in the second, they were in their own small workshops. The location of centralized and dispersed manufactories determined the mechanism of interaction between workers and the owner.

How else do manufactories differ?

The main difference between the manufactories was indicated above. But there are several more points by which you can determine what type of production is in front of you: dispersed or centralized manufacturing. The differences are as follows: the owners of centralized ones were most often state-owned enterprises, directly financed from the state budget, or private ones, to which the state granted special privileges for a long period of time. Scattered manufacturing consists of private entrepreneurs-owners.

The comparison of centralized and dispersed manufactories can be continued by the presence of different strengths. Advantages of the first:

• were not afraid of competition;
• the most complex and advanced industrial technologies of that time were used.

Pros of dispersed production:

• dispersed manufacturing is an opportunity to minimize costs;
• an almost cost-free way to quickly increase or reduce production output;
• cheap labor.

Why was mixed manufacturing needed?

Mixed manufacture essentially became a transitional step from dispersed to centralized. It became a combination of performing individual work actions in a centralized factory with work at home. Typically, mixed production appeared on the basis of houses, where the predominant Also at first, it was mixed manufactories that produced complex goods, such as watches. Various individual small parts were made by small artisans, and assembly was carried out later in the entrepreneurial workshop.

Who worked in the factories?

As production developed, the workforce of centralized and dispersed manufacturing also changed. The forced laborers were state-owned peasants and workers. Serfs worked for the landowner in patrimonial manufactories, or in other words, possession enterprises. Merchants, when organizing their manufacturing production, used both forced and civilian people as labor. The peasant also had the opportunity to open a manufactory, and he could only hire free workers there.

Scattered manufacturing is an opportunity for the village poor to somehow improve his life. In cases where there were not enough resources to provide for oneself and family, having a house and a small plot of land, one could find some additional source of income. The poor man who knew how to process wool, upon receiving it, processed it into yarn. The entrepreneur took the received yarn, passed it on to the next worker, who would weave the yarn into fabric, and so on until the final result.

The state actively intervened in the development of manufactories. It introduced a monopoly on the production of specific goods, such as salt, tobacco, lard, wax, etc. This led to prices rising and the trading opportunities of merchants decreasing. There were also increases in direct taxes. The role of St. Petersburg in the development of Russian manufactories is interesting. At a time when it was still a poorly organized city, merchants were forcibly relocated to it to help development. Administrative mechanisms were introduced to regulate cargo flows. This largely contributed to the fact that the foundations of entrepreneurial trade were destroyed.

Becoming modern civilization was a rather complex and lengthy process that underwent various transformations as it developed. It's long lasting historical period- approximately from the 15th century. to the present time, and in some countries this period has not yet ended.

The modernization process, i.e. The transition from feudalism to capitalism goes through various phases of development: early industrial (XIV-XV centuries), middle industrial (XVI-XVIII centuries), late industrial (XIX centuries) and post-industrial (XX centuries).

At the early industrial stage of development of the bourgeoisie, a long gradual formation of new public institutions and elements of the bourgeois formation, there is an accumulation initial capital, manufactories (handmade production) appear - the first signs of capitalism.

Cities were the center of development of bourgeois relations. A new layer of people (the third estate) was emerging there, consisting mainly of merchants, moneylenders and guild foremen. All of them had capital, the shortest way to acquiring which was through trade and usury operations. These capitals were not hidden in chests, but were invested in production. Moreover, into a new type of production, more efficient, giving high profits.

In this era, replacing craft workshop manufactures began to arrive. Manufacture is a large capitalist enterprise, based, in contrast to the workshop, on the internal division of labor and hired force. Manufactories were serviced with the help of hired labor; it was headed by an entrepreneur who owned capital and the means of production. manufactories, primary forms capitalist enterprises appeared already in the 14th-15th centuries.

There were two forms of manufacture: centralized (a merchant or entrepreneur himself created a workshop, a shipyard or a mine, and acquired raw materials, materials, equipment himself) and much more widespread - dispersed manufacture (the entrepreneur distributed raw materials to home-based artisans and received finished goods or semi-finished products from them).

The emergence of manufacture meant a significant rise productive forces society. Its technical basis was still the use of the same tools as in handicraft production.

Later, manufactories began to use more or less complex for those times technical devices for using water and wind energy. Shafts, gears, gears, millstones, etc., driven by a water-filled wheel, were used in flour-grinding and grain milling, for making paper, in sawmilling, in the production of gunpowder, for drawing wire, cutting iron, driving a hammer, etc.

In the manufacturing era, profound changes occur in the economic life of society, a catastrophic breakdown of the old economic life, the old picture of the world.

The main advantage of manufactory was that it was a large-scale production and created opportunities for narrow specialization of labor operations as a result of the technical division of labor. This helped to increase the output of hired workers several times compared to a craft workshop, where all operations were performed primarily by one master.

But until machines were invented, capitalist production was doomed to remain only a structure in the feudal economic system.

Farms.

The countryside, the main stronghold of feudalism, was drawn into bourgeois relations much more slowly than the city. There were formed farms, with the hired labor of peasants who lost their land as a result of transformations, i.e. who ceased to be peasants in the full sense of the word. This process of de-peasantization went through various intermediate forms, as a rule, through the transition to rent, which meant the abolition of fixed payments and rights to hereditary holding of land.

In the village, rich peasants, merchants, or sometimes the feudal lords themselves could act as entrepreneurs. This happened, for example, in England, where there was a process of so-called enclosures, i.e. the forced removal of peasants from the land in order to turn it into pasture for sheep, the wool of which was sold.

The rate of development of capitalism depended on the speed of penetration of bourgeois relations into the countryside, which was much more conservative than the city, but produced the bulk of production. This process proceeded most rapidly in England and the Northern Netherlands, where the rapid flourishing of manufacturing coincided with the bourgeoisification of the countryside.

In England and Holland in the XVI-XVII centuries. an intensive bourgeois restructuring of agriculture took place; large capitalist leases were approved while preserving the noble land ownership of landlords (landowners). These countries have already seen the introduction into practice of new types of agricultural tools (light plow, harrow, seeder, thresher, etc.).

The bourgeois progress of agriculture provided raw materials and an influx of labor into industry, because peasants, left without land and unable to find work in the village, went to the city.

The development of capitalism was accompanied by technical progress, the destruction of traditional corporate ties, and the formation of common markets - national and pan-European.

In this era, a new “hero of the time” appeared, enterprising, active man, capable of withstanding competition, creating capital literally out of nothing.

But in the XVI-XVII centuries. Even in those countries where bourgeois relations successfully developed, the new way of life still existed in the “context” of feudal relations, which were still quite strong and did not want to voluntarily give up their place.

The base of capitalism was quite weak, so there was room for movement back, which is what happened in a number of European countries. These included Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Germany.