Volnova D.N. Foreign borrowings as one of the sources of English vocabulary

As is known, the borrowed words available in the vocabulary of a language can be classified: by the source of borrowing, by what aspect of the word is borrowed and by the degree of assimilation.

Smirnitsky A.I. in his work he notes the classification of borrowings in the vocabulary in English by source and era (see Appendix 1):

• 1. Celtic borrowings.
• 2. Latin borrowings of the first centuries AD, i.e., those that came even before the arrival of the Angles and Saxons to the British Isles (the so-called 1st layer Latin borrowings).
• 3. Latin borrowings of the VI-VII centuries, i.e., the era of the introduction of Christianity in England (the so-called 2nd layer of Latin borrowings).
• 4. Scandinavian borrowings from the era of Scandinavian raids (VIII-IX centuries) and especially the Scandinavian conquest (X century).
• 5. Old French borrowings (XII-XV centuries), caused by the Norman conquest.
• 6. Latin borrowings of the 15th-16th centuries, i.e. associated with the Renaissance (the so-called 3rd layer of Latin borrowings).
• 7. New French borrowings after the 16th century.
• 8. Borrowings from Greek, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, Russian, German and other languages, due to economic, political, cultural, etc. connections with the respective peoples.
• 9. Sovietisms, i.e. borrowings from the Russian language of the post-October period, reflecting the influence of the advanced social system and the advanced ideology of our country.

The classification by source of borrowing has been most fully developed, but is not, as already indicated, the only possible one. Borrowings can also be classified according to which aspect of the word is new to the receiving language. According to this principle, borrowings are divided into phonetic, calques (translation-loans) (see Appendix 16), semantic and borrowings of word-forming elements (see Appendix 2).

The first of the named types, i.e. phonetic borrowings constitute the main and most numerous group. They are characterized by the fact that their overall sound complex turns out to be new for the borrowing language, although each of their constituent sounds, with rare exceptions, is replaced by the sound of the language into which they fall. The sport, labour, travel, people, castle, fortress, etc. discussed above are precisely phonetic borrowings.

Calques are borrowings in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression, i.e., its exact reproduction by means of the receiving language while preserving the morphological structure and motivation.

Such tracings are, for example, many borrowings from the Indian language that have become international: pale-face - pale-faced, pipe of peace - pipe of peace. There are many cripples among Sovietisms: palace of culture, house of rest.

Semantic borrowing refers to the borrowing of a new meaning, often figurative, to a word already existing in the language. The words pioneer and brigade existed in the English language even before the penetration of Sovietism into it, but they received the meaning: member of a children's communist organization and a labor collective under the influence of the Russian language of the post-October period.

Semantic borrowings occur especially easily in closely related languages. A number of examples can be found among Scandinavian borrowings. For example, the Old English verb dwellan “to wander”, “to linger”, under the influence of the Old Norse dveljawun, developed in modern English into dwell “to live”. Thus, in terms of sound, dwell goes back to English, and in terms of semantics, to the Scandinavian verb.

There are more cases of semantic borrowing among nouns than among verbs. The noun gift in Old English did not mean a gift, but a ransom for a wife and then, as a result of association by contiguity, a wedding. The Scandinavian word gift meant gift, present, and this was reflected in the meaning of the original word. We got ours from Scandinavian modern meanings words: bread (in Old English “piece of bread”), dream (in Old English “joy”), holm (in Old English “ocean, sea”), plough (in Old English “measure of land”).

Not only a word, but also individual meaningful parts of a word can be borrowed. Morphemes are borrowed, of course, not in isolation, but in words: if some foreign language morphemes are included in a large number of borrowed words, then the morphological structure of these words begins to be realized, and the morphemes themselves are included in the number of word-forming means of the receiving language. Many Greek and Latin words have become international prefixes. For example, anti-, counter-, inter-, sub-, ultra-, etc.

The Greek suffixes are widely used in all languages: -ist, -ism, -isk.

Not all borrowed words are assimilated as completely as the travel and sport discussed above.

Therefore, according to the degree of their assimilation (see Appendix 16), borrowings can be divided into (see Appendix 3):

• 1. Completely assimilated, i.e., corresponding to all morphological, phonetic and spelling norms of the borrowing language and perceived by speakers as English and not foreign words. Some of them can be attributed to the main vocabulary: travel, street; others to other parts of the vocabulary: operate, trail.
• 2. Partially assimilated, i.e. remaining foreign in their pronunciation, spelling or grammatical forms: analysis, pl. analyzes, bacillus, pl. bacilli formula pl. formulas & formulae, bacterium, pl. bacteria, boulevard ["bu:liwa:], canal, travail, restaurant ["rest?r?:?], corps. These words are often characterized by instability in pronunciation: the last syllable in the word restaurant is pronounced differently.
• 3. Partially assimilated and denoting concepts associated with other countries and not having an English equivalent. For example, from Russian: rouble, verst; from Spanish: duenna, matador, real (coin).

This group of words includes the names of concepts associated with foreign national culture, for example, the names of various national clothes, homes, musical instruments, titles, professions, utensils, etc., and with foreign nature, i.e. the names of animals and plants .

Thus, borrowings in languages ​​are those linguistic means that appeared in a language due to various reasons: historical and geographical, political and economic contacts with other languages, the growth of cross-cultural communication between native speakers.

And therefore, assimilating into the language, they represent semantic-synonymous diversity.

The original core of vocabulary

nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam- words reflecting new realities for the English came from modern Scandinavian languages ​​in the 19th-20th centuries.

Scandinavian loanwords are difficult to distinguish from English words proper, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. The characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into sibilants: /k/ and /g/ - in certain conditions, /sk/ - always.

French loanwords

In 1066 the Normans conquered England. Normandy was a French duchy; it acquired its name after the French king Charles the Simple, being unable to cope with the Vikings, gave them this territory under the treaty of 912. By 1066, the Vikings had long since adopted the French language and assimilated into the local population. They came to England as speakers of the French language (Norman dialect), French culture and French feudal system. After the Norman Conquest, power was completely in the hands of the Normans; Duke William the Conqueror also removed the English priests and installed Norman ones in their place. The indigenous population continued to speak English, and from the Norman dialect the Anglo-Norman language was formed, which became the official language and existed until the end of the 14th century. During this time, English acquired a huge number of French words. Of the 80,000 most common words in the English language, approximately 22,500 are French loanwords (from all periods of history).

The borrowings especially clearly reflect the Norman influence in the field of government, in military affairs, in the organization of the church and in city life:

• court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village (court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village);
• army, battle, banner, victory (army, battle, banner, victory);
• religion, chapel, prayer, to confess (religion, chapel, prayer, confess);
• city, merchant (city, merchant).

Craftsmen who lived in the village retained English names, while those in the city began to be called by French words: butcher “butcher”, mason “mason”, tailor “tailor”. Animals are named in English words, but their meat is called in French: beef “beef”, mutton “lamb”, pork “pork”, veal “veal”.

Norman borrowings: 11th-13th century A.D.

Parisian borrowings: the Renaissance period.

Third layer of Latin borrowings

Terminology, 16th century.

European borrowings of the 20th century

In the first half of the 20th century, a large number of words from the German language penetrated into the British natural science vocabulary, including individual morphemes, for example eigen-. The penetration of German vocabulary continues during World War II for military terms and virtually ceases after the war.

Purist tendencies

At different times, purists tried to cleanse the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist said: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use short, expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words.” (English) Avoid Latin derivatives; use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllables ). The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this saying is Anglo-Saxon.

Notes

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Ministry of Higher and Professional Education of the Russian Federation

Perm State Technical University

Department of Foreign Languages ​​and Psychology

Borrowings in English

Performed:

Art. gr. PRF98-6

Vityukhovskaya Yana

Checked:

Solovyova O. V.

Perm 2000

Introduction. 2

I Etymological structure of the English vocabulary 3

II The role of borrowings in the development of English vocabulary 6

III Classification of borrowings 9

IV Source of borrowings 12

V The problem of assimilation of borrowed words 17

Conclusion 21

Bibliography 22

Introduction.

Topic of this course work belongs to the field of lexicology. As you know, vocabulary is the most dynamic aspect of a language in any period of time. It represents the least degree of abstraction in language, since the word is always subject-oriented; it can be borrowed, formed, formed anew, or from elements existing in the language. In my work, I consider borrowing as one of the main ways of word formation in the English language.

The work is structured in accordance with the goals that the author sets for himself:

1) consider the most important sources and ways of penetration of borrowings into the English language

2) determine their role and place in the vocabulary of the English language

3) consider the features of borrowing words based on etymological analysis

The objectives of the course work also include learning to determine the origins of forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word. To do this, I examined in detail the history of Britain, the history of the language, and also analyzed words (which is the practical part of the work). I also made an attempt to systematize and classify borrowings, based on the research of specialists in the field of linguistics.

The work consists of five chapters and a conclusion. Theoretical provisions were developed on the basis of achievements in the field of borrowing and etymology of the English language. The practical part consists of the etymological analysis of words.

I Etymological structure of the English vocabulary.

Modern language is a product of long historical development, during which the language undergoes diverse changes due to various reasons. Changes affect all sides (levels, tiers, aspects) of the language structure, but act in them differently. The historical development of each level depends on specific causes and conditions that stimulate changes in the lexical composition of the language, in its phonetic (phonological) organization, in its grammatical structure.

Language development is characterized by processes of growth and decay. Thus, in the English language, analytical forms and a complex system of verb formation are developing, but the system of declension and personal endings of the verb is falling apart, words fall out of the vocabulary, and new ones appear through borrowing or new formations.

The history of a language reveals all the processes that occurred in a language at different stages of its existence. The causes (factors) of changes that are inherent in the language itself are called linguistic (or interlinguistic), and factors associated with the history of a people are called general development human society, extralinguistic. These 2 concepts and 2 sides of the history of language are constantly in contact.

The accumulation of knowledge about the history of the development of various aspects of the language should ultimately lead to such a level of final preparation when, with the help of an etymological dictionary, and to a large extent without it, it is possible to explain the origins of the forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word.

Table 1. Etymological structure of the English dictionary. language.

This table requires some explanation. First, you should pay attention to the fact that the second column not only contains more groups, but also contains a larger number of words. This is explained by the high percentage of borrowed words in the English language (75%), which came as a result of numerous historical events and international connections.

In terms of vocabulary, English should be classified as a language of international origin, or at least as one of the Romance languages ​​(since French and Latin words predominate). But given the relative frequency of the words, it is clear that the Anglo-Saxon heritage is taking its toll. The local element in English contains a huge number of frequently repeated words, such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, as well as words denoting objects of everyday life (child, water, come, good, bad, etc.)

Moreover, the grammatical structure, essentially Germanic, remained untouched by foreign influence.

It should also be noted that at different times, purists tried to cleanse the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist wrote: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use short, expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words.” (AvoidLatinderivatives; use brief, terseAnglo-Saxonmonosyllable) The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this slogan is "Anglo-Saxon".

Now let's return to the first column of the table, which represents the local element, the basis of the English vocabulary. The column consists of three groups and only the third is dated. Words from this group appeared in English in the 5th century or later. That is, after the Germanic tribes migrated to the British Isles. As for the Indo-European and Germanic groups, they are so old that they cannot be dated.

The Indo-European element refers to words common to all or more languages ​​of the Indo-European group. English words of this group denote elementary concepts without which human communication is impossible. They can be combined into the following groups:

1. family relationships: father, mother, brother, son, daughter

2.body parts: foot, nose, lip, heart

3.animals: cow, swine, goose.

4.plants: tree, birch, corn

5.times of day: day, night.

6.celestial bodies: sun, moon, star

7.adjectives: red, new, glad, sad

8.numbers from 1 to 100

9. personal and demonstrative pronouns (except they)

10. a large number of verbs: be, stand, sit, eat, know

The Germanic element represents words common to all or most languages ​​of Germanic origin. Some main groups of Germanic words are similar to groups of the Indo-European element:

1.body parts: head, hand, arm, finger, bone

2.animals: bear, fox, calf

3.plants: oak, fir, grass

4.natural phenomena:rain, frost

5. seasons: winter, spring, summer

6.landscapes: sea, land

7.human habitation and furniture: house, room, banch

8.seaworthy vessels: boat, ship

9.adjectives: green, blue, gray, white, small, thick, hight, old, good

10.verbs: see, hear, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink

It should be noted that the English element itself, in a certain respect, is opposed to the first two groups. Not only is it approximately dated, but these words have another feature: they are definitely English and do not have a common origin with words in other languages, while a common root can be found in Indo-European and Germanic words.

II The role of borrowings in the development of English vocabulary

The role of borrowings (borrowings, loan-words) in different languages ​​is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions of the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages, since for historical reasons it turned out to be, in contrast to, for example, Icelandic, very permeable. English, more than any other language, had the opportunity to borrow foreign words in conditions of direct direct contact: first in the Middle Ages from successive foreign invaders in the British Isles, and later in conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves. It is estimated that the number of native words in the English dictionary is only about 30%.

It would be a vulgarization to believe that the role of a word in a language is determined by whether it is borrowed or original. Nevertheless, all the most common prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs of time and place, all auxiliary and modal verbs, almost all strong verbs and almost all pronouns, adjectives with suppletive formation of degrees of comparison, all numerals, with the exception of second, million, billion and, finally, many nouns denoting the most common concepts that are constantly involved in the act of communication, are in modern English in original words.

The general law on the unevenness of changes in language elements, as applied to the problem of borrowing, is formulated as follows: the most permeable are the most mobile elements of the language included in the vocabulary of the language, less permeable are the settled elements of the fund, and the grammatical structure of the language is almost not subject to foreign influences.

FRENCH BORROWINGS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Introduction.

The topic of this work relates to the field of lexicology. As you know, vocabulary is a dynamic side of language at any time. It represents the least degree of abstraction in language, since the word is always subject-oriented; it can be borrowed, formed, formed anew, or from elements existing in the language. In my work, I consider borrowing as one of the main ways of word formation in the English language.

The work is structured in accordance with the goals that I set for myself:

consider the most important sources and ways of penetration of borrowings into the English language. determine their role and place in the vocabulary of the English language. consider the features of borrowing words based on etymological analysis.

The objectives of this work also include learning to determine the origins of forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word. To do this, I examined in detail the history of Britain, the history of the language, and also analyzed words. I also made an attempt to systematize and classify borrowings, based on the research of specialists in the field of linguistics.

Language development is characterized by processes of growth and decay. Thus, in the English language, analytical forms and a complex system of verb formation are developing. But the system of declension and personal endings of the verb falls apart, words fall out of the vocabulary, new ones appear through borrowing or new formations.

The history of a language reveals all the processes that occurred in a language at different stages of its existence; the causes (factors) of changes that are inherent in the language itself are called linguistic (or interlinguistic). And the factors associated with the history of the people, with the general development of human society, are extralinguistic. These two concepts and two sides of the history of language are constantly in contact.

In terms of vocabulary, English should be classified as a language of international origin, or at least as one of the Romance languages ​​(since French and Latin words predominate). But given the relative frequency of the words, it is clear that the Anglo-Saxon heritage is taking its toll. The local element in English contains a huge number of frequently repeated words, such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, as well as words denoting objects of everyday life (child, water, come, good, bad, etc.)

The role of borrowings in the development of English vocabulary.

The role of borrowings in different languages ​​is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions of the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages, since for historical reasons it turned out to be, in contrast to, for example, Icelandic, very permeable. English, more than any other language, had the opportunity to borrow foreign words in conditions of direct direct contact: first in the Middle Ages from successive foreign invaders in the British Isles, and later in conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves. It is estimated that the number of native words in the English dictionary is only about 30%.

It would be a vulgarization to believe that the role of a word in a language is determined by whether it is borrowed or original. Nevertheless, all the most common prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs of time and place, all auxiliary and modal verbs, almost all strong verbs and almost all pronouns, adjectives with suppletive formation of degrees of comparison, all numerals, with the exception of second, million, billion and, finally , many nouns that denote the most common concepts that are constantly involved in the act of communication are native words in modern English.

This or that influence of one language on another is always explained by historical reasons: wars, conquests, travel, trade, etc. lead to more or less close interaction between different languages. The intensity of the influx of new borrowed words into different periods different. Depending on specific historical conditions, it either increases or falls. The degree of influence of one language on another largely depends on the linguistic factor, namely on the degree of proximity of the interacting languages, i.e., on whether they are closely related or not.

The erroneous ideas that prevailed in linguistics regarding the problem of borrowings were not limited to exaggerating their role in the development of language. The approach to the topic itself was one-sided and formal. Researchers were primarily interested in the sources and dates of borrowing and, at best, the historical reasons and conditions for borrowing.

Even though this data is necessary, you cannot limit yourself to it. Scientists are now interested not only in where and why the borrowed word came from, but also in how it was assimilated into the language, how it obeyed its grammatical structure and phonetic norms, how it changed its meaning and what changes its appearance caused in the vocabulary of the language that adopted it.

As a matter of fact, some Russian scientists have been pointing out the need for just such an approach to borrowing for a long time. In particular, the largest Russian linguist of the 19th century believed that one should not ask what was borrowed from someone, but one should ask about what was added, what was created as a result of activity excited by the corresponding impulse when borrowing a word from another people. But this point of view was not widespread at the time and did not find a response.

paid attention to the creative element in the borrowing process. “To borrow,” he said, “means to take in order to perhaps contribute more to the treasury of human culture than you receive.” This approach to the issue of borrowing makes it possible to identify the patterns that govern the development of the vocabulary of a language, to explain the phenomena occurring in it and to identify their causes, to reveal connections between the history of individual words, the history of the language and the history of the people. Let me explain this with an example.

Considering the development of the word sport, we will not be content with the information that this word was borrowed in the Middle English period from Old French, where it was desport and came from the later Latin disportus. We will be interested in the fact that desport and disportus meant distraction, deviation, that when borrowing there was a specialization of meaning, and in Middle English the word had a more general meaning than at present, meaning entertainment, sport, fun, liveliness. I noticed that along with this word, during the same period, many words related to the entertainment of the nobility were borrowed from French into English, which is explained by the fact that after the 11th century the Norman barons became the sovereign masters of the country, the remnants of the Anglo-Saxon nobility adopted their life and customs and, at the same time, the Norman dialect of the Old French language. Next, I will point out that the word obeys the English system of grammatical changes in nouns, receiving the ending –s in the plural. In it, not only are all sounds replaced by English ones, and the last I is read, but also, as is often observed in French borrowings, the first syllable (apheresis) is eliminated, as a result of which the word in terms of sound is even more similar to the original English words, which are characterized by monosyllabicity . In New English, this word undergoes some further changes in semantics and denotes physical exercise, mainly in the form of games and competitions. With this meaning, and in its new form, it is again borrowed back into French and other languages ​​and becomes international. In the vocabulary of the English language, the verb disport to have fun is simultaneously preserved, which, however, turns out to be rarely used.

Due to the systemic nature of language in general and vocabulary in particular, no new addition to the dictionary with borrowed words can pass without leaving a mark on the rest of the vocabulary. A borrowed word usually takes on one or more meanings of words that are semantically closest to it, previously existing in the language. In this case, a regrouping occurs. In their semantic structure, that is, some secondary meaning can become central or vice versa. It can also happen, and often happens, that words that closely match the meaning of the new word are displaced from the language. This happens because the long-term coexistence of absolute or almost absolute synonyms in a language is impossible and is always eliminated either by delimiting their meanings or by ousting unnecessary words from the language.

Classification of borrowings.

The borrowed words available in the vocabulary of a language can be classified: by the source of borrowing, by what aspect of the word is borrowed and by the degree of assimilation.

By source and era of borrowing In the vocabulary of the English language there are:

Celtic borrowings. Latin borrowings of the first centuries of our era, i.e., that came even before the arrival of the Angles and Saxons to the British Isles (this is the name of the 1st layer of Latin borrowings). Latin borrowings of the 6th – 7th centuries, i.e. the era of the introduction of Christianity in England (this is the name of the 2nd layer of Latin borrowings). Scandinavian borrowings from the era of Scandinavian raids (VIII - IX centuries) and especially the Scandinavian conquest ( X century). Old French borrowings (XII - XV centuries), due to the Norman conquest. Latin loanwordsXV –XVI century century, i.e. associated with the Renaissance (this is the name of the 3rd layer of Latin borrowings). New French borrowings afterXVI century.. Borrowings from Greek, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, Russian, German and other languages, due to economic, political, cultural, etc. connections with the corresponding peoples. Sovietisms, i.e. borrowings from the Russian language of the post-October period, reflecting the influence of the advanced social system and the advanced ideology of our country.

The classification by source of borrowing has been most fully developed, but is not, as already indicated, the only possible one. Borrowings can also be classified according to which aspect of the word is new to the receiving language. According to this principle, borrowings are divided into phonetic, calques ( translation - loans), semantic and borrowing of word-forming elements.

The first of the named types, i.e. phonetic borrowings constitute the main and largest group. They are characterized by the fact that their overall sound complex turns out to be new for the borrowing language, although each of their constituent sounds, with rare exceptions, is replaced by the sound of the language into which they fall.

Tracing paper are called borrowings in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression, i.e., its exact reproduction by means of the receiving language while preserving the morphological structure and motivation.

Such tracings are, for example, many borrowings from the Indian language that have become international: pale-face - pale-faced,pipeofpeace - peace pipe. There are many cripples among Sovietisms: palace of culture, house of rest.

Under semantic borrowing refers to the borrowing of a new meaning, often figurative, to a word already existing in the language. The words pioneer and brigade existed in the English language even before the penetration of Sovietism into it, but they received the meaning: member of a children's communist organization and a labor collective under the influence of the Russian language of the post-October period.

Semantic borrowings occur especially easily in closely related languages. A number of examples can be found among Scandinavian borrowings. So, for example, others - English. verb dwellan wander, hesitate, under the influence of others - scand. dveljawun, developed into modern English in dwell live. So sonically dwell goes back to English, and semantically to the Scandinavian verb.

There are more cases of semantic borrowing among nouns than among verbs. Noun gift in other - English meant not a gift, but a ransom for a wife and then, as a result of association by contiguity, a wedding. Scandinavian word gift meant gift, gift, and this was reflected in the meaning of the original word. From Scandinavian the words got their modern meanings: bread (in other - English piece of bread), dream (in other - English joy), holm (in other - English ocean, sea), plough (in other - English English measure of land).

Not only a word, but also individual meaningful parts of a word can be borrowed. Morphemes are borrowed, of course, not in isolation, but in words: if some foreign language morphemes are included in a large number of borrowed words, then the morphological structure of these words begins to be realized, and the morphemes themselves are included in the number of word-forming means of the receiving language. Many Greek and Latin words have become international prefixes. For example, anti-, counter-, inter-, sub-, ultra - etc. Greek suffixes are well used in all languages: -ist, -ism, -isk.

According to the degree of assimilation of borrowing can be divided into:

Completely assimilated, i.e., corresponding to all morphological, phonetic and spelling norms of the borrowing language and perceived by speakers as English and not foreign words. Partially assimilated, i.e., remaining foreign in their pronunciation, spelling or grammatical form. Partially assimilated and denoting concepts associated with other countries and having no English equivalent. For example: from Russian - rouble, verst; from Spanish - duenna, matador, real (coin).

This group of words includes the names of concepts associated with foreign national culture, for example, the names of various national clothes, homes, musical instruments, titles, professions, utensils, etc., and with foreign nature: i.e., the names of animals, plants.

Sources of borrowing.

Borrowings in the English vocabulary represent the area of ​​vocabulary that most closely and directly reflects the history of England, showing the influence of external non-linguistic reasons on the language. Therefore, it is advisable to trace them in chronological order, linking them with the history of the English people.

When the Angles, Saxons and Jutes moved into Britain in the 5th century AD, they found a Celtic population of Britons and Gauls, whom they pushed west (Wales and Cornwall) and north (Scotland). In the clash of languages, the victory went to the alien language. The development of their language gave rise to modern English.

Borrowings from the Celtic language turned out to be very few and relate mainly to toponymy, that is, to geographical names.

There are very few Celtic words that would have been known to us already in Old English and would have been preserved in the language to this day.

In Old English there are two layers of Latin borrowings.

Words that belong to the first layer (before 800) could have entered the Celtic language and were associated with the Roman rule of Britain that lasted the first four centuries of our era, or entered the language of the Angles and Saxons on the continent.

Be that as it may, they testify to a higher material culture of the Romans than that of the Celtic and Germanic tribes of that time and mean specific things and concepts previously unknown to the Anglo-Saxons.

Many Latin names have been preserved in toponymy. Yes, lat. castrum- fortification, fort, had a plural form, castra with the grammatically related meaning camp, from where others - English. ceaster and modern - caster, Chester in different geographical names. For example: Lancaster, Dorchester,Manchester, Winchester.

All words in this group were borrowed orally, completely assimilated and included in the main vocabulary of the English language. At the same time, they submitted to the grammatical structure of the English language, losing those grammatical forms that were characteristic of them in the Latin language, and also submitted to all those natural phonetic changes that occurred in the words of the English language throughout its history.

The second layer of Latin borrowings includes words that entered the Old English language after the adoption of Christianity, which began in 596. Just like the words of the first layer, these are predominantly monosyllabic words, borrowed orally and for the most part denoting specific concepts.

It is important to pay attention to the fact that, in general, the vocabulary of Old English is less permeable compared to the New English period. Its vocabulary is much more homogeneous and borrowing is limited to the sphere of nouns. There are only three verbs that can be added to the above list: to offer, to spend, to shrive.

All these early Latin borrowings subsequently underwent significant evolution, both in their form and in meaning. The influence of the Scandinavian languages ​​was of a fundamentally different nature, due to the Scandinavian raids on the British Isles that began in the 8th century and the subsequent subjugation of England to the Danish king (1017). Both the conquering people and the conquered people in this case stood at approximately the same socio-economic and cultural stage of development and spoke closely related languages. Their languages ​​took on the position of dialects interacting in communication. Therefore, during the period of the Scandinavian conquest, borrowings were not only numerous and subsequently very stable, but also very diverse both in the semantic sphere and in parts of speech, and are observed even in the least permeable of these latter. Thus, pronouns are borrowed from Scandinavian: they - they, with all their forms, and same - the same one; unions: till- not yet though- Although; adverb fro- back. The number of adjectives borrowed from Scandinavian is quite significant, and all of them are used in speech very often. These are adjectives like happy, low, loose, ill, odd, ugly, weak.

These words, like the verbs given below, do not introduce any new concepts, but replace and displace words that already existed before. The influence of Scandinavian on Old English was reflected not only in the replacement and displacement of some original words, but also in a number of significant phonetic and semantic changes in a number of words in the main vocabulary.

The proximity of both languages ​​contributes to the so-called semantic borrowings, in which native words changed their meaning under the influence of related Scandinavian words.

Saving a combination sk at the beginning of a word before vowels without transition to [J] is a phonetic criterion for recognizing Scandinavian borrowings from native words.

The combination occurs only in borrowed words, but not necessarily Scandinavian ones. Wed. borrowings from French squire and from Greek. sceptic.

Borrowings from French

The nature of the early Scandinavian borrowings is completely different.

French borrowings from the era of the Norman Conquest. Here follows

take into account, first of all, that the French language in relation to

English took a dominant position as the language of the court, feudal

nobility, government agencies, schools and generally as the main language

writing (along with Latin). In this regard, French words, in

unlike the Scandinavian ones, in their mass they clearly reflect the position, image

lives, activities and interests of those social strata that

used French exclusively or predominantly: action

– action (Middle English accioun – `action, accusation`: from

Old French accioun); agreeable – `pleasant, agreeable` (cf.

agreable: from old French. aggregate); beauty – `beauty` (cf. English.

beautee: from old French. beat); carpenter - carpenter (carpenter: from old French.

carpentier); duke - duke (duk: from old French duc) and many others.

The dominance of the French language ends in the second half of the 16th century,

But greatest number borrowings from it account for precisely this

time: English, displacing French, especially needed

enriching his vocabulary with the elements that the latter had at his disposal.

It should be noted, however, that the original French language

spread in England mainly in the form of the Norman dialect,

mixed with elements of northeastern French dialects. Already in the 13th century.

French began to lose its character as a living spoken language in England and

gradually turned into the traditional official language (now French

language is assigned an official role in the field of international document management

(like Latin - in the medical field)). In this regard, later

borrowings are created primarily not from Anglo-French, but from

Central French (Parisian or French), which prevailed in

As can be seen from the examples above, borrowings from French

language, were, in contrast to Scandinavian borrowings,

specific terms-names associated with new concepts introduced

Norman conquerors. Most of these borrowings remained

on the periphery of the vocabulary and in its phonetic and structural

peculiarities of the language: they constitute a large group of polysyllabic

words typical primarily for the language of literary and scientific and

characterized by a specific word-formation structure.

However, some words over time have become common, everyday and

commonly used: for example, face – face (la face), gay – cheerful (gai),

hour - hour(l’heure), ink – ink(les encre), joy – joy(la jolie)

letter - letter(la letter), money - money(la monnaie), pay - to pay

(payer), river – river(la riviere),

table - table(la table), place (la place), large (large), change (changer),

minute (la minute), second (la second), mountain (la montagne), soil (le

sol), air (l’air), flower (la fleur), fruit (le fruit).

Due to the fact that from French to English there was

a huge number of lexical units were borrowed, many of which

had a complex word-formation structure, the influence of the French language in

greatly affected the system of English word formation.

Certain French suffixes and prefixes found in

borrowed words, could be extracted from these words and used for

formation of words from primordial roots.

For example: suffix – able, extracted from such borrowings as acceptable

– acceptable when accept- accept; suffix – ence – from difference,

excellence, evidence, violence;

In addition, borrowings from French have increased the incidence of

conversions in English. The fact is that from the same

There were many parallel borrowings from the French language. IN

system of the English language, they took shape in the paradigms of various parts of speech:

honor - honor (honour: from old French.honur,honor) –honor - to honor (sa.honoren: from old French.honorer) And

However, it would be a mistake to assume that all French word pairs

origins, correlated by conversion in modern English,

represent parallel borrowings. Much more often in English

language, only one of the words was borrowed from French, and the other was created

for conversion based on this word only later: abuse - abuse,

insult - derived from abuse - to mistreat, abuse,

insult (ca. abusen - abuse, mistreat, insult,

to deceive: from old French. abuser) and others.

At the same time, cases of conversion due to parallel borrowing

from French, and cases of conversion that arose on the basis of French alone

borrowings in the English language itself are outwardly no different from

friend: let's compare, on the one hand, honor – (to) honor; labor – (to)

labour; note – (to) labor; note – (to) note; pain – (to) pain andT.P., AWith

anothersides, abuse – (to) abuse; act – (to) act; direct – (to) direct And

This once again proves that the distinction in the system of modern

English language such cases as honor (honor) – honor (honor)), And

cases such as abuse (insult) – abuse (offend), based on them

different origin has no basis. These cases

had different histories, but currently they are in a completely

identical relations, and therefore must be recognized as identical with

point of view of modern English.

Later borrowings from the French language are especially highlighted.

First of all, these borrowings are few in number. In addition, these

borrowings for the most part have no or almost no parallel

single-root formations, and often differ in their sound and

spelling shell.

Borrowings from the French language continue to expand the vocabulary

composition to this day. In the 19th and early 20th centuries they wore

predominantly bookish in nature. However, during the period immediately

following the end of World War II, English borrows

French words as a result of live communication between the American army and

by the French people.

Particularly interesting is the influence of French words on English vocabulary in

Lately(late 20th century). French loanwords appear in

many areas of life. This includes politics, social life, sports and recreation. They

saturate the English language with colors, make it special, enliven it.

Despite the fact that modern English consists of approximately

one third of the words are of Romance origin, it has not lost its

identity as a language of the Germanic group. A large number of French and

others foreign borrowings not only enriched this language, but in some way

then compensated for the underdeveloped system

word-forming means to express new concepts or nuances

values. Many borrowings from French were due to

historically:

. words related to feudal relations: feudal, baron, vassal,

liege, chivalry (some of these words, which at that time reflected in their

meaning feudal ideology, later received a general meaning: command,

obey, serve, noble, glory, danger)

. almost all titles except king, queen, earl, lord and lady

Norman-French origin.

The transition to another part of speech is also observed in some borrowings from the French language. Thus, many infinitives of French verbs in their endings resembled English nouns and became so: dinner lunch, remainder – remainder.

Borrowed words go through a complex path of semantic development. Yes, word clerk from later - lat. - clericus, from Greek. - klerikos meant in Old English a priest, in Middle English a literate person, a student, an official and a scientist, and in New English an office worker - clerk.

When comparing the meanings of a borrowed word with what it had in the language from which it came, it is usually discovered that in the borrowing language it retains only part of its meanings, often one, and, moreover, not the main one, but a derivative one, and often becomes a term. Vivid examples of this are borrowed from Russian sputnik and soviet. French word marcher - walk gives march - march, a term originally military.

Cases when in a borrowing language a word acquires a meaning that it did not have at all in the language from which it came represent rare exceptions and are explained by the further development of meaning in the borrowing language, with the loss of the original meaning. Thus, the French word tenez - hold, was used when playing tennis and gave the name to this sport.

Thus, the general position that in each language, in addition to the general laws that determine the development of the language, there are also its own internal laws of its development that determine its national specificity, as applied to borrowings in the English language, could be formulated as follows: Foreign words, entering the English language, are gradually assimilated into it, obeying its grammatical, phonetic and semantic structure.

The degree of assimilation depends on the historical conditions of the development of each specific word, i.e., on the time of borrowing, the nature of the borrowing, the communicative significance of the word, etc.

French borrowings in the works of the English writer A. Christie.

When identifying French borrowings in A. Christie’s work “Why didn`t they ask Evans?” (“Evans Knows the Answer”) we used the following criteria to determine the French origin of a word:

1) The presence of words that completely preserve French spelling or pronunciation: pincktte,camaraderier,dejeunermonsenieur,family,demagogueennui,avenue,costume, costumematinee,potage,porte-cocher,corbleau,spirituelpouletgourmand,repertoire

2) The presence of words with suffixes: -ment - able -tion - sion eclaricissement, disappointment, miserable, situation, appartement

3) The presence in the language material under study of words with letter combinations: - ai- -ion - lie affaire, aides-de-camp, billet-doux

4) The presence of words with letter combinations -ch - chaussure, chausse, chambre

We also recorded the presence of the words we selected in the French-Russian dictionary and were guided by another criterion, namely the mandatory similarity of the meanings of these words in English and French. Our research has shown that numerous borrowings that penetrated the English language during different periods of its historical development reflect various spheres of human activity and concern almost all aspects of the material, socio-political and cultural life of England. New phenomena appeared in all these areas. This required the emergence of new concepts to designate this or that phenomenon. In the works of A. Christie we discovered some of them and classified them. So, to the area socio-political life employe, partie, monde, camaraderier, garcon, aides-de-camp, abbe (worker, party, society, clergy, waiter, adjutant, abbot). From all the French borrowings we selected, we identified lexical units related to the household: menage, tableau, appartement, salon, chambre (household, picture, apartment, living room, bedroom).

On topic "Fashion" We included the following borrowings: decoltee, costume de cour, coquette, chaussure (low-necked suit, yoke, shoes)

On topic " Food" The following borrowings include: gourmand, potage, soiree, dejeuner, pate-de fois gras, tartine, mousseline (gourmet, cream soup, dinner party, dinner party, Strasbourg pie, tartine, glass) To the sphere human relations borrowings include: tete-a-tete, billet-doux, tendre, protegee, poulet, m esalliance, rendez-vous, disappointment (private conversation, love letter, tender feelings, protégé, love letter, unequal marriage, date, disappointment).

The study of linguistic material in the works of A Christie allowed us to identify 82 words borrowed by the English language from French at various periods of its development. We, of course, cannot claim that we have identified absolutely all French borrowings, since this requires a more in-depth scientific study tracing the history of the appearance of each lexical unit in the language. We would like to note that most of the borrowed words from the material we selected are:

nouns (81% of the selected vocabulary), adjectives (about 13%), adverbs make up about 3.5%, verbs - less than 2.5%.

Now we present the identified borrowings in the works of A. Christie, distributed by grammatical categories in the form of a table:

Nouns Adjectives Adverbs Verbs

chaussure tete-a-tete aides-de-camp

potage pas emigrer

garcon engagement

protegee eclaricissement

tartine bonne conretemps

monsieur dejeuner

pate-de-fois gras

party ennui encore

place disappointment

enfant rendez-vous coquette pave

corbleau spirituel

blase passe apropos au revoir

parbleau infome amuser

On this basis, we can draw the following conclusions: - of all parts of speech, nouns are most freely borrowed, then adjectives, adverbs, and least of all verbs; - our research did not reveal a single borrowed function word. We can explain the abundance of borrowed main parts of speech and the small number or even absence of borrowed prepositions, conjunctions and interjections by the fact that in any language there is a large number of the former and a small number of the latter. That is, the language needs only a small number of function words that perform a purely grammatical function of denoting generalized relationships between the main parts of speech; - rather large classes of words are most readily involved in the borrowing process, so the percentage of borrowed nouns, for example, turned out to be very large.

Problems of assimilation of borrowed words.

Assimilation of borrowed words is their adaptation in phonetic, grammatical, semantic and graphic terms to the system of the receiving language. The degree of assimilation can be very different and depends on how long ago the borrowing occurred, whether it occurred orally or through a book, how common the word is, etc. Examples of completely assimilated borrowings include words such as travel and sport, which even are not perceived by speakers as foreign languages, are fully consistent with the English grammatical, phonetic and spelling systems in form, pronunciation and writing, are stylistically neutral and can form derivatives or complex words, i.e. serve as a basis for word formation. Grammatically and stylistically, borrowings are used in speech in the same way as native English words. Verbs are included in the standard English verb system, receiving a dental suffix in the past tense and in the past participle: associatedexaggeratedaccumulated,liberatedradiatedventilatedactedcorrected,confusedinterfered,disturbed. Nouns receive standard endings in their plurals: eggs,gateslaws,knives,rootssales,skins, snares, wings. In modern English, only a few borrowed nouns have retained the plural inflection that they had in the language from which the numbers came: the original and English -

formulas - formulae, indexes - indices, geniuses - genii. Sometimes two different plural forms are differentiated semantically. For example, along with the form bandits Italian form is retained banditti, when it comes to romantic robbers in a fairy tale or operetta. Commonly used words have only one plural form - English: villas, spectators, circuses. Fully assimilated borrowings are included in the English word-formation system with all those methods and means of word formation that are productive. Adverbs with original English suffix -1у, adjectives for -ml And -less and abstract nouns with suffixes -ness, -ship, -dom etc. are also freely formed from French stems, as well as from the original ones: nicely, pleasantly, cheerful, beautiful, powerless, gentleness, companionship, etc. English prefixes: un-, fore-, over, be- can be added to the stems of borrowed words: unaidedunavoidableunconciousforecast, overcharge, bepraise etc. Words made up of elements,

borrowed from different languages, or from elements partly borrowed and partly original, are called hybrids ( hybrids). For example: beautiful (French root + English suffix), unmistakable (English prefixes + Scandal root + Latin suffix). The number of hybrids in English significantly exceeds their number in other languages. As can be seen from the above examples, combinations in hybrids can be very diverse, original affixes can be combined with borrowed roots and, conversely, original roots with borrowed affixes, the same word can simultaneously contain original and borrowed affixes, etc. The degree of phonetic assimilation can also vary. If the English language already had all the sounds that make up the borrowed word, then it is reproduced quite accurately; if there were any sounds alien to the English language, each of them was replaced by the closest sound of the English language. After complete phonetic assimilation of a word into a language, all its constituent sounds undergo the same historical changes, as the corresponding sounds in the original words.

In addition to the listed borrowings in modern English there are also words from the languages ​​of African and Australian peoples, from Chinese and Turkic languages.

Conclusion.

So, having studied the history of the English language, having made a thorough

etymological analysis of borrowed words in English, you can

draw certain conclusions. During the work it became clear that foreign

languages ​​had a much greater influence on the development of the English language than on

development of many other European languages.

Having familiarized myself with numerous works of scientists in the field of lexicology,

Let us, perhaps, join the opinion of those who believed that, despite the high

percentage of borrowings, English cannot be classified as a language

of international origin or as one of the Romanesques. Local element

contains a huge number of words, but the grammatical structure remains

untouched.

Lexical areas in which borrowings occurred at different periods

from certain languages, turn out to be indicative of those economic,

political, cultural ties that existed among the English people

with peoples who speak these languages. Processes of assimilation of these words

are natural and determined by the specific features of the English language.

The modern vocabulary of the English language has changed and been supplemented by

for many centuries and now has in its reserve a large amount

words that also had an ambiguous influence on the formation of his

vocabulary But despite this, the English language has not become a kind of

“hybrid” and has not lost its originality. In contrast to this we can call

current French as the official language of France, native speakers

which they zealously care about the purity of the language, trying to limit, isolate

it from foreign language innovations. On the one hand, as it may seem, language

must retain its essence and character. On the other hand, attempts

isolate the language as a carrier of national culture, art,

mentality may not live up to the expected results. It's possible

will stall the development of the language, making it less vibrant and vibrant. No wonder the number

Recently, there has been a significant increase in the number of people wanting to learn French

decreased.

The English language, not limited by any boundaries, has not lost its

“faces”; it remained the language of the Germanic group with all the characteristic features

inherent in him throughout his development, and the changes that he

suffered in connection with borrowings, enriched its vocabulary

the best linguistic elements that he could absorb throughout his entire life

Borrowing vocabulary is an interaction of bringing nations closer together

based on economic, political, scientific and cultural ties. Bright

An example of this is the numerous French borrowings in

English language.

Having been exposed to various morphological, phonetic and lexical

changes, many borrowings have lost their French appearance and are not

are perceived more as foreign words. The path we've walked

borrowing until they were fully assimilated into the language was multi-stage. Submitting

laws of the borrowing language, some borrowings developed new

meanings not characteristic of their original versions.

Acquiring new meanings, the borrowed word expands its circle

possible combinations for it, penetrates deeper into the thickness of the vocabulary,

increasingly ramifies its semantic connection with other words, and together with

therefore, against the background of the latter, it stands out more clearly as an independent

lexical unit of language.

The French language had the greatest influence on the English language in

Middle English period. Attempts to continue the accumulation of borrowings in the XX

century did not bring much success, since the need for such

borrowings disappeared - the language became self-sufficient.

In our opinion, we were able to study the problem of French borrowings

in English. We analyzed possible ways of penetration of the French

words into the English language, examined various types of borrowings.

In the practical part, we examined this problem in practice.

Having identified and examined borrowings, we examined their quantitative

correlation in the works of the English writer Agatha Christie.

It is estimated that the number of native words in the English dictionary is only about 30%.

French borrowings – 25%

Latin borrowings - 20%

Russian borrowings-10%

Borrowings from other languages ​​- 15%

And yet the presence in modern English of significant

the number of French borrowings explains the large role that they

played in enriching the vocabulary and in the formation of lexical norms

English language, since borrowings allow the language to save its

own nomination opportunities, and contribute to further development

word formation.

Despite some contamination of the English vocabulary with words,

borrowed from other languages, the English language as a whole has not suffered from

a large influx of foreign language elements. On the contrary, its vocabulary,

undoubtedly enriched. This became possible thanks to what he learned

foreign language elements, having absorbed everything valuable and necessary, discarding them in the process

further development is all accidental.

So, in this work, the desired was undoubtedly achieved:

It has been established that foreign language borrowings have become one of the most

productive ways to enrich the vocabulary of the English language.

Bibliography:

1. Arakin of the English language. - M. (Higher School, 1968.-420 pp.)

2. Arakin on the history of the English language. - M. (Enlightenment, 1955.-

3. Arnold's scientific research in linguistics (Tutorial.-

M. (1991.-140 pp.)

4. , Solovyov foreign

literature (Textbook for philological special universities.-M. (1991.-637 p.)

5. From the history of English words (Book for senior students

classes. - M. (Enlightenment, 1994.-95 p.)

6. Galperin English-Russian dictionary (in 2 volumes. Approx.

words. - 3rd ed., stereotype. - M. (Russian language, 197 pp.)

7. Ivanov English words. 2000 (Internet).

8. Kunin phraseology of modern English (Textbook

for institutes and faculties language - M. (Higher school, 198 p.)

9. Medvedev Ya. History of the English language. 1999 (Internet)

10. Sapelkin A. Languages ​​of the world. 1999. (Interent)

11. Sekirin in English. 1999. (Internet)

12. Smirnitsky English language. M. (2000. –260 pp.)

13. Haugen E. The process of borrowing // New in linguistics (6).

M. (Progress, 1985.Internet)

14. Christie A. “Why didn`t they ask Evans?” - M.: Higher. School, 1991. - 175 pp. - (Home reading library). - in English. language

Chapter I. Borrowings in the lexical system of the language

Borrowings constitute a special layer of vocabulary both in terms of nomination processes and in terms of motivation. Being one of the possible answers to the needs of nomination arising as a result of language contacts and expansion under the influence of other linguistic societies, they represent a certain economy of linguistic effort when generating speech, since ready-made units of a foreign language are used to fill the nominative gaps that have arisen in a given language . At the same time, the loss of the previous associative connections that existed in the language from which they were borrowed entails the loss of a source of motivation that may be inherent in the borrowed words in the language. This causes significant difficulties in recognizing their meaning in the process of speech perception.
Borrowing as a process of using elements of one language in another is due to the contradictory nature of a linguistic sign: its arbitrariness as a force allowing borrowing and involuntariness as a factor preventing borrowing. This, apparently, explains the fact that the process of borrowing in modern English, as well as in the Russian language, according to available data, is very unproductive. In quantitative terms, it is significantly inferior to such processes of nomination as word formation and semantic derivation (word formation). The above, however, does not mean that the share of borrowings in modern English is not so large. Borrowed from approximately 50 languages ​​of the world, lexical units make up almost 75% of the vocabulary of the English language and include layers of vocabulary borrowed in various historical periods and under the influence of various conditions development and existence. Among them
– historical, geographical, social, economic, cultural and other conditions. Being the result of a long historical interaction of languages, borrowing as a process and borrowing as a result of this process are of significant interest for the history of language, within which not only the reasons for borrowings, but also their source languages ​​receive detailed coverage. Also noteworthy are the ways, forms and types of borrowings, as well as the transformations that a borrowed word undergoes in a new linguistic environment. Borrowings are interesting, first of all, for the impact they have on the systemic structure of the vocabulary of a particular language, as well as for their special status in the language that borrowed them, if a number of genetic characteristics are preserved.
This influence is most obvious when the process of borrowing involves not only individual units, but entire groups of words between which certain relationships existed in the source language.
A significant number of borrowings from the English language (e.g. `rural`
(`rural`) – from the Latin `ruralis`, `rus`, `ruris` (`village`, `arable land`,
`field`); `cardiac` (`heart`) – from the Greek `kardiakos`, `kardia`
(“heart”), etc.) turn out to be genetically derivative in the source language and are characterized by structural-semantic dependence and deducibility. Provided that both members of such word-formation pairs are borrowed, the derivational relations between them are preserved in the borrowing language.
E.g., gloss – `gloss`, `marginal note`, `interpretation`; glossary
`glossary`, `dictionary`; dynasty – `dynasty`, dynastic – `dynastic`, etc. Given the group nature of borrowings in the English language, there is not only a replenishment of the subsystem of simple and derivative words. A significant number of morphologically distinct units arise, whose complexity is well felt by native English speakers. As a result, new word-formation models are formed. Thus, both the composition of morphemes in the English language and its word formation are significantly expanded.
(derivative) possibilities.

The life of borrowed words in a new language is especially interesting. This is very important when translating from English and into English from other languages.
Many borrowings, under the influence of the system into which they entered, undergo significant phonetic, grammatical and even semantic changes, adapting, respectively, to the phonetic, grammatical and semantic laws of this system.
The process of assimilation can be so deep that the foreign language origin of such words is not felt by native English speakers and is discovered only with the help of etymological analysis[v]. This is most true, for example, for Scandinavian and early Latin borrowings like get - `receive`, skill - `skill`, sky - `sky`, - skirt `skirt`, skin –
`skin`, they – `they`, street – `street` and others. In contrast to fully assimilated and assimilated borrowings, partially assimilated foreign language units retain traces of their foreign origin in the form of phonetic, (e.g. garage, chaise-longue, chic), grammatical (e.g. singular - datum, nucleus, antenna, plural - datd, nuclei, antennae) and semantic features (e.g. taiga, tundra, borsch, shchi, pelmeni, vodka, valenki, samovar, matrioshka, kopeck, rouble, knout and other borrowings from the Russian language, denoting realities and concepts alien to the English). In order to adequately describe them in explanatory dictionaries of the English language, lexicographers widely use encyclopedic information informing about places of distribution, forms of existence, methods of using designated objects and phenomena. Thus, when interpreting the words taiga and tundra, along with indicating the generic characteristics and differential features that make it possible to see the specificity and difference of these realities from the realities that are closest and known to native speakers of English, instructions are given climate zone, geographic range: taiga – swampy coniferous forest of Siberia, beginning where the tundra ends; tundra
–treeless plain characteristic of arctic and subarctic regions. The description of the borrowed names of monetary units such as rouble also implies an indication of both the fact that this is a monetary unit that occupies a certain place in the general system of monetary units, and the country in which it is in circulation: rouble – see money table: 100 kopecks, Russia .

1.1. Etymological classification of vocabulary

From an etymological point of view, all vocabulary is divided into original and borrowed.

Borrowing vocabulary is a consequence of the rapprochement of peoples on the basis of economic, political, scientific and cultural ties. In most cases, borrowed words enter the language as a means of denoting new things and expressing previously unknown concepts. Borrowed words can also be secondary names for already known objects and phenomena. This happens if the borrowed word is used to characterize a subject in a slightly different way, if it is a generally accepted international term, or if foreign words are forcibly introduced into the language (during military occupation or the implantation of a new religion).
The history of a language reveals all the processes that occurred in a language at different stages of its existence. The causes (factors) of changes that are inherent in the language itself are called linguistic (or interlinguistic), and factors associated with the history of the people, with the general development of human society, are called extralinguistic . These two concepts and two sides of the history of language are constantly in contact.

Polysemantic words are usually borrowed in one of their meanings, and the scope of the meaning of the word when borrowed, as a rule, narrows.

Borrowings from Latin and French played a major role in the development of the vocabulary of the English language. The Scandinavian languages ​​also had some influence on the English vocabulary.

The borrowing of Latin vocabulary is mainly associated with three events in the history of the English people: Roman rule (from the 1st to the 5th centuries AD), the adoption of Christianity in England (VI-VII centuries) and the cultural surge in the Renaissance (XV- XVI centuries)

The influence of the French language on English was especially strong during the period of French domination in the country, when a national English language had not yet emerged. The French invasion of England in 1066 marked the beginning of the Norman Conquest. French was the official language of England for a long time, and bilingualism existed in the country. Some vocabulary was borrowed later: after the restoration of the Stuart dynasty and in connection with the French bourgeois revolution of 1789.

In the 11th century England was part of the power Danish king, which also included
Denmark and parts of Norway and Sweden. This period is called in history the period of the Scandinavian conquest of England. The influence of Scandinavian dialects on the English language was expressed not only in the borrowing of vocabulary. It is generally accepted that the Scandinavian influence to a certain extent contributed to the reduction and disappearance of endings in English words, that is, ultimately, the formation of a characteristic analytical structure of the English language.

The “analyticism” of the language is expressed in a special grammatical structure, in which the connection of words in a sentence is carried out mainly in accordance with a certain word order and through function words - prepositions and conjunctions.

Old English was a synthetic language: the connection of words in a sentence was expressed mainly by changing the words themselves. In Old English, a system of inflectional forms was developed: nouns had a developed system of declension and a category of grammatical gender, adjectives agreed with nouns in gender, number and case, verbs had special forms to express perfective and imperfective forms, etc.

Borrowing vocabulary can occur orally and in writing. In the case of oral borrowing, words are quickly assimilated into the language.
Words borrowed in writing retain their phonetic, spelling and grammatical features longer.

Borrowing can be direct, and also occurs with the help of an intermediary language. Intermediary languages ​​were, for example, Latin (many Greek words came into English through Latin) and French (from which many Latin words were borrowed).

Among the main ways of borrowing vocabulary are transcription, transliteration, tracing and semantic borrowing.

Transcription (phonetic method) is a borrowing of a vocabulary unit in which its sound form is preserved (sometimes slightly modified in accordance with the phonetic features of the language into which the word is borrowed). In this way, the words football, trailer, jeans sport, labor, travel, people, castle, fortress and others were borrowed from the English language. In English, regime, ballet, bouquet and many others are borrowed from French. Such words are characterized by the fact that their general sound complex turns out to be new for the borrowing language, although each of their constituent sounds, with rare exceptions, is replaced by the sound of the language into which they fall.

Transliteration is a method of borrowing in which the spelling of a foreign word is borrowed: the letters of the borrowed word are replaced with letters of the native language. When transliterating, the word is read according to the rules of reading the native language. The words cruise, motel, club were borrowed from English into Russian using the method of transliteration. Many proper names are also transliterated when borrowed from English: Washington
(Washington), Texas (Texas), London (London). In the English language there are many words of Greek, Latin and French origin, which have retained their graphic features, although they are read according to the rules of the English language.

Tracing is a method of borrowing in which the associative meaning and structural model of a word or phrase are borrowed.
Calques are borrowings in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression, i.e., its exact reproduction by means of the receiving language while preserving the morphological structure and motivation.
When tracing, the components of a borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and combined according to the model of a foreign word or phrase. For example, the German noun Vaterland, translated in parts, gave the English tracing paper Fatherland; Russian noun
“suicide” is a calque of the Latin suicide (sui – `oneself, cide – `murder); The English noun self-service, borrowed into the Russian language by tracing, has the form `self-service`.

Such tracings are, for example, many borrowings from the Indian language that have become international: pale-face, pipe of peace
`peace pipe`. There are many cripples among borrowings from Russian: palace of culture, house of rest.

A large number of words and phraseological units based on Latin and French have been created in English using the tracing method.
Calques are, for example, the following vocabulary units: below one`s dignity – `below one’s dignity (from Latin infra dignitatem); under consideration – `discussed’ (from Latin sub juice); vicious circle –
“vicious circle” (from Latin circulus vitiosus); masterpiece – `masterpiece’ (from French chef d`oeuvre) still life – `still life (from French nature mort); pen name – `pseudonym’ (from French nom de plume) and others.

Semantic borrowing is the borrowing of a new meaning, often figurative, to a word already existing in the language. The words pioneer and brigade existed in the English language even before the penetration of “Sovietism” into it, but they received the meanings: “member of a children’s communist organization” and “work collective” under the influence of the Russian language of the post-October period.

Semantic borrowings occur especially easily in closely related languages. A number of examples can be found among Scandinavian borrowings. For example, the Old English verb dwellan, “to wander, linger,” under the influence of the Old Norse dveljawun, developed in modern English into dwell, “to live.” Thus, in terms of sound, dwell goes back to English, and in terms of semantics to the Scandinavian verb.

There are more cases of semantic borrowing among nouns than among verbs. The noun gift in Old English did not mean a gift, but “a ransom for a wife” and then, as a result of association by contiguity -
`wedding`. The Scandinavian word gift meant “gift, gift,” and this was reflected in the meaning of the original word. The following words got their modern meanings from Scandinavian: bread (in Old English `piece of bread`), dream (in Old English `joy`), holm (in Old English `ocean, sea`), plow (Old English)
`measure of land`).

Tracing, transcription, transliteration, semantic borrowing as methods of borrowing should be distinguished from translation methods of the same name. Without differing in their mechanism, they differ in their final results: when translating, the vocabulary does not increase, whereas when borrowing, new vocabulary units appear in the “piggy bank”.

Since the process of assimilation of foreign language elements begins from the moment they are introduced into the language by translators, it is appropriate to say a few words about the technique of translating specific foreign names. When translating words and expressions with unclear associative meaning, as well as when translating names of realities, transcription, less often transliteration, tracing and explanatory translation (transferring the meaning of a foreign word or phrase using the means of the native language without preserving the motivation and form) can be used. For example, translating the word the Speaker with the phrase
“chairman of the House of Commons”, the words backbenchers with the phrase “ordinary members of the English parliament”, etc. During an explanatory translation, the translated word may be given in a footnote, in this case
“speaker” and “backbangers”. When tracing, transcribing and transliterating, it is sometimes necessary to resort to comments (for example, “eggheads” in
The USA mockingly calls intellectuals and intellectuals).

A technique that is a type of explanatory translation and tracing can also be used - replacing associative meaning.
However, this does not exclude the need for comment. The abuse of transcription and tracing as translation methods clogs the language. If the motivation is unclear, transcription and tracing without commentary are unacceptable, since translation in the proper sense of the word in this case is absent.

As a result of the influence of other languages ​​on the English language, several changes have occurred in its vocabulary, the most notable of which are the following:

1) A lot has appeared in the English language foreign words ary units, especially words borrowed from French, Latin and Greek (Greek words were borrowed through Latin). Knowing the meanings of the most common roots of Greek and Latin origin helps to reveal the motivation of borrowed words and understand their meaning. Familiarity with the semantics of the most common Greek and Latin roots is also necessary for the correct pronunciation and spelling of common terms and common words.

Some Greek and Latin roots in modern English words.

E.g. Audio, lat. `listen` /auditorum, audience/;
Bios, Greek `life` /biology, biography/;
Centum, lat. `hundred` /cent, century, centenary/;
Demos - `people` /democracy, demography/;
Grapho, Greek `write` /graphic, phonograph/;
Homos, Greek `same` /homonym, homophone/;
Lexis, Greek `word`; lexicon, Greek `dictionary` /lexicology, lexicography/;
Onoma, Greek `name`/synonym, antonim, pseudonym/;
Phone, Greek `sound` /phonetics, phoneme, phonology/;
Scribe, scriptum, lat. `write`, `written` /describe, subscribe, scriptwriter, inscription/;
Tele, Greek `far`, `far` /telescope, telegraph/;
Video, lat. `see`; visus lat. 1) `vision`; 2) `view`, `spectacle` /visible, vision, revise, television, evidence/;
Vita, lat. `life` /vital, vitality, vitamin/.

2) Foreign word-forming elements appeared in the English language. As a rule, affixes are not borrowed separately, but are isolated from the stream of borrowed words, then joining the original stems and creating new words with it. English has many Latin and French affixes: anti-, re-, pro-, counter-, -ism-, -age-, -able-,
-ous, etc.

3) Under the influence of borrowings, many original English words fell out of use or changed their meaning.
For example, instead of Old English words that respectively expressed the concepts
`river, battle, army, astronomy, arithmetic, poetry` appeared French or Latin and Greek words borrowed through French
`river, battle, army, astronomy, arithmetic, poetry`, Scandinavian pronouns they, them replaced Old English words with the same meaning; Under the influence of the Scandinavian words sky and anger, the English nouns heaven and wrath narrowed their meaning.

4) Many different style, evaluatively inadequate synonyms have appeared
(mainly of Romanesque origin).

5) One of the consequences of borrowing was the emergence of etymological doublets. Etymological doublets are words that etymologically go back to the same base, but have different meanings, pronunciations and spellings in the language. For example: catch and chase, goal and jail, channel and canal.

The emergence of etymological doublets is explained by fairly specific reasons. The same word could be borrowed at different times or from different sources. For example, the Latin canalis “channel” came into English through a dialect of central France in the form channel and through a dialect of northern France in the form canal, and these forms were differentiated by meaning. The Latin quies, quietus "rest", borrowed directly into English has the form quiet, the same word, which came through the French language, exists in the language as quite. As a result of the penetration (in different periods) into the English language through French of the Latin noun corpus “body”, the etymological doublets corps “corps” and corpse “corpse” were created.

Most of the currently existing etymological doublets are of Romance origin. However, there are also English-Scandinavian doublets
(disk and disc, shirt and skirt) and native English (shade and shadow, scale and shell).
In modern English, etymological doublets can be synonyms or false synonyms (shade and shadow, frail and fragile) or have a similar form and be false homonyms (liquor and liqueur, through and thorough, corpse and corps). Differentiation of such words is important for practical language acquisition.

The historical commonality of many etymological doublets may not be felt at the present time. Such doublets differ in form and meaning, and their comparison is carried out only when studying the language from a historical perspective. In practical terms, such words do not present any difficulty, since they are not similar in modern consciousness either structurally or semantically. For example, host and guest, hotel and hostel, ounce and inch, prune and plum. Some etymological doublets have acquired directly opposite meanings, such as: ward - a person under guardianship and guard - guard; the one who protects.

6) As a result of borrowing, the English language was replenished with international words. International words are words that are found in many languages, but have minor phonetic differences associated with the pronunciation features of each language. For example: address, address (English), adresse (French), Adresse (German); Telegraph (German); socialism, socialism (English), socialisme (French), Sozialismus (German)
International words are etymological doublets, derived in most cases from Greek and Latin roots.

7) Many words have appeared whose pronunciation and spelling do not correspond to the norms of the English language. They exhibit some grammatical features. Features of borrowed words that have not been fully assimilated into the language include the following:

*In words borrowed from French in a later period, the letter g is read as [zh]: genre, prestige; the combination ch is read as [w]: machine, chauffeur; the final consonant is unreadable: corps, ballet.

*In words of Greek origin, the sound [k] is expressed in writing by the letter combination ch: Christ, character; the letter p before s is not readable: psychology, psychiatry; the sound [f] is conveyed in writing by the letter combination ph: alphabet, emphasis; in the middle of the word, instead of i, y is written: sympathy, physics.

Chapter II. The influence of individual linguistic cultures on the formation of the lexical composition of the English language

2.1. Borrowings from Scandinavian languages

In this chapter we will try to examine in more detail the issue of French and Scandinavian borrowings in the English language, as the most important for the formation of the vocabulary of modern English.
Although the problem of the origin of the vocabulary of a language is not limited to the problem of borrowings.

In the vocabulary of modern English, various historical layers, unequal in origin, character and volume, can be more or less clearly separated from each other. In this case, the following classification of words is generally outlined:
1. Words undoubtedly borrowed: a) from Scandinavian languages; b) from French; c) from Latin and Greek; d) from the Russian language e) from other languages.
2. The old lexical fund of the English language, that is, the totality of words of modern English minus the above borrowings.
3. Words that are not borrowed or old, but formed at a relatively later time from borrowed or old material. The peculiarity of this category is that it is distinguished only insofar as whole, ready-made words are meant; but if we keep in mind the roots directly, then the words of this category can be classified into the various groups listed above (not counting those cases that are not clear at all). So, for example, the modern English word eatable is formed from the verb eat with the help of the suffix –able–, borrowed from French, and, therefore, as a whole cannot be an old word; but by its root –eat– it belongs to the old lexical stock.

English belongs to the Western subgroup of Germanic languages, and therefore words representing the old stock of the English language very often find etymological parallels in other Germanic languages: compare, for example, English house, German Haus, Dutch huis, Norwegian hus, Swedish hus; English day, German Tag, Dutch dag, Norwegian dag, Swedish dag.

Naturally, there are especially many etymological parallels to the original English words in the languages ​​of the West Germanic subgroup, in particular in German: compare English night, German Nacht; English way, German Weg; English book German Buch etc.

When talking about borrowing, one should take into account a number of circumstances that complicate this already difficult problem. By the way, the very concept
“borrowing” is relative, conditioned by our actual knowledge.

Usually we call a word a borrowing if it is possible to indicate the actual source of this borrowing. However, many words not included in borrowings in this way may turn out to be borrowings from some unknown source or very ancient borrowings.
For example, the modern English word inch “inch”, borrowed from the Latin language in a very ancient era (Latin uncia 1/12 of any measure), acts on an equal footing with the modern English concept foot “foot”, and if it were not for If the foreign language source of the word inch is known, then it would, without a doubt, be classified as a native English word.
It is also necessary to distinguish between borrowings resulting from direct mass communication between Englishmen and speakers of other languages. As is known, the Middle English language developed over a long period of time under the continuous influence of, on the one hand, the Scandinavian dialects brought by the Scandinavian conquerors in the 9th-11th centuries, and on the other, the French language,
"brought" to England by the Norman conquerors in 1066. The influence of the Scandinavian languages ​​and the French language in these periods should be especially emphasized as disproportionately more significant and profound than the influence of other languages ​​or the influence of the Scandinavian languages ​​and the French language in other periods of the history of the “Aglitic” language.

The influence of Scandinavian languages ​​is associated with the conquest of England by the Scandinavians during the 9th-11th centuries. Approximately the same level of socio-economic and cultural development of the conquerors determined the penetration into the English language of words denoting objects and phenomena of objective reality already known to the English.

Compare anger – ґгневґ (Middle English, anger – ґmisfortune, trouble, frustration, anger; from Scandinavian and Old Norse, angr – grief, sadness); fellow – ґguy, ґtovarishchґ (Med. English felawe – ґcomrade, companion, guy; from Old Norse felagi – `comrade, companion, accomplice`); fit – `adjust, supply, install, correspond`
(cf. English fitten – `arrange`; Old Sk. fitja – ґto bindґ); weak
–`weak` (Middle English weik, Old veikr) and other words.

From the above list it is quite obvious that borrowings from the Scandinavian languages ​​were ordinary, everyday, widely used words associated with concepts that already had a synonymous expression in English: compare cf. angry `irritated, angry`, wrooth `angry, angry`; skye `cloud, clouds`, heaven –`sky, heavens`; taken `take, grab, start`, niman `take, grab`; they
`they`, hi, heo, he `they`.

To fully understand the reason for the above nature of Scandinavian borrowings, it is necessary to take into account that the English language, on the one hand, and the Scandinavian languages ​​brought to England, on the other hand, were closely related languages. It is known that in the case of closely related languages ​​we observe a special relationship, since such languages ​​can more or less easily be used simultaneously in the same process of communication. This relationship between languages ​​was called “potential-dialectal”.

In the era of the Scandinavian conquest, it is more correct to speak not about different languages, but about different dialects of the same language. It is necessary to take into account that a language is identical to itself (the same language, although in different dialect variants) and to the extent that all the various components of the language (words, types of their construction, changes and combinations, means of forming sentences, etc.) ) are somehow interconnected by mutual dependence into a specific, albeit diverse system. This system, which arose as a result of interaction, was introduced into the process of regular communication, forming a single “network” without significant breaks.
Thus, certain words penetrated from Scandinavian dialects into English ones, for the most part not due to the fact that they were associated with any new concepts for the English, but due to the fact that in the process of regular and mass communication between the English and Scandinavians, data words turned out to be more convenient for adequate expression of thoughts. It can be assumed, for example, that the word they replaced the corresponding Middle English word hi (heo, he) due to the fact that in the system of personal pronouns during this period there was significant homonymy, which to a certain extent was eliminated by the introduction of the Scandinavian dialect variant they.
In the vast majority of cases, however, there was interaction between English and Scandinavian dialect variants due to their regular identification as variants of the same word. As a result of this interaction, a third variant appeared in the language, combining the features of both dialect variants (both English and Scandinavian).

Compare modern English ken `outlook, circle of knowledge`, `know`
(used in Scotland): in Old English the corresponding verb cennan (a Danish word) had the meaning 'to notify, announce', the meaning of
`to know` appeared under the influence of the Old Norse Kenna `to teach, to know`; modern English dwell `to live, inhabit, be, dwell in detail, linger': the meaning of `to linger' goes back to the Danish dwellan
`to lead away, interfere, deceive, make mistakes`, and the meaning of `to live` to Old English. dvelza, scand. `live`.

The indicated nature of the penetration of Scandinavian roots into the English language determined that “Scandinavianisms” in the vocabulary of the English language in the overwhelming majority of cases, from the very moment of their appearance, belonged to commonly used vocabulary. In most cases, they remained in this part of the vocabulary in the future: anger, angry, fellow, fit, get, hit, leg, low, skill, take, want, week, till, they and the like. In some cases, they even replaced the corresponding English synonyms (they and take) or pushed them to the periphery of the dictionary language (sky in English heaven, skin in English hide). To this it is necessary to add the following: Scandinavian borrowings not only represented commonly used words, but also gave a large number of derivative words: hap - `chance, happy accident`, haphazard - `case, chance`, haphazard - `random`, hapless - `unfortunate, ill-fated`, happen –
`happen`, happening – `incident, event`, happy – `happy`, happily –
`happily`, happiness – `happiness`, `perhaps` – `possible`; weak
`weak`, weaken - `to weaken, grow weaker`, weak-headed - `feeble-minded, easily drunk', weak-kneed - `weak on his feet`, weakling - `weak-willed person`, weakness - `weakness` and others.

In the system of modern English, Scandinavian borrowings function on a par with native English words, no different from the latter. True, some of these words are phonetically characterized by the presence of an initial word, which, as is known, in native English words turned into [w] (sky, skin, skill, scathe and others). However, this feature does not particularly highlight Scandinavian borrowings, since in modern English the presence of initial [sk], thanks to the massive penetration of foreign words, is not something exceptional: scobs –
`sawdust, shavings`, scoff – `mockery`, scope – `span, coverage`, scorch –
“scorch”, score – “notch”, Scotch – “Scottish”, scout – “scout” and many others.

Borrowings from the same Scandinavian languages ​​in a later period should be considered from a completely different perspective. These borrowings in the overwhelming majority of cases are not commonly used words, have no or almost no derivatives and differ in their phonetic and orthographic appearance: tungsten, geyser, ski and others. Such lexical units in the vocabulary of modern English have the character of single inclusions and, in general, are no longer similar to early borrowings from Scandinavian languages, but to later borrowings from German, Dutch and other Germanic languages ​​(we will talk about them later): waltz - `waltz `, nickel - nickel, zinc - zinc, Luftwaffe -
`aviation` and the like.

2.2. Borrowings from French

The French borrowings of the era of the Norman Conquest are of a completely different nature than the early Scandinavian borrowings. Here it should be taken into account, first of all, that the French language, in relation to the English language, took a dominant position as the language of the court, the feudal nobility, government agencies, schools, and in general as the main language of writing (along with Latin). In this regard, French words, unlike Scandinavian ones, in their mass clearly reflect the position, lifestyle, activities and interests of those social strata that exclusively or predominantly used the French language: action
–action (Middle English accioun – `action, accusation`: from Old French accioun); agreeable – `pleasant, agreeable` (Middle English agreable: from Old French agreable); beauty – `beauty` (cf. English beautee: from old French beate); carpenter – carpenter (carpenter: from Old French carpentier); duke - duke (duk: from old French duc) and many others.

The dominance of the French language ends in the second half of the 16th century, but the largest number of borrowings from it occurred precisely at this time: the English language, displacing French, especially needed to enrich its vocabulary with the elements that the latter had.

It should be noted, however, that the French language initially spread in England mainly in the form of the Norman dialect, mixed with elements of north-eastern French dialects. Already in the 13th century. French began to lose the character of a living spoken language in England and gradually turned into a traditional official language (now the French language is assigned the role of official in the field of international document management
(like Latin - in the medical field)). In this regard, later borrowings are created primarily not from Anglo-French, but from Central French (Parisian or French), which prevailed in
XIII century.

As can be seen from the above examples, borrowings from the French language, in contrast to Scandinavian borrowings, were specific terms-names associated with new concepts introduced by the Norman conquerors. Most of these borrowings have remained on the periphery of the vocabulary and are unique in their phonetic and structural features of the language: they constitute a large group of polysyllabic words, typical primarily for literary and scientific languages ​​and are characterized by a specific word-formation structure.
However, over time, some words have become common, everyday and commonly used: for example, face - face (la face), gay - cheerful (gai), hour - hour (l'heure), ink - ink (les encre), joy - joy (la jolie), letter - letter (la letter), money - money (la monnaie), pay - pay
(payer), river - river (la riviеre), table - table (la table), place (la place), large (large), change (changer), minute (la minute), second (la second), mountain ( la montagne), soil (le sol), air (l'air), flower (la fleur), fruit (le fruit).

Due to the fact that a huge number of lexical units were borrowed from French into English, many of which had a complex word-formation structure, the influence of the French language greatly affected the system of English word formation.
Certain French suffixes and prefixes found in borrowed words could be extracted from these words and used to form words from the original roots.
For example: the suffix –able, extracted from borrowings such as acceptable
– acceptable when accept – accept; suffix –ence – from difference, excellence, evidence, violence;

In addition, borrowings from French have increased the incidence of conversion in English. The fact is that there were many parallel borrowings from the same basis from the French language. In the English language system, they took shape in the paradigms of various parts of speech: honour - honor (honour: from Old French honur, honour) - honour - to honor (ca. honouren: from Old French honorer), etc.

However, it would be erroneous to assume that all pairs of words of French origin that are correlated by conversion in modern English represent parallel borrowings. Much more often, only one of the words was borrowed into English from French, and the other was created by conversion on the basis of this word only later: abuse - abuse, insult - formed from abuse - to mistreat, abuse, insult (ca. abusen - to abuse, to mistreat , insult, deceive: from old French abuser) and others.

At the same time, cases of conversion due to parallel borrowing from French and cases of conversion that arose on the basis of one French borrowing in the English language itself are outwardly no different from each other: let’s compare, on the one hand, honor – (to) honor; labor – (to) labor; note – (to) labor; note – (to) note; pain – (to) pain, etc., and on the other hand, abuse – (to) abuse; act – (to) act; direct – (to) direct, etc.
This once again proves that the distinction in the system of modern English between such cases as honor (honor) - honour (honor) and cases such as abuse (insult) - abuse (offend) on the basis of their different origins has no basis no reason. These cases have had different histories, but at present they stand in exactly the same relationship, and therefore must be recognized as identical from the point of view of modern English.

Later borrowings from the French language are especially highlighted.

First of all, these borrowings are few in number. In addition, these borrowings for the most part have no or almost no parallel single-root formations, and often differ in their sound and spelling shell.

Borrowings from the French language continue to replenish the vocabulary to this day. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, they were predominantly bookish in nature. However, in the period immediately following the end of World War II, the English language borrowed French words as a result of the lively interaction between the American army and the French people.
The influence of French words on the vocabulary of the English language in recent times (end of the 20th century) is especially interesting. French borrowings appear in many areas of life. This includes politics, social life, sports and recreation. They saturate the English language with colors, make it special, and enliven it.

Despite the fact that modern English consists of approximately one-third words of Romance origin, it has not lost its originality as a Germanic language. A large number of French and other foreign borrowings not only enriched this language, but to some extent compensated for the insufficiently developed system of word-formation means for expressing new concepts or shades of meaning. Many borrowings from the French language were determined historically:

Words associated with feudal relations: feudal, baron, vassal, liege, chivalry (some of these words, which at that time reflected feudal ideology in their meaning, later received a general meaning: command, obey, serve, noble, glory, danger)

Almost all titles, with the exception of king, queen, earl, lord and lady, are of Norman-French origin.

Words related to public administration people, nation, government, power, authority, court, crown, etc.

Words related to monetary relations: money, property.

Words meaning family relationships: parent, spouse, cousin, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece.

A large number of military terms and words related to war. All names of military ranks.

There are numerous words meaning pleasure and entertainment: feast, leisure, pleasure, delight, ease, comfort, chase and many card terms: trump, ace, cards.

Legal terms: accuse, court, crime, felony, defendant, defendant, attorney, etc.

French words were used to describe the professions of artisans who served the feudal lords: tailor, butcher, painter, carpenter, joiner.

It must be pointed out that the Franks, Goths and Burgundians, who conquered the Romanized Gauls and adopted their language, brought many Germanic words into popular Latin. Therefore, it is not surprising that among French borrowings there are many words of Germanic origin: banner, blank, blanket, blue, choice, coat, dance, garden, gay, pocket, ticket, war. And the last thing that should be said in this paragraph: French borrowings can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from Latin ones, or more precisely, it is difficult to distinguish direct Latin borrowings from indirect ones. For example, the word figure could come directly from Latin
(figura) and from French (figure).

2.3. Borrowings from Latin

Even before the settlement of the Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes on
In the British Isles, there were trade relations between these tribes and the Romans, which left some traces in their languages. The borrowings of this period, which is commonly called the first period of Latin borrowings, reflect the nature of the cultural, economic and military relations of the Roman and Germanic tribes. New words usually express new concepts that arose in connection with the introduction to the higher culture of the Roman people of this period. Such borrowings include the following words: port (Lat. portus), cycene (kitcen) from Lat. coquina, piper (pepper) from Lat.
Piper et al. The assumption that these words were borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons even before moving to the British Isles is based on comparative historical analysis. By comparing the lexical composition of various Germanic languages ​​and dialects, comparative historical linguistics has established the commonality of many words of Latin origin in these languages. Naturally, the assumption arose that the Anglo-Saxons brought these words with them. However, the presence of many of these words in the language of the Celts, with whom the Anglo-Saxons came into contact on the islands, does not make it possible to accurately establish, due to the lack of monuments, whether these words came into Old English directly from the Latin language or were borrowed from the Celtic language already in territory of Britain.

The bulk of Latin borrowings are associated with the introduction of Christianity in 597. Most of these borrowings express church and religious concepts. The general rise of culture associated with the introduction of Christianity entailed the emergence of new concepts that needed appropriate linguistic design. New words appeared from the Latin language, denoting concepts from the sphere of culture and everyday life.
Let us give examples of Latin words that found their way into Old English and have been preserved in modern English.

1. Household items, tools, implements: ancor (anchor) from

Lat. ancora; box (box) from Lat. buxus; cealc (chalk) from Lat. calcem; paper (paper) from Lat. paryrus; pyle (pillow) from Lat. pulvinus; post

(post) from Lat. postis; purs (purse) from Lat. bursa; sicol (sikle) from

2. Items of clothing: cappe (cap) from Lat. cappa; socc (sock) from Lat. soccus.

3. Measures of weight and length: circul (circle) from Lat. circulus; pund (pound) from Lat. pondo; ynce (inch) from Lat. incia.

4. Names of animals, birds and fish: assa (ass) from Lat. asinus; camel

(camel) from Lat. camelus; turtle (turtle) from Lat. turtur; really

(trout) from Lat. tructa.

5. Plant names: palm (palm) from Lat. palma; pere (pear) from Lat. pirum; rose (rose) from Lat. Rosa; lilie (lily) from Lat. lilium; plante (plant) from Lat. planta

6. Words related to religious concepts: engel (angel) from Lat. angelus; biscop (bishop) from Lat. episcopus; cyrice (church) from Lat. cyriaca; munuc (monk) from Lat. monachus; nunne

(nun) from Lat. nonna; papa (pope) from Lat. papa.

In total, according to the calculations of the English linguist Bo, by the end of the Old English period there were about 450 Latin borrowings, not counting derivative words and proper names.
A significant number of Latin words entered the English language during the 11th-
XIII centuries, during the Norman conquest. However, these words, for the most part, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.

The largest number of words borrowed by the English language from Latin are so-called book borrowings. These are words that entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less susceptible to all kinds of changes, especially semantic ones. This is logical to explain by the fact that book borrowings, over a long period of time, are limited to the scope of their use
- literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.
Most of the Latin book borrowings in English occur during the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, during the Renaissance in England. In the works of Wycliffe[x], Langland, and Chaucer, there are over a thousand Latin words that have not previously been attested in English. During the Renaissance, words from the fields of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms, etc. appeared. A list of these words cannot be given within short chapter. To do this you need to compile a special dictionary.

Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological characteristics, for example, verbs with the suffix –ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of the first conjugation, such as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix –ute- in the infinitive, obtained from the stem of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of the third conjugation, such as prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with stems -ant- and -ent-, for example, evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.

The subsequent centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases these are so-called
“learned words”, often preserving the features of the morphological character of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.

Finally, in modern English there are also borrowings that have completely retained their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotations from the Latin language.
The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in scientific prose styles, in business documents, and in elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include expressions such as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine qua non, and so on.

As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words by one language from another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages ​​come into contact.
This is precisely the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appear in English twice: once from French, once directly from Latin. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time, which is necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as new. The result is etymological French-Latin doublets.
Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be included among the Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later interpreted as word-forming morphemes.
However, in linguistic literature they are usually called borrowed affixes.

Thus, the Latin language had a significant influence on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, prepared the way for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological affinities. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word came into English from French or Latin.

Among the borrowed Latin words, a certain group of words stands out, which in one or another sound form, grammatical design and semantic content can be found in a number of languages ​​- international words. It was the Latin language that gave the most significant number of such words. This is explained by the fact that Latin in the era of feudalism was for many countries of Western Europe the international language of science, and in some countries it was even a literary language. The Latin language retained its significance as the language of science until the 17th-18th centuries. Modern medicine, chemistry, botany, zoology, philosophy, politics, and art still widely use Latin bases to denote newly emerging concepts.
Of the Latin words borrowed by the English language and which are international words, the following words can be mentioned: obligation, constitution, alibi, agriculture, microscope, modern, laboratory, program, system, socialism, communism, capitalism, climate, radius, tradition and so on.

Words that date back to the period of borrowing before 800 may have entered English through the Celtic language and were associated with the Roman rule that lasted for the first four centuries AD.
Britain, or get into the language of the Angles and Saxons on the continent. Be that as it may, they testify to a higher material culture of the Romans than that of the Celtic and Germanic tribes of that time and mean specific things and concepts previously unknown to the Anglo-Saxons.
E.g.: port – lat. portus, wall port – lat. vallum, wine shaft – Old English. win, lat. vinum, mile wine – OE mil, lat. milia (passuum), a thousand (steps).

The abundance of borrowings in the English language has led to the formation of a large number of doublets. Doublets are two or more words that have a common root and common origin, but which, developing in different ways, receive slightly different sound design and meaning. E.g. derivatives from the verb facere: factor, factory, faculty, defect, defeat.

Many Latin names have been preserved in toponymy. Yes, lat. castrum fortification, fort, had a plural, castra with the grammatically related meaning camp, whence OE. ceaster and modern – caster, Chester in different geographical names. For example: Lancaster,
Dorchester, Manchester, Winchester.

All words in this group were borrowed orally, completely assimilated and included in the main vocabulary of the English language. At the same time, they submitted to the grammatical structure of the English language, losing those grammatical forms that were characteristic of them in the Latin language, and also submitted to all those natural phonetic changes that occurred in the words of the English language throughout its history.

There is another group of Latin borrowings: they are carried out not orally, but in books, and denote mainly abstract concepts: basis, area, crisis, idea, ratio, stimulus. There are many verbs and adjectives among them: operate, cultivate, demonstrate, evolve, educate, admit, permit, complete, accept, affect, locate, separate, senior, junior, minor, inferior, exterior, superior, dependant.

The most important features of words of Latin-Romance origin are the following: the predominance of disyllabic and polysyllabic stems with prefixes, and the prefixes end in a consonant: ab-, ad-, corn-, dis-, ex-, in-, im-, il-, sub-; doubling consonants: bb, cc, ft, 11, mm, nn, pp, rr, ss, tt.

2.4. Loanwords from Celtic languages

As is known, the Germanic tribes - the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who moved to the British Isles in the 5th century, met with the original population of these islands - the Celtic tribes. However, due to the low cultural and economic development of the tribes, the influence of the Celtic languages ​​on Old English was negligible. This influence actually amounted to the borrowing of several words from the Celtic languages, which have been preserved in modern English to the present day. A relatively larger number of Celtic words were borrowed into English in later periods from Gaelic (Ireland) and Scots. As examples of early borrowings from their Celtic languages, the following words can be mentioned: bard - bard, singer, poet; bin - bag, basket (for wine, grain); brat - child, shoot, offspring; brock - badger; down- hill; dun - grayish brown.

Moreover, most early period Borrowings from Celtic languages ​​also include Latin words borrowed by Celtic tribes from Latin during the period of the Roman conquest of the British Isles.

But since these words came into English from Celtic languages, they are naturally regarded as Celtic borrowings. These are words such as: bannock - unleavened cake; cross - cross; pillion - saddle cushion; plaid - plaid.

Some place names are also early Celtic loanwords into English, for example: Aberdeen, Ben Lomond, Dunbar,
Kildare, Dunstable, Billigshurt.
From later borrowings, we can mention the following words that penetrated into the English language from the Welsh, Irish and Scottish languages: coracle - a fishing boat woven from willow and covered with leather; cromlech - cromlech (Celtic structure of the Bronze Age); eisteddfod - a collection of Welsh bards; flannel - flannel; flummery - a dish made from wheat or oats; also any sweet dish made from flour, eggs and sugar.

All these words are borrowed by English from Welsh.
(Celtic group). With the exception of the last two words, all of them are a kind of rarities, that is, rarely used words.

From another Celtic language - Scottish, the following words came into English: сlan - clan, clan (in Scotland); claymore - an old broadsword (Scottish highlanders); сrag - rock, cliff; glen - narrow valley; loch - lake, narrow sea bay; veel - the name of a fast (Scottish) dance; slogan - slogan, appeal tartan - checkered woolen material;
The following words were borrowed from the Irish language: banshee - a spirit whose groans foreshadowed death; bog - swamp, quagmire; galore - in abundance shamrock - shamrock shillelagh - baton spalpen - slacker tory - tory, conservative

2.5. Borrowings from Russian

Borrowings from the Russian language, especially in the post-October era, require special consideration.
In English, as in other Germanic languages, even in ancient times there were words that had common roots with words of Slavic languages, and, apparently, were borrowed from the dialects of Slavic tribes in
XII century. These are words such as: honey, milk, hemp, plow and others, Old English: meodu, modern. English mean; Old English henap, modern English hemp; Old English meolk, modern English milk; Old English ploz, modern English plow.

An early borrowing from the Russian language includes the word sable
(sable). In the period of the XII-XIII centuries, as is known, sable fur occupied an important place as a product of exchange, performing the function of a monetary unit. In English dictionaries this word was recorded already in the 14th century, and, in addition to the meaning of the noun “sable”, it is also given in the meaning of the adjective
"black".

A large number of Russian borrowings in the English language appear, however, already in the 16th century, after the establishment of more regular economic and political ties between Russia and England.

The Russian words that penetrated into the English language at that time in their meaning are various kinds of names of trade items, names of ruling, class, officials and subordinates, institutions, names of household items and geographical names.
During this period and somewhat later, Russian words such as beluga, sterlet, rouble, pood, czar, ztarosta, moujik, kvass, shuba, vodka, samovar, troika, babushka, pirozhki were borrowed.

Some special terms also creep in. For example: siberite (a special type of ruby), uralite (asbestos slate). Many of these words have entered the English vocabulary and are used by English writers.

In the 19th century, with the growth of the people's democratic liberation movement in Russia, words appeared in the English language that reflected this socio-political movement. For example, Decembrist - Decembrist, nihilist - nihilist, nihilism, nihilistic, narodnik, intelligentsia. Of course, the roots of such words as nihilist, Decembrist, intelligentsia are Latin. However, these words are borrowings from the Russian language, since they arose in
Russia, in connection with certain phenomena of Russian reality and as such penetrated into other languages.

In addition to the above-mentioned words, during the period of the 18th-19th centuries. Other Russian words are also penetrating into the English language. Many of these words, such as ispravnik, miroed, obrok, barshina and others, are currently historical terms in Russian and are found in English only in historical descriptions or in historical novels. Russian borrowings that have penetrated into the vocabulary of the English language, like any other borrowings, are transformed in their sound appearance and grammatical structure, obeying the internal laws of development of the English language. This can be clearly seen in the example of such words as kopeck, knout, sterlet and others, the sound appearance of which is transformed according to the laws of English pronunciation. The plural of most nouns borrowed from the Russian language is formalized in English according to the grammatical norms of the English language - stepspes, sables and the like.

Many borrowed Russian words form derivatives based on word-formation models of the English language - narodism, nihilistic, to knout, sable (as an adjective) and so on.

In the “pre-October” period, words were borrowed mainly related to the peculiarities of Russian nature and life and items of trade with
Russia: sable sable; astrakhan karakul; sterlet sterlet; steppe steppe; verst verst; izba hut, etc.

Among them there are phonetic borrowings, where a new sound complex is borrowed for a new concept: Soviet, sputnik, bolshevik, kolkhoz, activist, agitprop and so-called calques, i.e. a literal translation of elements of Russian words and expressions while preserving the morphological structure: house of rest or translations, sometimes even explanatory translations: shock-worker, five-year-plan, collective-farm woman (collective farmer).

Only towards the end of the 19th century, words associated with the growth of the socio-political movement “leaked” into the English language, as well as into other languages ​​of the world, from the Russian language. During the 20th century, we observe Russian words in the English language, indicating the interest of the English people in political events in Russia.

Russian borrowings also played a big role in improving modern philosophical and political terminology of all languages, including English.

2.6. Borrowings from German

The English vocabulary contains a significant number of words borrowed from the German language. At the same time, there are not so many German vocabulary units that are part of the English vocabulary.
The fact is that a very large number of words borrowed from the German language and related to the field of science are formations from Latin and Greek roots, that is, these are, in fact, international words, although they were borrowed from German sources. Many Greek and Latin words have become international prefixes. For example, anti-, counter-, inter-, sub, ultra-, Greek suffixes are widely used in all languages: -ist, -ism, -isk.

Borrowings from the German language, first of all, include words that express concepts of a socio-political and philosophical nature. Most of them took shape in English in translated form, that is, in the form of tracing paper. The tracing of a number of phrases and complex words of the German language was facilitated by the close relationship of the German and English languages.

The first borrowings from the German language date back to the 16th century. During this period, words related to trade and military affairs were borrowed; names of some plants; words characterizing people and others.
For example: halt (stop!), lance-knight (landsknecht), kreuzer (kreuzer, name of the coin), junker (cadet).

Already in the 16th century, active development of ore deposits began in England and metallurgy developed. Germany at that time was an advanced country in mining and metallurgical industry. From Germany to
Mining specialists arrive in England. During the reign of Elizabeth I
Tudor organized two industrial companies led by Germans. It is very likely that as a result direct communication With people speaking German, there was first an oral borrowing of German words.
These words appear in written documents no earlier than the 17th century. Mining terms such as zinc, bismut, cobalt and others came into English from German.

In the 17th century, new borrowings appeared from the field of trade and military affairs. For example, groschen (pennies); drillinq(training); plunder
(robbery); staff (headquarters); fieldmarshal (field marshal) and others.

In the 18th century, the influence of the German language turned out to be weaker than in the previous century. This is obviously due to the general political and economic decline of Germany after the Thirteen Years' War.

In the second half of the 18th century, the following words related to the field of geology, mineralogy and mining were borrowed: iceberq, wolfram, nickel, qletscher.

In the 19th century, the scope of borrowing expanded significantly. A number of borrowings from the humanities, social life and politics appear.
Many terms are borrowed (from the fields of chemistry and physics, philology, art). Many of these borrowings are calques or are international words. Words related to lexicology are, for example: ibdogermanic (Indogermanisch), Middle English
(Mittelenglisch), umlaut, ablaut, grade (Grad), breaking, folk etymology
(Folksetymologie), vowel0shift (Lauterverschieburg), loanword (Lehnwort).

Words denoting products and household items: marzipan, kohl-rabi, schnapps, kummel, kirsch, vermuth.
Words from the field of music: leitmotiv, kapellmeister, claviatur, humovresgue.

Animal names: spits, poodle.

Borrowings of the 20th century are characterized by a noticeable predominance of words related, directly or indirectly, to war. In the period after the year, a number of words are borrowed to denote concepts and realities that appeared during the Hitler regime. The most famous of them: Black Shirt (Schwarhemd), Brown Shirt
(Braunhemd), der Euhrer, gauleiter, Gestapo, Hitlerism, Nazi, Stormtroopers
(Stumabteilung), the Third Reich (third empire), blitzkrieg, bunker,
Luftwaffe, Wehrmacht.

2.7. Borrowings from Dutch

The vocabulary of the English language reflects the close trade, military and economic ties between England and the Netherlands, maintained over a long historical period. All English trade until the 16th century was limited to the Baltic and
North Seas. Lively communications were maintained between English ports and the ports of the Hanseatic League. A large number of words related to shipbuilding, navigation, and trade were borrowed from the Dutch language during that period.

Another group of borrowings reflects the military relations, both allied and hostile, between the two countries.

The largest group of borrowings consists of words reflecting economic ties between England and the Netherlands. Some words were borrowed from the first Dutch settlers in North America. A number of borrowings are associated with the colonization of South Africa by the Dutch. Colonial conquests are also associated with the borrowing of a number of words from the languages ​​of the colonial population, which entered the English vocabulary through the Dutch language. Finally, a small group of borrowings relates to the field of art.

The earliest borrowing from Dutch is the word pack
(bale, package) - 1225 g.

The largest number of borrowings from the Dutch language entered the English vocabulary during the 14th-17th centuries. Of these, the most famous are the following: bulwark (bastion); ledger (accounting book); keel
(keel); freight (freight); hose (hose); skipper (skipper); rover (pirate); deck (deck); spool (spool); nap (nap on cloth).

The 17th century became the heyday of the famous Flemish school of painting. This is reflected in the vocabulary of the English language in the form of a number of borrowings related to art, for example: easel
(easel); landscape (landscape); sketch (sketch).

2.8. Borrowings from Italian language

Economic and political ties between England and Italy began to develop rapidly in the 14th century. The English economy was linked to Italian manufacturing, which could not exist without English wool.
Preparations for the Hundred Years' War were carried out by Edward III with the money of Florentine bankers. These economic and political connections are reflected in the vocabulary of the English language, which, starting in the 14th century, borrows Italian words related to trade, manufacturing and warfare.

However, the Italian language had its strongest influence during the era
Renaissance. We know the importance that literature and art
There were revivals for the entire European culture. England also experienced this influence. Acquaintance with Italian literature of this period, travel to Italy, study of its painting, sculpture and architecture, interest in Italian music, in the country itself, all this was reflected in a number of borrowings from the Italian language.

It should be noted that, due to the wide distribution of Italian borrowings in European languages, some Italian words were borrowed into English not directly, but through other languages.
For example, barouche (Italian word baroccio - baroque); cohl-rabi (Italian cavoli rape - kohlrabi) are borrowed from the German language. Most Italian words before the 16th century were borrowed through French, and only from the 16th century did borrowings appear directly from the Italian language.

The earliest (XIV-XV centuries) borrowings relate to trade and military affairs. Thus, the following words were borrowed from the field of trade and finance: ducat, million, pombard. From the field of military affairs and navigation: alarm
(alarm), brigand (bandit), bark (barge).

In the 16th century, economic ties with Italy gave rise to new borrowings: carat (carat), traffic (traffic), porcelain (porcelain), contraband (smuggling), bankrupt (bankrupt), soldo (soldo), battalion, squadron, citadel, pistol.
However, the largest number of words borrowed from the Italian language are associated with the field of art (literature, painting, music, architecture).
For example: sonnet, stanza, motto, model, miniature, madonna, fresco.

Other borrowings from this period: bandit, biretta, mustachio, lottery, bravo, duel, cavalcade, escort, artichoke, gondola.
In the 17th century, the number of borrowings related to public life, trade, as well as art and music increases, for example: manifesto, intrigue, bulletin, risk, umbrella, balcony, corridor, pedal, solo, opera, vivace, piano, largo, allegro, grotto, volcano, cascade.

In the 18th century, the continuing fascination with Italian musical culture caused a new influx of musical terms from the Italian language during this period, words such as soprano, falsetto, viola, cantata, mandolin, trombone, trio, fantasia, aria, tempo, obligate, crescendo, andante appeared.
Words were borrowed from other types of art: picturesque, costume, terracotta, dilettante.

In the 19th century, some words were borrowed to reflect the political struggle in Italy. For example, carbonary, cammorra. The group of borrowings related to science is increasing, however, the largest number of borrowings, as in the previous two centuries, came from the field of music and art. Examples include the following words: sonatina, cavatina, legato, prima donna, diva, fiasco, studio, replica.

Borrowings from the early 20th century include: autostrada, duce and fascist (the latter word is related to the Latin word fasces - the name of the emblem executive power in Ancient Rome (a bunch of birch twigs with an ax stuck in the middle)).

It is worth adding that in English, as in a number of other European languages, some Italian phraseological combinations are used, for example, sotto voce (in a whisper, in an undertone), traditori and others.

2.9. Borrowings from Spanish

Like loanwords from Italian, Spanish loanwords began appearing in English in the 16th century. Historical events that caused an influx of borrowings are associated with the Great Geographical Discoveries of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. What followed the discovery of America
(1492) and the opening of the sea route to India (1498) development of trade, colonization of South and North America the Spaniards and, subsequently, the cooperation of England with Spain led to the borrowing of a number of Spanish words, as well as words from the languages ​​of the people who were colonized.

The earliest borrowings associated with the Spanish language entered the English vocabulary back in the 19th century through the French language.
Some of them are words of Arabic origin, reflecting trade relations with the East and the influence of Eastern culture, for example, cotton, zenith. In the 15th century, several more such borrowings were made: lemon, tare (container) - directly from Spanish.

In the 16th century, close economic and political ties between Spain and
England, on the one hand, and Spain and France, on the other, contributed to the penetration of a number of Spanish words into the English language, both directly from Spanish and through French.

In the first half of the 16th century, thanks to dynastic ties between
Between England and Spain there were many Spaniards in England, from whom the English learned a number of words related to Spanish morals and trade. The military conflict between the two countries at the end of the 16th century also left its traces in the English vocabulary.

From Spanish borrowings of this period, the following words can be cited as examples: infanta, don, hidalgo, renegade, bravado, armada, comrade, mulatto, mosquito.
Of the most famous words borrowed in the 17th century, we cite the following: cargo, guitar, castanet, toreador, matador, duena, dona, embargo, parade, escapade.

Among the borrowings made in the 18th century, one can note the names of Spanish dances, games and foods, items of clothing, and socio-political terms. For example, quadrille, bolero, picador, marinade, caramel, flotilla, cigar.

Most borrowings from Spanish in the 19th century were made in the North and South America. Some of these borrowings entered the English vocabulary through American literature. Among these borrowings we can mention: querilla (root of Germanic origin: werra-war), cigarette, lasso, mustang.

As can be seen from the above examples, most borrowings from the Spanish language retain their appearance and are usually used in English for stylistic purposes, most often to give “local flavor” to the narrative. Among the Spanish words that have firmly entered the vocabulary of the English language and are no longer perceived as barbarisms, the following words can be distinguished: cotton, zenith, renegade, grenade, alligator, banana, cargo, guitar, guerilla, cigarette, cafeteria, tango, rumba.

Recent and widely used loanwords include dinero, macho, amigo, gringo, el nino(a) and others.

2.10. Borrowings from Portuguese

Borrowings from the Portuguese language are almost entirely associated with trade relations that arose as a result of geographical discoveries. Compared to Spanish, borrowings from Portuguese are not as numerous.
Just like from the Spanish language, words were borrowed to denote new concepts and realities associated with the life and customs of the indigenous population of the colonies, with the flora and fauna of these colonies, as well as words denoting new items of trade.

Some Portuguese words have been borrowed through French. Through the Portuguese language, words were also borrowed from the languages ​​of the peoples of Brazil, Guiana, Africa, India and others.

Of the few borrowings from the Portuguese language, we will only mention the following: marmalade, flamingo, madeira, buffalo, coco(nut), port
(wine), guinea, caste, mandarin.

2.11. Borrowings from Arabic

Borrowings from Arabic reflect the diverse cultural and trade ties between Europe and the East. Long Arab occupation of Spain
(VIII-XV centuries), Crusades (XI-XIII centuries), opening of the sea route to
India and the defeat of the Great Armada (late 16th century), which served as an incentive to revive England's trade with the East, and, in the modern era, the colonization and subjugation of a number of Arab countries to English influence - all these historical events left their mark on the vocabulary of the English language in the form of borrowings related to trade with Arab countries, their way of life and natural conditions.
Particularly noteworthy is the influence that the culture of the ancient Arabs had on the development of culture and science in medieval Europe. In the era of the early Middle Ages, in the age of scholasticism, when scientific thought in Europe froze, when the connection with the heritage of the ancient Greeks was severed, science moved forward in the East. The ancient Arabs achieved significant success in the fields of mathematical sciences, astronomy, and medicine.

With the beginning of the Renaissance, interest in the scientific achievements of the East arose in Europe. The teaching of Arabic is being introduced at universities (including Oxford), and the works of Eastern scientists written in Arabic are being studied and translated.
It should be noted that just as Latin was the language of scientists in medieval Europe, Arabic was the language of science for the ancient East.
Some Arabic words were borrowed from medieval Latin and from there found their way into English. At the same time, a number of Persian and Indian words, as well as some words of Greek origin, were borrowed through Arabic. A number of borrowings from Arabic entered the English vocabulary through: Italian, Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, and French. Borrowings from the field of science relate mainly to the XIV-XVI centuries.

Here are some examples of borrowings from Arabic: caliph, mameluke, shekh, hashish, nadir.

The following words of Arabic origin were borrowed through the French language: caliber, sultan, magazine.

Via Italian: algebra, carat, tariff.

Via Portuguese: apricot.

Via Latin: alcohol.
The word assassin, borrowed by English through Italian, means “hashish-eating” and is associated with the fact that people who attempted to kill the leaders of the crusaders first intoxicated themselves with hashish.

2.12. Borrowings from Persian

Borrowings from Persian entered the English language different ways. Prevalence of the Persian language in ancient world led to the borrowing of Persian words by languages ​​such as Arabic, Urdu
(or Hindi), Turkish, Greek. Thanks to trade with Persia, Persian words were borrowed into Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and French. Of all these languages, Persian words found their way into the English language at appropriate periods in history. Direct borrowings from the Persian language date back to modern times, that is, from the end of the 15th century onwards to the present day.

The earliest borrowings from Persian date back to the Old English period and penetrated into English through Greek and Latin. During the Middle English period, borrowings came through the French language.
Subsequently, during the early modern English period, several Persian words were borrowed through medieval Latin. Direct borrowings begin in the 16th century.

The earliest borrowings include words borrowed from the ancient Persian language by Greek, and from it penetrated into the English language: satrap, tiard. These words reflect concepts related to the reign of
Darius 6th century BC) In the 13th century, the word scarlet was borrowed through the French language.
In the 14th century, the following words were borrowed through French: tiger, azure, and through Latin - arsenic, salamander.

In connection with the development of English trade that followed the opening of the sea route to India, the British came into direct contact with Persian-speaking peoples. It should also be taken into account that the main language of India itself, Hindi, contains a very large number of Persian words, and thus Persian words were borrowed by the British in India. The result of direct acquaintance with Persia and
India borrowed words characterizing the local situation: shah, dervich, toman, divan, caravan, bazaar, caravan serai, padichah, dinar, shawl.

2.13. Borrowings from Indian languages

The bulk of borrowings from Indian languages ​​are words from Urdu and Hindi.

The beginning of the penetration of borrowings from Indian languages ​​dates back to the 16th century and is associated with the first steps of England towards the “development” of the fabulous riches of India, which became more accessible thanks to the opening of the sea route to this country. However, the massive influx of Indian words refers to the following,
XVII century, at the very beginning of which the West Indian Campaign was organized, which marked the beginning of the enslavement of India and the plunder of its natural resources. Colonization began with the West Indian Campaign
India, English settlements were founded in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta. In a fierce struggle with France for the possession of India, England won, and India became part of the British Empire.

Borrowings from Indian languages ​​refer to social order, customs, national characteristics of life, trade and industry.

For example, nabob - nabob, maharadja (h) - maharajah, bungalow - bungalow, house with a veranda, jut - jute, jungle - jungle, cashmere - cashmere, pyjamas - pajamas.