International sanctions against the Russian Federation: we explain. What are the consequences of new US sanctions against the Russian Federation? Introduction dates

The annexation of Crimea to the territory of the Russian Federation did not go unnoticed by European countries and America. In particular, in response to such an increase in territory, these countries decided to introduce a number of restrictions and prohibitions. What are the sanctions against Russia? introduced today in countries around the world, and what this will lead to for these countries and the Russian Federation is being discussed everywhere.

The list of states that have imposed sanctions against the Russian Federation includes:

European Union countries;
USA;
Canada;
Australia;
Georgia;
Ukraine;
Norway;
Iceland;
Albania;
Liechtenstein;
Montenegro;
New Zealand;
Japan.

It consists of limiting cooperation with Russian companies in various industries, in particular in the main strategic areas.

EU sanctions were introduced in the field of energy, against companies:

Gazprom;
Rosneft;
"Transneft".

The bans also affected the defense sector, namely the following companies:

"Oboronpromtorg";
"Uralvagonzavod";

United Aircraft Corporation.

Russian banking organizations were not spared the sanctions either:
VTB;
"Gazprombank";
"Sberbank of Russia";
VEB;
Rosselkhozbank.

Citizens of European countries are prohibited from carrying out transactions with certain securities of these companies, and a ban is imposed on transactions in European banking organizations. The provision of mining services and the supply of technology to Russian companies is also prohibited.

European countries have imposed sanctions on a number of Russian companies supplying dual-use goods. Among them are Sirius, the Kalashnikov concern and others.

There is a sanctions list of Russian officials, activists and heads of the DPR and LPR for the countries of the European Union. They are prohibited from entering European countries, and assets placed there are subject to freezing.

Canada has also published a smaller sanctions list. This country did not spare Sberbank of Russia, ExpoBank, Rosenergobank, Russian research institutes and machine-building plants. Canadians cannot finance these organizations for more than 30 days.

Sanctions have been introduced against Russian energy organizations:

Oil terminal of Feodosia;
Rosneft;
Novatek.

These companies cannot receive US loans for more than 90 days and investments in new securities. The American sanctions list of Russian legal entities in the field of defense and industry has become the widest. Supplies of goods from these industries from Russian companies are frozen. American sanctions have not spared Russian banking institutions either.

Australia prohibited its citizens and organizations from trading with Crimea and investing in the peninsula, importing equipment for the oil and gas sector from Russia, and introduced restrictions for Russian banks.

The Japanese sanctions list includes leaders and officials of the LPR, DPR and Crimea, as well as their organizations.

Sanctions against Russia today cause not only inconvenience to the Russian Federation, but also cause irreparable damage to the economies of the countries against which retaliatory measures were introduced.

Today, one of the most pressing topics is the application of sanctions against the Russian Federation by the European Union and the United States. The fairness of such actions in relation to our country raises many questions and disputes, as do the events that gave rise to them. But at the moment, something else is important: what goal are pursued by those who have imposed such political and economic restrictions on Russia? And what are the consequences of these sanctions? To answer these questions, it is necessary to consider both theoretical and practical aspects of the problem.

Concept

In the broad sense of the word, a sanction is a measure of influence aimed at restricting any type of activity. Sanctions are expressed in a ban on the implementation of various trade and economic agreements, measures to impede the political activities of a certain company or the state as a whole. Such restrictions can be partial or complete. For example, if we consider trade sanctions, the ban may apply to the import or export of a specific product. A full-fledged sanction implies a ban on all economic relations of a company or country with other subjects of a market economy.

Such measures of influence also have back side. Sometimes a commercial or political entity that applies sanctions against another entity suffers more than the one to whom these prohibitions were addressed. After all, a state whose certain activities are prohibited can establish retaliatory restrictions. That is why we should not forget that a sanction is an ambiguous phenomenon, the appearance of which can lead to unpredictable consequences.

Types of prohibitions

In the context of the current political situation, it is necessary to consider penalties in international law. They should never be confused with responsibility. Thus, the country that violates the agreements bears responsibility for its misconduct. Sanctions, in turn, can be applied by the state whose rights have been violated. The violator of international treaties is obliged to bear responsibility for his illegal actions, and the injured party has the right to apply sanctions.

There are two types of prohibitions: collective and individual. Collective restrictions are those that follow in response to violations of norms. international law and imply the suspension of membership in an alliance with other states, as well as a collective armed conflict with the offender.

Individual sanctions are most often associated with any legal restrictions on the activities of a particular state, the rupture of trade and other agreements, non-recognition of the position of the offender, and strengthened self-defense in the event of armed clashes.

Purposes of restrictions

Penalties usually serve several purposes. Firstly, such restrictions are aimed at changing political system offending state. Political prohibitions may also apply to a specific area of ​​activity. A change in the regime of government, by the way, will most likely be an impetus for a change in political direction, so a sanction is a fairly effective way to achieve changes in one’s own interests in this area.

Secondly, sanctions are aimed at reducing the number of weapons a particular state has. Such actions help reduce the risk of armed confrontations and hostilities throughout the country.

Thirdly, sanctions may prohibit the entry of any individuals into the territory of a certain state or, on the contrary, force some people to leave the territory of a certain country.

Sanctions against the Russian Federation

Main political leaders Western powers came to the decision that the Russian Federation was carrying out many military and political operations illegally. In this regard, our country was subjected to a number of restrictions, which significantly affected the lives of the top officials of the state and ordinary residents.

Russians faced two types of sanctions: economic and political. The former have already been reflected in rising prices for imported goods and rising dollar and euro exchange rates.

Economic sanctions against Russia

Sanctions against the Russian Federation are measures from which our country has been suffering over the past year. Or does he not suffer? In any case, restrictions for “violations” of international law were imposed on Russia. What economic sanctions established by the European Union and the United States in relation to the Russian Federation? First of all, this is an artificial growth of the euro and dollar, not supported by anything. For the first time in the history of international relations, the exchange rate of Western currencies was so high against the ruble. Today the situation has stabilized a little, but the rate still remains extremely high. All this threatened and continues to threaten a financial crisis and even a collapse and depreciation of the Russian currency.

As a result, many goods imported from European countries have become more expensive. World trade marks increased the amount that Russian companies must pay to produce products on their territory.

This is exactly what economic sanctions have become. The Russian Federation, according to experts, will not be able to emerge from the financial crisis earlier than in two years.

Political sanctions against the Russian Federation

A sanction is not only an economic, but also a political restriction. The countries of the European Union and the United States, as a “punishment” for the illegal, in their opinion, actions of the Russian Federation towards Ukraine, banned a group of Russian officials and oligarchs from entering their territory, and also froze their accounts in foreign banks.

Barack Obama, by the way, never came to support American athletes at the Winter Olympics in Sochi last year. All this is an expression of hostility towards Russian politics, disrespect for world traditions.

Did such actions towards Russia lead to anything? Political sanctions have not produced any significant results. Of course, it has become much more difficult for citizens of our country to obtain a visa to the States and European countries; it now costs more, but in general the sanctions did not affect the foreign policy of the Russian Federation towards Ukraine.

Methods of confrontation

Many economic and political prohibitions were introduced against our country. But the West itself already understands the disadvantage of severing relations with the Russian Federation, since many Eurozone countries have felt the impact of Russia’s retaliatory sanctions. In our country there are branches of more than 20 German companies, which, due to economic restrictions, are losing money, since the purchasing power of Russians has sharply decreased over Last year. In addition, approximately 300 thousand workers in Germany depend on trade relations with the Russian Federation, so EU sanctions hit not only our country, but also its key members.

Many European countries, by the way, oppose sanctions against the Russian Federation. States such as Italy, Greece, Hungary, Austria, Spain do not want to continue punitive measures, since it is not profitable for them to spoil trade and political relations with such a strong power.

Possible consequences of sanctions

One of the main consequences for our state may be the impossibility of conducting financial transactions through some EU countries. That is, the Government of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Finance will have to look for ways to solve this problem through the territories of other states.

What other difficulties will Western sanctions entail? Russia will not be able, for example, to achieve significant economic growth (no more than 2-2.5%). According to experts, GDP may increase by only 1%. There remains a risk of reduced investment from both foreign and domestic enterprises in the event of a heated foreign policy situation.

The decree on new sanctions will be signed by US President Donald Trump

The White House will introduce a new package of restrictive measures against Russia due to the use of prohibited types of weapons. According to Washington, Russia used chemical weapons in the British city of Salisbury in early March. This message appeared on the US State Department website on Wednesday, August 8. According to it, the sanctions will come into force after 15 days.

According to State Department spokeswoman Heather Nauert, it was determined that “Moscow used chemical or biological weapons, which are prohibited by international law, or used lethal chemical or biological weapons against its own citizens.” According to news agencies, American officials notified the Kremlin of the new restrictions earlier on August 8.

The initial sanctions will not be very harsh. Problems are promised later

The first set of sanctions took effect on August 22. It involves a complete ban on the export of goods related to national security to Russia: electronic devices and components, including those used in the aviation industry. It is noted that before this, export permission was considered in each specific case separately.

The second block will be introduced after 90 days. Then the United States threatens to lower the level of diplomatic relations with Moscow, revoke permission for Aeroflot airline to fly to the United States, and almost completely freeze trade between the countries.

These additional restrictions, however, can be avoided. To do this, the Russian side will have to “give reliable assurances that it will not use chemical or biological weapons in the future, and will also agree to ‘on-site inspections’ by the UN.” If guarantees are not provided, restrictive measures will become “even more draconian,” Reuters reported the words of the American authorities.

The Protecting American Security from Kremlin Aggression Act of 2018 passed the Senate on August 3. One of its chapters is devoted to nonproliferation chemical weapons. Another one is to consider the issue of recognizing Russia as a state sponsor of terrorism.

US President Donald Trump is being urged to resist interference “by the Russian government or other foreign players in the activities of US government agencies, as well as in the democratic processes in the country,” as well as to refuse support for Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and call for the return of Crimea to Ukraine.

The bill also proposes to combine already existing restrictive measures against Moscow - from the Countering America's Enemies Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA) to the Magnitsky Act.

Within its framework, it is also possible to impose a ban on operations in the United States, as well as freeze the assets of seven Russian banking structures that are already under restrictions. These include Sberbank, VTB, VEB and Promsvyazbank. Banks will not be able to carry out standard dollar payments through correspondent accounts in American banks, which, as Kommersant wrote, is what Russian business circles fear most.

The measures also include a ban on the purchase of Russian sovereign debt by US residents and on settlements by Russian banks in dollars.

Great Britain supported the US decision

“The UK welcomes Washington’s decision,” said a UK Foreign Office spokesman. “The international community’s strong response to the use of chemical weapons on the streets of Salisbury should send a message to Russia that its provocative and irresponsible behavior will not go unanswered.”

London and a number of Western countries blamed the poisoning former colonel The GRU of Sergei Skripal and his daughter Yulia in March and two other Britons in nearby Amesbury in June to Russia. Moscow denies the accusations.

Moscow called Washington's actions a new round of the Cold War

March 17, 2014 The United States and the European Union introduced the first personal sanctions against Russian officials in connection with the referendum on the status of Crimea.

In total, Western politicians have developed three levels of possible sanctions against the Russian Federation:

– personal in relation to specific individuals (first level),

– in relation to companies, legal entities (second level),

– in relation to entire sectors Russian economy, or sectoral (third level).

Subsequent events in the south-east of Ukraine, in Syria, around the DPRK, the situation with alleged interference in the US Presidential elections in 2016. and the poisoning of the Skripal family in the UK in March 2018. led to the fact that US and EU sanctions against Russia were expanded and tightened.

They were also joined by Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Switzerland, Norway and a number of other states.

Included in the US sanctions list as of March 17, 2014. included 11 Russian and Ukrainian officials: Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Government D. Rogozin, Speaker of the Federation Council V. Matvienko, Advisor to the President of the Russian Federation S. Glazyev, Assistant to the President of the Russian Federation V. Surkov, deputies of the State Duma of the Russian Federation E. Mizulina and L. Slutsky, member Federation Council A. Klishas, ​​Prime Minister of Crimea S. Aksenov, Speaker of the Supreme Council of Crimea V. Konstantinov, former President of Ukraine V. Yanukovych, leader of the Ukrainian Choice movement V. Medvedchuk.

21 people were included in the EU sanctions list, including: Vice-Speaker of the State Duma of the Russian Federation S. Zheleznyak, deputies of the State Duma of the Russian Federation S. Mironov, L. Slutsky; members of the Federation Council A. Klishas, ​​V. Ozerov, N. Ryzhkov, V. Dzhabarov, E. Bushmin, A. Totoonov; commanders of the Southern and Western military districts A. Galkin and A. Sidorov, commander of the Russian Black Sea Fleet A. Vitko.

In addition, EU sanctions affected the Prime Minister of Crimea S. Aksenov, Deputy Prime Minister of Crimea R. Temirgaliev, Speaker of the Supreme Council of Crimea V. Konstantinov, Mayor of Sevastopol A. Chaly, former Commander-in-Chief of the Ukrainian Navy D. Berezovsky, Commander of the SBU for Crimea P. Zima and others.

Visa and financial restrictions were introduced in relation to these individuals - a ban on entry into the European Union and the “freezing” of bank accounts and other assets (if they were discovered).

March 20, 2014 – The United States and the European Union have expanded sanctions lists against high-ranking Russian officials and businessmen.

The US sanctions list additionally included 19 individuals, including:

– Deputy Chairman of the Federation Council, Chairman of the Committee on the Federal Budget and Financial Markets E. Bushmina;
– Chairman of the Federation Council Committee on Defense and Security V. Ozerov;
– First Deputy Chairman of the Committee on foreign affairs Federation Council V. Dzhabarov;
– First Deputy Chairman of the Federation Council Commission on Regulations and Organization of Parliamentary Activities O. Panteleev;
– members of the Federation Council N. Ryzhkov and A. Totoonov;
– Chairman of the State Duma of the Russian Federation S. Naryshkin;
– Vice Speaker of the State Duma of the Russian Federation S. Zheleznyak;
- member of the council State Duma, leader of the “Fair Russia” party S. Mironov;
– Head of the Administration of the President of the Russian Federation S. Ivanov;
– First Deputy Head of the Administration of the President of the Russian Federation A. Gromov;
– Assistant to the President of the Russian Federation A. Fursenko;
– Deputy Chief of the General Staff I. Sergun;
– Chairman of JSC Russian Railways V. Yakunin.

In addition, sanctions were imposed against major Russian businessmen: G. Timchenko, Yu. Kovalchuk, A. Rotenberg, B. Rotenberg, as well as Rossiya Bank.

Added to the EU sanctions list on March 20, 2014. 12 people were included: Deputy Prime Minister of the Government of the Russian Federation D. Rogozin, Speaker of the Federation Council V. Matvienko, Speaker of the State Duma of the Russian Federation Sergei Naryshkin, Advisor to the President of the Russian Federation S. Glazyev, Assistant to the President of the Russian Federation V. Surkov, Deputy Commanders of the Russian Black Sea Fleet A. Nosatov and V Kulikov, Deputy Commander of the Southern Military District of the Russian Federation I. Turchenyuk, Deputy of the State Duma of the Russian Federation E. Mizulina, Deputy Director of the All-Russian State Television and Radio Broadcasting Company D. Kiselev, Head of the Commission of the Crimean Armed Forces for organizing the referendum M. Malyshev, Chairman of the Sevastopol City Commission for the preparation and conduct of the referendum V. Medvedev .

March 21, 2014 – The international payment systems Visa and MasterCard have partially stopped servicing plastic cards issued by Russian banks - AKB Rossiya, Sobinbank, Investkapitalbank, SMP Bank, Finservice. Thus, for the first time, sanctions directly affected ordinary Russian citizens.

April 11, 2014 – The United States imposed sanctions against 7 officials from the leadership of Crimea, as well as the Chernomorneftegaz company.

April 28, 2014 – The United States imposed sanctions on seven more Russian citizens: Rosneft President I. Sechin, First Deputy Head of the Russian Presidential Administration V. Volodin, Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Government D. Kozak, Chairman of the State Duma Committee on International Affairs A. Pushkov, Presidential Envoy Russia in Crimea O. Belavintsev, head of Russian Technologies S. Chemezov, director of the FSO E. Murov.

17 Russian companies and banks were also included in the sanctions list, including: Volga group, Aquanika, Avia group, Transoil LLC, Stroytransgaz, Sakhatrans LLC, investment company Abros ( "subsidiary" of Bank "Russia"), leasing company "Zest" (a subsidiary of "Abros"), "Stroygazmontazh", "SMP Bank", "Investkapitalbank" (Ufa), "Sobinbank".

April 28, 2014 – The European Union has expanded (by 15 people) the list of persons against whom sanctions are imposed. It included the leaders of the Donetsk and Lugansk People's Republics, as well as Russian officials: Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Government D. Kozak, Plenipotentiary Representative of the President of the Russian Federation in Crimea O. Belavintsev, Minister for Crimean Affairs O. Savelyev, Vice-Speakers of the State Duma of the Russian Federation L. Shvetsova and S. Neverov, Chief of the General Staff V. Gerasimov, Chief of the GRU I. Sergun, acting. Governor of Sevastopol S. Menyailo, member of the Federation Council of the Russian Federation from Crimea O. Kovitidi.

May 12, 2014 – The European Union has decided to expand (by 13 people) the list of persons against whom sanctions have been imposed. It included: First Deputy Head of the Administration of the President of the Russian Federation V. Volodin, Commander of the Airborne Forces V. Shamanov, Deputy of the State Duma of the Russian Federation V. Pligin; and about. Head of the Federal Migration Service of Russia for the Republic of Crimea P. Yarosh, acting Head of the Federal Migration Service of Russia in Sevastopol O. Kozyur, Prosecutor of Crimea N. Poklonskaya, acting Prosecutor of the city of Sevastopol I. Shevchenko.

In addition, the EU imposed sanctions against 2 companies - Chernomorneftegaz and Feodosiya.

June 21, 2014 – The United States imposed personal sanctions against 7 individuals, including the leaders of the DPR and LPR: D. Pushilin, V. Bolotov, I. Girkin, A. Purgin, the former “people’s mayor” of Slavyansk V. Ponomarev, acting Governor of Sevastopol S. Menyailo, Chairman of the Union of Orthodox Citizens of Ukraine V. Kaurov.

July 12, 2014 – The EU announced the expansion of the sanctions list by another 11 people. Personal sanctions were imposed against representatives of Donetsk and Lugansk People's Republics, including the Prime Minister of the DPR A. Borodai.

The following were included in the sanctions list:

- Russian defense companies - the Almaz-Antey concern, Uralvagonzavod, NPO Mashinostroeniya, as well as structures of Russian Technologies: the Basalt, Kalashnikov, Sozvezdie concerns, the Instrument Design Bureau, Radioelectronic Technologies (KRET);

– companies in the raw materials sector – the largest domestic oil company Rosneft, the largest Russian independent producer natural gas Novatek, Feodosia oil terminal;

– representatives of the banking sector – Vnesheconombank and Gazprombank.
American lenders are prohibited from providing medium- and long-term (over 90 days) financing to these companies.

In addition, visa and financial restrictions were imposed on the Vice-Speaker of the State Duma of the Russian Federation S. Neverov, the Federal Minister for Crimea O. Savelyev, and the Assistant to the President of the Russian Federation I. Shchegolev.

Also, US sanctions were extended to the Donetsk and Lugansk People's Republics and the Prime Minister of the DPR A. Boroday.

July 18, 2014 – The European Investment Bank, in accordance with the recommendations of the European Council, has decided to stop financing new projects in Russia.

July 25, 2014 – The Council of the European Union adopted a resolution to strengthen EU sanctions against Russia in connection with the situation in Ukraine. The sanctions list included 15 individuals and 18 legal entities (9 companies and 9 organizations).

This list includes: Secretary of the Security Council of the Russian Federation N. Patrushev, Deputy Head of the Security Council of the Russian Federation R. Nurgaliev, Head of the FSB of the Russian Federation A. Bortnikov, Head of the Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation M. Fradkov, Head of the Chechen Republic R. Kadyrov, Governor of Krasnodar region A. Tkachev.

Organizations included in the sanctions list: administrations of the Donetsk and Lugansk People's Republics, “Federal State of Novorossiya”, “ International Union public associations", Army of the South-East, people's militia of Donbass, self-defense militia "Lugansk Guard", battalion "Vostok", paramilitary organization "Sobol".

Enterprises included in the sanctions list: Kerch ferry crossing, Kerch sea trade port, Sevastopol sea trade port, Universal-Avia enterprise (Simferopol), Azov distillery (Dzhankoy district), production and agricultural association "Massandra" , agricultural firm "Magarach" (Bakhchisaray district), Champagne Wine Factory " New World"(Sudak), sanatorium "Nizhnyaya Oreanda" (Yalta).

As before, the sanctions include a ban on entry and freezing of assets in the territory of the European Union.

July 29, 2014 – The United States has expanded the sanctions list of Russian companies to include four more legal entities: United Shipbuilding Corporation (USC), VTB Bank, Bank of Moscow, Rosselkhozbank.

The sanctions list includes the largest Russian banks, which have limited access to financial markets: Sberbank, VTB, Vnesheconombank, Gazprombank, Rosselkhozbank. European investors are prohibited from purchasing new shares, bonds and similar financial instruments issued by designated financial institutions (with a maturity of more than 90 days) on the primary and secondary markets worldwide.

Restrictions have been imposed on supplies to Russia modern technologies for the oil industry, trade in dual-use goods (civil and military). An arms embargo is established.

The Russian National commercial Bank(RNKB), air defense concern Almaz-Antey, Dobrolet airline. The financial assets of these companies in the EU (if any) must be frozen.

In addition, personal restrictions (visa and financial) were applied to the First Deputy Head of the Administration of the President of the Russian Federation A. Gromov, Russian businessmen A. Rotenberg, Y. Kovalchuk, N. Shamalov.

September 12, 2014 – The European Union has imposed sanctions against Russian oil companies Rosneft, Gazprom Neft and Transneft.

In addition, the United Aviation Corporation, the Oboronprom holding, and the Uralvagonzavod enterprise are included in the new EU sanctions list. These companies will also have limited access to the financial markets of the European Union.

European companies were prohibited from supplying dual-use products to Russian defense enterprises: Kalashnikov JSC, Almaz-Antey air defense concern, Basalt NPO, Tula Arms Plant JSC, NPK Mechanical Engineering Technologies, Stankoinstrument JSC, Chemkompozit JSC ", JSC "Sirius", JSC "High-precision complexes".

Restrictions have been introduced on the export to Russia of equipment and technologies necessary for the development of raw material deposits on the shelf.

Financial restrictions have been tightened in relation to five Russian banks that were previously included in the sanctions list - Sberbank, VTB, Vnesheconombank, Gazprombank, Rosselkhozbank.

Thus, a ban has been introduced on transactions with newly issued bonds and other securities of these banks with a circulation period of more than 30 days (the previous restriction was 90 days). European residents are prohibited from providing investment services to them.

24 individuals are also included in the sanctions list. Along with representatives of the DPR and LPR, it included: the head of Rostec S. Chemezov, member of the Federation Council Y. Vorobyov, deputies of the State Duma of the Russian Federation V. Zhirinovsky, V. Vasiliev, N. Levichev, V. Nikitin, L. Kalashnikov, O Lebedev, I. Melnikov, I. Lebedev, S. Zhurova, V. Vodolatsky.

September 12, 2014 – The United States has introduced new sanctions against Russian companies. The sanctions list includes:

– the largest Russian bank– “Sberbank”;
– energy corporations Gazprom, Surgutneftegaz, LUKOIL, Gazprom Neft, Transneft;
– defense and high-tech corporations – air defense concern “Almaz Antey”, “Machine-building plant named after M.I. Kalinin”, “Mytishchi machine-building plant”, OJSC “Research Institute of Instrument Engineering named after V.V. Tikhomirov”, Dolgoprudny Research and Production Enterprise (DNPP).

These companies have limited access to financial markets.

A ban has been introduced on the supply of goods, services and technologies for the development of deposits in deep-sea areas and the shelf of the Arctic seas.

November 29, 2014 – The European Union imposed sanctions against 13 individuals, as well as organizations: “Donetsk Republic”, “Free Donbass”, “People’s Union”, “Peace for Lugansk Region”, “Lugansk Economic Union”.

December 19, 2014 – The United States announced the addition of 17 people to the sanctions list, as well as organizations: “People’s Militia of Donbass”, the “South-East” and “Novorossiya” movements, the “Marshall Capital” fund, the biker club “Night Wolves”, “Oplot”, ProFactor company.

In addition, the following are prohibited:

– import into the country of any goods, technologies or services from Crimea;
– export, sale, re-export or delivery from its territory, as well as by persons who are US citizens, of any goods, technologies or services to Crimea.

February 16, 2015 - The European Union added 19 people and 9 organizations to the sanctions list, including the Novorossiya movement, the Cossack National Guard, the Prizrak brigade, the Kalmius, Somalia, Sparta, Zarya, and Oplot battalions ", "Death".

March 4, 2015 – The United States extended the previously imposed sanctions against Russia for one year.

March 11, 2015 – The United States imposed sanctions against 14 individuals, as well as against the Russian National Commercial Bank and the Eurasian Youth Union.

March 13, 2015 – The EU announced an extension until September 15, 2015. previously imposed sanctions against 151 individuals and 37 legal entities.

June 2, 2015 – a decision was made to limit free access to the European Parliament for the Russian Ambassador, and parliamentary cooperation within the framework of the Russian Federation-EU Committee was suspended.

June 24, 2015 – The United States announced the introduction of penalties for any foreign banks that carry out financial transactions with Russian individuals and legal entities previously included in the sanctions lists.
Offending foreign banks may be prohibited from opening correspondent accounts in the United States, and existing correspondent accounts may be subject to severe restrictions.

The sanctions list includes 11 individuals and more than 20 companies, including:

– state management company “Russian Direct Investment Fund”;
– Kerch ferry crossing and five sea ports in Crimea;
– Roseximbank, Globex Bank, Svyaz-Bank, SME Bank, All-Russian Regional Development Bank;
– structures of Vnesheconombank and Rosneft;
– Izhevsk Mechanical Plant, Izhmash Concern.

– “Rosoboronexport”,
– aircraft manufacturing corporation “MiG”,
– “Instrument Engineering Design Bureau” (Tula),
– “Kathod” company,
– NPO Mashinostroyenia Corporation,
as well as any of their subsidiaries.

An additional 34 individuals and legal entities are included in the sanctions lists.

The SDN List (the so-called “black list”) includes: Genbank, Mosoblbank, Inresbank, Kraiinvestbank, etc.

The sectoral sanctions included the “subsidiaries” of Sberbank, VTB and Rostec, including Cetelem Bank, Yandex. Money, VTB 24, Novikombank.

The sanctions list includes: Mostotrest (subcontractor for the construction of the bridge across the Kerch Strait), SGM-Most, Sovfracht, FKU Uprdor Taman, FAU Glavgosexpertiza of Russia, JSC Institute Giprostroymost, JSC "Zvezdochka Ship Repair Center" and others.

September 7, 2016 – The United States has expanded the sanctions list by including 11 Russian companies in the Entity List of the Ministry of Commerce, including: Angstrem, Mikron, Technopol, NPF Mikran JSC, Foreign Economic Association Radioexport, NPO Granat, Perm research and production instrument-making company, etc.

Among them: IFD "Kapital", private military company Wagner, subsidiaries of Transneft, Concord-catering, Concord Management and Consulting, Bike Center, etc.

August 2, 2017 – US President D. Trump signed the Law on new sanctions against the Russian Federation (as well as Iran and North Korea), providing for their phased introduction.

Including:

– tightening restrictions for American credit institutions to finance Russian banks and corporations that were previously included in the sanctions lists.
The terms for providing loans for them are reduced from 30 to 14 days and from 90 to 60 days.

– strengthening sectoral sanctions against the Russian oil sector, including a ban on the provision of technologies, supplies of equipment and services for oil production in the Arctic, on the deep-water shelf and from shale deposits.
Now not only structures controlled by sanctioned companies and individuals may fall under them, but also those in whose capital the share of these companies (individuals) exceeds 33%.

– the decision on the start of the third stage should be made in the White House: we are talking about a ban on investments in pipeline projects of the Russian Federation (including Turkish Stream, Power of Siberia, Nord Stream 2), expansion of sanctions lists to metallurgical enterprises, the introduction of new personal sanctions against the richest people in Russia.

In addition, it is planned to introduce sanctions against 39 Russian structures, including defense enterprises (Kalashnikov, Almaz-Antey, etc.), aircraft manufacturing concerns (Sukhoi, Tupolev), as well as the FSB, GRU and SVR.

The SDN List includes 21 individuals and 21 organizations.

Among the individuals subject to restrictions by the US Treasury are Deputy. Minister of Energy of the Russian Federation A. Cherezov, Director of the Department of Operational Control and Management in the Electric Power Industry E. Grabchak, Head of Technopromexport S. Topor-Gilka.

Among the companies are CJSC VO Technopromexport, Power Machines, LLC Media-Invest, Surgutneftegazbank, insurance company Surgutneftegaz, LLC Kaliningradnefteprodukt, Novgorodnefteprodukt, Pskovnefteprodukt, Tvernefteprodukt, Kirishiavtoservis, Lengiproneftekhim LLC, etc.

Stay in the so-called The SDN List imposes more stringent restrictions than sectoral sanctions.
It deprives companies of access to long-term financing, without prohibiting other transactions involving them.

March 15, 2018 – The United States included 14 individuals and one Russian company (Internet Research Agency) on the sanctions list.

According to the American side, for attempting to influence the elections in the United States in 2016.
Their assets will be frozen in the United States, and citizens of the country will be prohibited from doing any business with them.

24 individuals are included in the SDN List (Specially Designated Nationals) of the Ministry of Finance: V. Vekselberg, O. Deripaska, S. Kerimov, I. Rotenberg, A. Kostin, A. Miller, N. Patrushev, V. Kolokoltsev, V. Zolotov , M. Fradkov, V. Ustinov, K. Kosachev, A. Akimov, V. Bogdanov, A. Dyumin, S. Fursenko, O. Govorun, V. Reznik, K. Shamalov, E. Shkolov, A. Skoch, A Torshin, T. Valiulin, A. Zharov.

In addition, 15 companies were sanctioned: Rosoboronexport, Renova, Basic element", Rusal, En+ Group, GAZ Group, Russian Machines, Russian Financial Corporation Bank, Kuban Agroholding, Gazprom Burenie, Eurosibenergo", Ladoga Management, NPV Engineering, B-Finance LTD, Gallistica Diamante .

The “black list” includes companies that took part in construction Crimean Bridge: PJSC Mostotrest, LLC Stroygazmontazh, JSC Giprostroymost Institute - St. Petersburg, JSC Shipbuilding Plant Zaliv, LLC Stroygazmontazh - Most, JSC VAD.

– two citizens of the Russian Federation (M. Tsarev and A. Nagibin) – in connection with their activities in cyberspace,

– two Russian legal entities – the shipping company “Hudson” and Primorye Maritime Logistics (both based in Vladivostok),

– 6 cargo ships under Russian flags (“Patriot”, “Neptune”, “Bella”, “Bogatyr”, “Partizan”, “Sevastopol”) - in connection with sanctions against the DPRK.

– a ban on licensing arms supplies to Russian state-owned companies,

– a ban on any assistance from the Russian Federation (except for urgent humanitarian assistance), supplies of food products or agricultural goods,

– prohibition on providing Russian authorities loans and financial support.

September 20, 2018 – The United States included in the sanctions list 27 individuals and 6 companies associated with the defense and intelligence sector, including: Wagner PMC, Oboronlogistics LLC, Yu. A. Gagarin Aviation Plant in Komsomolsk-on-Amur (produces Sukhoi aircraft ).

September 25, 2018 – The US Department of Commerce has imposed restrictions against 12 Russian companies:

"Infotex", Research Institute "Vector", scientific and production enterprise "Gamma and Cyrus Systems", Nilco Group, "Aerocomposite", scientific and production enterprise "Technology", design bureau "Aviadvigatel", scientific and production corporation "Precision Instrumentation Systems" , Research Institute "Vega", "Divetechnoservice", scientific and production enterprise "Okeanos".

A ban has been introduced on the supply of goods of American origin to these companies that are subject to United States export control regulations.

Three individuals and nine legal entities have been added to the blacklists, including “KrymCHPP”, sanatoriums “Ai-Petri”, “Miskhor” and “Dulber”.

November 20, 2018 – The US Treasury has imposed sanctions on two Russian companies: FSUE Promsyreimport and Global Vision Group.

Restrictive measures were introduced against 18 individuals and 4 funds mass media: FAN news agencies, Economy Today LLC, Nevskie Novosti LLC, internet resource usareally.com.

What sanctions were imposed against the Russian Federation in connection with the events in Crimea? What consequences did they have? How likely is it that all restrictions will be lifted soon and what is the real reason for their application to Russia?

The events in Crimea in the spring of 2014, associated with its secession from Ukraine and annexation to the Russian Federation, caused a great resonance in the world political arena. Many powers found Russia’s actions to be a threat to the existing order and took the exact opposite position, aimed at containing and preventing such precedents. Even despite the previous conflict and civil war in Ukraine, as a result of which the Republic of Crimea was to some extent forced to secede in order to maintain its political and economic stability, becoming part of Russia.

Although the question about historical affiliation The Crimean peninsula remains quite controversial; most Western states see Russia’s actions as actually a crime. Sanctions against the Russian Federation were aimed at forcing the state to change its decision regarding the disputed territory. What influence did they have on domestic economy and the political situation around the world, we will consider in the next material.

First, let's define the terms and their meaning. It is known that, in a general sense, sanctions are certain restrictive measures in the form of punishment for any offenses or actions. Their goal is to create unfavourable conditions for the application object and force it to change the selected course. Also, the very fact of imposing sanctions shows the extreme disagreement of the world community with any political decisions of its individual members and is aimed at forcing the state to change its chosen political course peacefully.

World practice provides for the following restrictive measures against states:

• economic sanctions;

Economic measures imply a weakening of the economic situation regarding foreign trade. For example, a state may impose a ban on the export of its goods to a country on which a restriction has been imposed. The ban also applies in the opposite sense - the import of products of the same production is stopped.

Since for many countries international relations are based on trade, suppliers lose their sales market, and consumers cannot purchase a number of goods because their imports have been stopped. We have to look for new channels, which is associated with certain inconveniences and additional costs.

Political measures influence directly the participants who have weight and authority in the international political arena. These may be prominent statesmen, managers large companies and international holdings, or simply authoritative people whose words are listened to all over the world.

As a result, as a result of the introduction of sanctions of political and economic impact, it is assumed that the state - the object of the imposed restrictions will be to some extent isolated from the rest of the world. How global the impact on the situation within the country itself will be depends on the future of the economy and the general standard of living of citizens. How quickly and effectively the government can reorient the economy from the export and import of goods to domestic consumption, the imposition of sanctions against the bulk of the population will be significant or insignificant. economic development and stability of the political situation.

Economic sanctions against the Russian Federation

Let's take a closer look at the sanctions against the Russian Federation, which have the ultimate goal of weakening the economy by limiting international trade and other commercial relationships.

Economic sanctions against Russia:

• An embargo is a ban on the import of goods into a country and, accordingly, the export from it. Quite an effective way of influencing, since foreign trade volumes can form an impressive share of GDP.
• The measure will not be effective enough only if the state is fully capable of providing itself, for example, with food or everyday goods. In addition, contrary to the expectations of opponents, the economic isolation of Russia can have a beneficial effect on the general state of the economy and even contribute to its increased growth through the development of private entrepreneurship and small and medium-sized businesses.
• A ban on the circulation of certain categories of goods with a country subject to sanctions. This measure implies a cessation of import and export, for example, of weapons or high-tech products. Here the consequences are similar to the application of an embargo measure, and will have tangible results in the event of total dependence of the disgraced state on this product and the impossibility of finding a replacement for it.
• The third way to economically strangle Russia is to impose restrictions on our part on the activities of financial institutions, organizations, companies and investors from third countries who dare to continue relations with organizations and firms of a rogue state. This applies, for example, to investments in business or construction, provision of technical support services for complex equipment, questions and consultations on production support, and so on. Thus, they get a spoke in the wheels from the initiator of the sanctions. Because you cannot directly oblige a third party by law to terminate profitable cooperation.
• Financial restrictions in relation to organizations, institutions or individual citizens of the offending state, which imply the arrest or freezing of their bank accounts or other assets and other actions of a similar nature.

Economic measures may have global consequences for a state that finds itself in an isolated state, and pose a serious threat to the well-being and existing standard of living of citizens. In particular, many experts associate the economic crisis in Russia with negative consequences application of sanctions from Western countries, while others argue that the crisis was provoked mainly by a decrease in world oil prices.

Political sanctions against the Russian Federation

Measures of political influence in relation to a country whose actions cause rejection by another state or the world community are the following:

• Severance of diplomatic relations, recall of ambassadors and consuls. What does this lead to: the level of interaction between political actors at the international level is significantly deteriorating, connections, contacts and international relations are collapsing, making decisions more difficult important issues foreign policy of both states.
• Social and sports measures - restrictions for participants in international competitions, Olympiads, competitions, and so on. Someone else claims that sports are free of politics! This has not been the case for a long time, and the past Olympic Games are direct confirmation of this! Against the backdrop of such politicization of sports, one can’t help but wonder how deeply politics has penetrated into all spheres of our lives.
• Restrictions imposed on private individuals - citizens of the guilty states. Usually this is a partial or complete ban on entry for citizens suspected of committing antisocial or illegal acts. Or simply those whose social or socio-political activities for a number of reasons do not suit the initiator of the application of sanctions.

Political sanctions are the cessation of all types of international cooperation and a kind of boycott of relations with Russia, which, however, are not capable of causing such significant damage compared to the effect of economic restrictions. However, in an already difficult political situation, it becomes especially difficult for both one and the other side to find ways to resolve it and quickly resolve emerging issues.

Sanctions USA against the Russian Federation

The first to impose sanctions against the Russian Federation in connection with its support for Crimea, which declared its independence and intention to become part of the Russian Federation, were the United States of America. The explanation for this political decision is that the actions of the Russian side were seen as unacceptable interference in the internal affairs of another sovereign state- Ukraine.

The reasons that served as the basis for the introduction of sanctions against the Russian Federation

It should be noted that the United States supported the opposition from the very beginning of the destabilization of the situation in the former Soviet republic. The goal was to seize the Ukrainian bridgehead during the expected change political system and taking advantage of Ukraine’s advantageous proximity to the Russian Federation. Thus, by the time the annexation of Crimea began, a situation had developed in which the newly-minted government had to challenge the sovereignty of Ukraine, the legitimacy of whose power the Russian side, for obvious reasons, could not recognize.

In this regard, Russia could not consider new rulers who came to power through military coup d'etat, as full-fledged subjects of international law. And also to take into consideration their claims regarding the illegality of the actions of the Crimean Republic, which made a politically significant decision to secede from Ukraine through a popular vote.

For an unclear reason, the United States supported it in every possible way regarding the legitimacy of the claims of the new Ukrainian government in relation to Crimea. This is precisely where the interest of the superpower can be traced, which, unlike the Russian side, for some reason was not embarrassed by the fact of the coup d’état. The United States recognized the new government of Ukraine as legitimate.

Thus, the actions of the Russian Federation automatically fell into the category of contrary to the norms of international law, with all the ensuing consequences. And the United States actually confirmed its involvement and assistance in destabilizing the situation in Ukraine in order to achieve a change in the ruling regime.

What sanctions were applied against the Russian Federation

The United States of America, together with Canada, introduced restrictive sanctions against the Russian Federation on March 17, 2014, at the height of the “ Crimean spring" Having seen that events in Ukraine were not developing according to the developed scenario (the very fact of participation and sponsorship of the coup by the West is no longer subject to doubt), it was decided to use additional leverage on the Russian Federation. The true purpose of applying sanctions was to force Russia not to interfere in the process of changing power in the former Soviet republic, which would allow it to be fully controlled.

The introduction of restrictive measures took place in the context of the beginning of the revival of the Russian economy, thereby representing a fairly significant blow to its development. The United States also at that time had strong economic ties with Russian companies, which were sacrificed purely for political reasons of the leadership.

The first to be sanctioned against the Russian Federation were influential Russian political and public figures who, according to US intelligence services, were involved in what was happening in Ukraine. In total - 11 people, and the legitimate President of Ukraine Viktor Yanukovych was among them! And although this involvement was not even slightly justified or confirmed by facts, this did not in any way influence the decision-making. This group of people was banned from entering the United States, and assets and bank accounts in financial and other institutions subject to the jurisdiction of the United States were blocked.

The Russian citizens who were blacklisted did not have any property or assets in the United States, and also did not plan visits in the foreseeable future. This is what an official statement was made in response to the restrictions imposed on them. The United States, in turn, responded that if the instructions were not followed, the circle of persons could be significantly expanded.

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This was done after a referendum in Crimea, as a result of which a decision was made to secede from Ukraine. The United States has added 19 more citizens of the Russian Federation and Crimea to its sanctions portfolio. Among them were not only politicians, but also big businessmen, having nothing to do with political affairs at all. However, they were close to President V.V. Putin, and thus it was planned to put pressure on him. In July 2014, sanctions against the Russian Federation affected the heads and managers of the largest Russian enterprises in the defense and raw materials sectors.

The United States sanctions lists against Russian citizens and organizations were regularly updated until September 2016, and this is most likely not the end, since the duration of the sanctions has not been determined. Some US sanctions against the Russian Federation concerning military and space cooperation, as well as some of the most important areas of joint activities, have been lifted or softened. In total, as of September, the blacklist includes hundreds of individuals and legal entities from Russia, Ukraine and Crimea.

Currently, the US government is considering options to introduce new sanctions against the Russian Federation in connection with military actions in Syria. Officials claim that such a policy with regard to influencing the Russian Federation is quite effective. On the other hand, they also recognize indisputable fact that it was not possible to achieve any significant changes in the policy of the Russian Federation in relation to what is happening in Ukraine as a result of the use of such measures. This once again confirms the importance for the States of the very fact of applying restrictions against Russia in order to demonstrate its superiority.

EU sanctions against Russiaand participation of other countries

The EU states, in fact, fully supported restrictive measures against the Russian Federation under pressure from the United States. The economies of many of them suffered greatly as a result of Russia's retaliatory measures. However, in their opinion, they could have suffered more serious damage if they had taken the opposite side. In turn, Europe, by analogy with the States, has restricted entry for a number of persons, the list of which is growing to this day.

Also, their accounts are subject to freezing and assets are blocked if they are located in European countries that have adopted sanctions against the Russian Federation. A little later, Australia, Japan and a number of other states, whose cooperation with the States is of global importance for the economy and political weight in the world, joined restrictive measures against Russia.

The United States and the EU, in an attempt to isolate the Russian Federation as much as possible from the rest of the world, promoted their policy of sanctions among all other countries. They involved the UN, which has repeatedly made anti-Russian calls. As a result, even Switzerland, which is not a member of the EU and always prefers to maintain neutrality, accepted the introduction of sanctions against the Russian Federation! However, it was not possible to gain support from the majority of participants in the world community - this is South America, all of Asia (excluding Japan), African continent and the Arabian Peninsula.

Russian response and consequences

The first response to sanctions against the Russian Federation by the United States and the West was a food embargo affecting them all, which came into force in August 2014. The Russian food embargo is in effect until the end of 2018, and may be further extended.

This measure hit hard the economies of a number of countries, a significant share of whose GDP was formed precisely thanks to food exports: for example, Poland, the main consumer of whose agricultural products was Russia. For this reason, some European countries do not support new sanctions against the Russian Federation and advocate the abolition or mitigation of existing ones.

Türkiye, favorite place holidays for Russians, has lost the lion's share of income received annually thanks to the multimillion-dollar flow Russian tourists. Türkiye also supplied the Russian Federation with a huge amount of food and consumer goods.

This was followed by the creation of its own list of foreign individuals promoting anti-Russian policies and sentiments. By analogy, similar restrictions are applied to them, as is the case with US and EU sanctions against the Russian Federation. In September 2016, one of the results of the sanctions was the suspension of the fulfillment of obligations by the Russian side of the agreement with the United States on the disposal of weapons-grade plutonium.

Having abandoned imports from Europe, the Russian Federation made up for this deficiency by expanding the scope of trade with the regions of Southeast Asia, Latin and South America. It is noteworthy that the volume of food imports from the same Argentina and Brazil increased by half a year before the entry into force of anti-Russian sanctions.

Another positive point is that import substitution in the Russian Federation has had a positive effect on the rise of the domestic agricultural industry. Although the industry had been developing quite dynamically before, inexpensive and high-quality products from foreign competitors deprived Russian farmers of a fair share of profits.

Against the background of the introduction of sanctions against Russia, the country has further strengthened relations with friendly trading partners of the East, in particular with China. Many Asian states have refused to impose sanctions against the Russian Federation, citing close cooperation in economic and political terms.

EU sanctions against the Russian Federation have led to extremely unfavorable economic consequences and many disagreements among the countries of the European Union. The damage caused to the economy is not commensurate with any positive aspects of this policy, which are not at all possible to highlight. In this regard, European states are seriously thinking about the problem that caused the initial introduction of restrictions by the United States against the Russian Federation.

In particular, states that are less dependent on the influence of the United States have taken an active position in favor of lifting or limiting sanctions measures against Russia. For example, Cyprus, which has suffered greatly from the lack of Russian tourists, is calling for a reconsideration of decisions for a speedy return to previous relations and stabilization of its economy.

The Czech Republic, from the very beginning of the application of sanctions against the Russian Federation, was on the side of the United States in terms of assessing what was happening in Ukraine, but later changed its position to the exact opposite. Many countries are calling for starting a constructive dialogue with the Russian government in order to jointly find a way out of the new crisis brewing in Europe.

A number of EU states directly state that they are hastily decisions made were not justified by the real need for such measures, or their consequences simply turned out to be catastrophic. The expected onset of any positive changes does not occur.

Also, despite the adopted US sanctions against the Russian Federation or bypassing them, but foreign investment previously launched projects in Russia do not stop. The vast majority of foreign companies associated with Russian enterprises partnerships, continue mutually beneficial cooperation, despite political differences between the governments of their countries.

Economic sanctions against Russia – an excursion into history

This is not the first time that the Russian Federation has been subjected to non-forceful influence from the West with the aim of weakening the economy or creating obstacles to its growth, undermining the state structure, or attempting to force changes in external appearance. political course. The first economic sanctions against Russia were introduced back in 1925, during the Soviet era, when the United States and Europe refused to accept gold as payment, demanding oil, timber or grain. Russia at that time, after the revolution and the collapse of the economy, was in great need of imported equipment, technologies and a number of goods. And there was also the task of ceasing to be a raw materials appendage for the West.

In 1929, an embargo was introduced on the export of any goods except grain! Thus, Western countries tried in every possible way to hinder the industrial growth of the then young Soviet power. Naturally, the developed capitalist world could not come to terms with the emergence of a communist system in one of the world's largest powers. Sanctions against the USSR continued to apply until 1934.

After the end of World War II, the United States also sought to weaken the USSR by introducing a policy of preventing the export of technology to the country in order to artificially slow down the industrialization of the USSR and assert its superiority. As we know from history, cold war created previously unprecedented tensions between the two world powers. America then saw in the USSR an extremely strong rival. However, the policy of containment did not ultimately bring any significant results. Although in technology Soviet Union, of course, is somewhat behind the progressive West.

A remarkable event that accompanied the entry Soviet troops to Afghanistan, the United States boycotted the Olympic Games then held in Moscow. As a result, American athletes did not participate. US attempts to persuade European countries ignoring the games only led to the refusal of some athletes to participate. European countries asked their own Olympic committees to make decisions and, for the most part, supported the games. In response, the USSR boycotted the following games in Los Angeles.

Will new sanctions be introduced against the Russian Federation?

Today's measures against Russia are a repetition of techniques that have already been tested for decades. To this day, the question of who lost more from the imposition of sanctions remains quite controversial. Perhaps the States did not initially count on the result, but the very fact of demonstrating their strength and determination is important to them, which they have been showing for half a century in different regions planets. In the case of the Russian Federation, conducting military operations is extremely unprofitable and dangerous, so “coercive” measures were chosen through various machinations.

The latest sanctions against the Russian Federation in connection with Crimea have become the most ambitious in terms of the number of countries involved. Here the matter is explained by the fact that the United States is actually already imposing its will on many states of the world, having captured global economy through the widespread introduction of its currency and, in general, using its influence. States, fearing damage to their economic stability, are forced to act under the dictation of the United States and take their side. Otherwise, they risk becoming political outcasts themselves.

Today, the following is obvious: EU sanctions against the Russian Federation, aimed at causing economic damage to the country, have not been successful. In conditions of isolation from the West, Russia strengthened relations with the East. Also, the rejection of the share of exports of goods, and in particular food, allowed Russia to reorient the economy towards domestic consumption and support Agriculture and domestic production.

Sanctions against the Russian Federation will not lead to a change in its political course. This was stated by the head Russian state still in response to the first restrictions. In addition, the US policy is not supported by any real facts and evidence that could justify the legitimacy of the restrictions applied to Russia. As well as exerting pressure on other countries in order to join forces in the global infringement of the geopolitical and economic interests of the Russian Federation.