period of the early Middle Ages. Byzantine science and education in the IV-VII centuries

Introduction

The Middle Ages is usually understood as the period from the decline of ancient culture (in the 5th century) to the Renaissance, which is about 10 centuries. In the history of Europe, this period is referred to only as "gloomy", meaning the general decline of civilization, the collapse of the Roman Empire, the invasion of barbarians, the penetration of religion into all spheres of spiritual culture. But the strengthening of the role of religion in the life of society is rather not the cause of "gloom", but its consequence and, moreover, a means of protecting humanity from degradation. Christianity, which arose in the 1st century, and later Islam, created harmony in society and was a powerful stabilizing factor. Churches and monasteries provided the necessary level of literacy and education. Reading and copying learned books was an obligatory occupation in the monasteries. Significant monastic libraries were created there, preserving the scientific heritage. The monasteries exchanged handwritten books, learned monks not only commented on the texts of ancient manuscripts, but also summarized knowledge, collected together the works of scientists from various scientific schools and directions. Religious education assumed high morality, the formation of ideals of goodness and justice.

Science of Byzantium

Christianity was born of the depravity of the Roman Empire and the injustice reigning there. Having arisen among the common people, Christianity relatively quickly took possession of the minds of educated progressive statesmen. Constantine the Great issued the Edict of Milan in 313 on religious tolerance, according to which Christians were able to openly profess their faith. Renouncing paganism, the emperor moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium. Soon, in 325, the Roman Empire was divided into two parts: western and eastern, with capitals Rome and Byzantium. Each part of the former unified empire was ruled by its own emperor. Later, Byzantium was renamed in honor of Constantine the Great to Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist in 476 AD, when its last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by the troops of the Germanic tribe of the Skirs. The Eastern Roman Empire - Byzantium existed for about a thousand years.

The Christian Church already in the 3rd century was a centralized system with supreme control and was a powerful and influential political organization that had become a stronghold of state power since the time of Constantine. Byzantium existed as a Christian empire, the only one capable of preserving the legacy of antiquity. Constantinople was the last stronghold of civilization. In the libraries of his monasteries, the poems of Homer and the works of Aristotle were kept. In the middle of the 9th century, under the leadership of Bishop Leo (beginning of the 9th century - 869), nicknamed the Mathematician, a higher school was opened in the Magnava Palace. The old books kept in the monasteries were collected in the Magnava school. Monk Photius compiled a collection with retellings and comments of 280 ancient manuscripts. For his scholarship, Photius was awarded the rank of patriarch, and Emperor Basil entrusted him with the upbringing of his son. Lev the Mathematician in his works on mechanics and mathematics was the first to use letters as mathematical symbols, thus coming close to the foundation of algebra. Mathematical knowledge was used by the Byzantines in practice, in particular, in the construction of an outstanding building - the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople. The architecture of the temple, its mosaic testify to the flourishing of the arts and the perfection of Byzantine technology in the 6th century.

Extensive trade relations of Byzantium reached China, India, Ceylon. Inquisitive Byzantine travelers acquired knowledge of geography, zoology, and the history of countries little known in Europe. These researchers include Cosmas Indikovleft - the author of "Christian topography" (VI century). In the field of cosmology, the Ptolemaic system of the world had the greatest influence, although there were attempts to return to earlier ideas about the flat shape of the Earth. Chemical knowledge was used in handicraft production, in pharmacology. In general, we know very little about the scientific and technical achievements of Byzantium. This is due to the devastation, robberies, destruction of monuments of science and culture, which were the result of the invasion of external enemies of Byzantium.

The Eastern Roman Empire was predominantly a Greek state, overwhelmingly Christian, and outlived the Western Empire for a long time.

The name of the empire "Byzantine" (from the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which Emperor Constantine I the Great founded Constantinople) was introduced into use by Renaissance humanists after its fall, who did not dare to call it Roman. Despite the rather dubious choice of name, the term "Byzantine Empire" is widely used in modern historical science. The inhabitants of the eastern Roman Empire themselves called themselves "Romans" (ρωμαίοι), that is, "Romans", and the empire - "Romean" or "Romania" (Ρωμανία). Western contemporaries called it the "Empire of the Greeks" because of the decisive role of the Greek population and culture in it . In Russia, it was also usually called the "Greek Kingdom".

Byzantine science had a powerful impact on many neighboring countries and peoples. Spiritual life in Byzantium was of a complex, contradictory nature, combining ancient pagan traditions and Christian worldview, which was reflected in the development of Byzantine science. Despite the fact that Christianity in the empire of the Romans was recognized as the state religion, a deep respect for the knowledge of ancient philosophy remained, since in the minds of the Byzantines their connection with the Greco-Roman ancient world played an important role. At a time when barbarian Western Europe entered the "dark night of the Middle Ages", the Eastern Roman Empire turned out to be the only center of civilization and culture in all of Europe, providing a higher socio-economic and cultural level in the territories that fell into its sphere of influence.

Science in Byzantium was intricately interconnected by Christian teaching. At the same time, special interest was directed to ancient philosophy, and an attempt to develop it. Byzantine scientific thinking took shape in a contradictory environment of the assertion of the Christian worldview based on the ethical and natural-scientific views of antiquity. Thus, science was based on two different pictures of the world: pagan Hellenism, on the one hand, and official Christian doctrine, on the other.

Byzantine culture as a whole is characterized by the desire for systematization, which is characteristic of the Christian worldview in general, and also due to the influence of ancient Greek philosophy, primarily Aristotle, who set the trend towards classification. In Byzantium, works of a generalizing nature are being created, in which there is a classification and systematization of everything that has been achieved by that time in science. The main intellectual efforts of Byzantine scientists consisted in the formal study of newly rewritten texts, their compilation, fixing what had already been achieved, which led to encyclopedia. A lot of work was done to systematize and comment on ancient authors. Encyclopedias on history, agriculture, medicine are compiled, and rich ethnographic material is collected about the inhabitants of neighboring countries.

Science in Byzantium was understood in accordance with ancient tradition as speculative knowledge, as opposed to practical, empirical knowledge, which was considered a craft. Following the ancient model, all sciences were united under the name of philosophy - mathematics, natural science, ethics, grammar, rhetoric, logic, astronomy, music and jurisprudence, etc. John of Damascus divided philosophy into theoretical, relating to knowledge, and practical, relating to virtues. In the theoretical section, he included physics, mathematics, and theology, and in the practical section, ethics, economics (household ethics) and politics. He considered logic to be an instrument of philosophy. John of Damascus gave a systematic presentation of philosophical and logical concepts, as well as cosmological, psychological and other scientific information based on ancient writings.

It cannot be said that Byzantine scholars were engaged only in the passive processing of the ancient heritage. Not limited to the simple assimilation of knowledge acquired in previous centuries, the Byzantines made certain steps forward in a number of industries. For example, John Philopon came to the conclusion that the speed of the fall of bodies does not depend on their gravity; Leo the Mathematician was the first to use letters as algebraic symbols.

With the growth of provincial cities, the rise of handicraft production, greater importance began to be given to the development of knowledge aimed at solving practical problems in the field of medicine, agriculture, and construction.

Shipbuilding, architecture, mining industry successfully developed. There is an accumulation of practical knowledge, caused by the needs of navigation, trade. The natural sciences are developing, which is accompanied by an expansion of ideas about nature. The rise of scientific knowledge is associated with the emergence of rationalism in the philosophical thought of Byzantium.

Representatives of the rationalist trend in Byzantine theology and philosophy tried to reconcile faith and reason, just like the Western European scholastics. In an effort to combine faith with reason, they stated that in order to approach the comprehension of God, it is necessary to study the world around him, which is why they introduced natural scientific knowledge into theology. Rationalism was accompanied by a new stage in the comprehension of the ancient heritage. Blind faith based on authority is being replaced by the study of the causality of phenomena in nature and society.

One of the most prominent figures of the rationalist movement is Michael Psellos. The writings of Psellos are permeated with the desire to master and use the ancient heritage, to provide it with a worthy place in the system of the Christian worldview. Even describing the world of spiritual essences of the Christian doctrine, Psellus uses statements about the nature of the soul of Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus. Psellos dealt with the problems of natural science and cosmology. Moreover, theology almost does not interfere with the questions of natural science in Psellos. In his opinion, sciences should take from mathematics its numerical method and geometric proof, which have the property of logically forcing the recognition of propositions as true or false.

The ideas of the rationalists were condemned by the church, and were not widely adopted in Byzantium. Unlike Western Europe, rationalism did not become the leading trend in Byzantine theological and philosophical thought.

Despite the general speculative tradition dating back to antiquity, practical science in Byzantium managed to achieve certain results in solving many utilitarian problems, which for a long time ensured the material and technical superiority of the empire. The most famous example in the literature is the so-called "Greek fire" used in military affairs, which was a mixture of oil and sulfur.

Mining was actively developing in the empire as a branch of science and technology, covering a complex of processes of exploration, extraction from the bowels and primary processing of minerals. Using the experience gained in the ancient period, building, finishing and semi-precious stones, sulfur, saltpeter, iron, copper, lead ores, silver, gold, mercury, and tin were mined in Byzantium. The degree of development of metallurgy is an important indicator of the technical and economic level of the country, since it is a very extensive area of ​​\u200b\u200beconomics, science and technology, covering the processes of obtaining metals, changing their chemical and physical composition and giving certain forms. Byzantium produced copper, tin, lead, mercury, zinc oxide, silver and gold. Non-ferrous metals and their alloys were used in shipbuilding, agriculture, handicrafts, and military affairs. The production of ferrous metals - cast iron, steel, iron - was the leading branch of the Byzantine economy, along with agriculture.

A characteristic feature of Byzantine production and urban crafts was a comprehensive state regulation. On the one hand, government support

ensured the protection of handicraft corporations, the presence of state orders, safety on the roads and in the cities of the empire, on the other hand, the workshops lost their independence and fell under the strict control of the central government, which led to a loss of initiative and stagnation in development. Contradictory consequences for the development and implementation of practical knowledge had the installation of the Byzantines to preserve the ancient heritage. Initially, it allowed Byzantium to remain the most advanced state in Europe until the 12th century in the production of ceramics, glass, construction, shipbuilding, and so on. But over time, a rigid orientation towards the preservation of ancient traditions inevitably became a brake on technical development, and the majority of Byzantine crafts gradually lagged behind Western European ones.

Education in the empire was given special importance.

The reign of Justinian I was marked by a struggle against paganism, in particular, in 529 he closed the Platonic Academy in Athens, where the pagans studied and taught classical Greek philosophy. Pagans, Jews and heretics were forbidden to teach.

But, despite the persecution of pagan teachers, the loss of their pre-existing privileges, educational institutions continued to work. Constantinople University occupied a key place in the cultural life of the state, representing the largest educational and scientific center. Throughout the history of Byzantium, its inhabitants, in comparison with the inhabitants of medieval Western Europe, were generally significantly more educated. Byzantineschools were the most important source of knowledge about antiquity.

Of course, church literature gradually penetrated the educational programs of secular educational institutions. But, despite the teaching of some church disciplines, the schools remained secular, and the education system itself, especially in elementary school, was very close to the ancient one.

Not only the Psalter was studied, but also the works of Homer, Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, the works of Plato and Aristotle. For a better understanding of ancient works, students were given information on ancient history and mythology. In the treatise “For young men, how to read pagan writers with benefit,” Basil of Caesarea, although he calls for caution in reading the works of ancient authors and interpreting them in the light of Christian morality, he considers these works unconditionally useful.

It is interesting that the notebooks of Byzantine schoolchildren reveal a certain similarity with ancient textbooks. The students copied the same excerpts from ancient myths, the same maxims as the ancient Hellenes. The only difference is that in Byzantine notebooks, in addition to the usual exercises, sometimes there are verses from the Psalter, as well as an invocation to God at the beginning of the first sheet and a drawn cross at the beginning of each page. The school course consisted of the study of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics, law and music. The inclusion of music, or harmony, in school programs was explained by the fact that harmony was considered a science, which, along with mathematics and astronomy, helped to learn the eternal laws of the universe. At the same time, not only the quantitative properties of sounds were studied, but also their physical nature.

In the study of mathematics, the “Introduction to Arithmetic” by Nicomachus from Gerasa was used as the main manual. “Arithmetic” by Diophantus, “Beginnings” by Euclid, “Metrics” by Heron of Alexandria were used as teaching guides. In the study of astronomy as a science of numbers applied to moving objects, Claudius Ptolemy's Almagest was used. His own work "The Four Books" was used as a manual on astrology, which was also included in the teaching program. In the 7th century the textbook of Paul of Alexandria "Introduction to Astrology" became more popular.

Rhetoric played an important role. It was considered a means of development and improvement of the individual. There were no class restrictions on obtaining a rhetorical education, but only those who were able to pay for the rather expensive education in the schools of rhetoric could master it. The standard of style was Gregory the Theologian, who was placed above other speakers.

Primary schools in the empire functioned not only in cities, but also in rural areas. Higher education could only be obtained in large cities. The main center of education in the state was Constantinople. In 425, by decree of Emperor Theodosius II, a university was established in Constantinople. The number of teachers in it was determined - 31 people, of which 20 were grammarians, 8 orators, 2 teachers of law and 1 philosopher. They were considered state officials and received salaries from the imperial treasury. Theodosius, by means of special state acts, ensured the task of state control over students. Each student was obliged to submit documentary evidence of the origin, the state of his parents, it was required to indicate the sciences in which he intended to study, the address of residence in Constantinople.

Often the emperors not only assisted in the development of education, but were themselves fond of the sciences. Leo VI the Wise is known as a scholar who wrote a large number of secular and theological works. Caesar Varda founded a school in Magnavra, the leader was appointed the largest scientist of his time, Leo the Mathematician. The school was located in the palace, it taught philosophy, grammar, geometry and astronomy. Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was distinguished by versatile knowledge. By his order and with direct participation, many encyclopedias (about fifty) were compiled in various branches of knowledge. Emperor Constantine IX Monomakh created two schools: philosophy and law. Imperially attended classes, listened to and took notes of lectures.

Michael Psellos was appointed head of the philosophical school. He began his lectures with Aristotle's "Logic", after which he moved on to his "Metaphysics", and completed the course with an interpretation of the works of Plato, whom he considered the most significant thinker and even put on the same level with Gregory the Theologian.

The patronizing attitude of the emperors to education and science was explained not only and not so much by their love of knowledge, but by practical considerations, since the successful functioning of the Byzantine state apparatus required the presence of literate and educated people in the administrative structure of government.

Education served not to obtain certain knowledge and information, and, in the future, to generate new knowledge, but, first of all, to take a place in the bureaucratic structure corresponding to a certain qualification. Cognitive motivation in Byzantine society was weak, knowledge was not an end in itself, they were subject to the principles of the functioning of the bureaucratic machine.

The high qualification of civil servants for a long time provided the advantage of Byzantium in comparison with Western Europe. Not only the secular, but also the ecclesiastical administration was largely composed of those who had successfully completed school. School graduates, regardless of the social status of their parents, could become officials of the imperial or church office. Parents spared no money in order to pay teachers for their children.

(At the same time, the teachers themselves usually also received a salary from the state.) Theoretically, there was free access to the highest positions of the state apparatus, so everyone who had money for this studied. An extensive bureaucratic apparatus for its successful functioning needed educated and literate people, in connection with which, secular education acquired a special significance. This explains why the Byzantine schools, unlike those in Western Europe, were not subordinate to the church. Of course, along with secular schools, there were also church educational institutions. From the 9th century, for example, there was a theological school (patriarchal academy), the curriculum of which was focused on the interpretation of sacred texts. But students also studied rhetoric and other secular sciences.

Science (as well as other spheres of public life) in Byzantium was subjected to stateization, and organizational and managerial functions were taken over by the bureaucracy. Administrative regulations in the field of science and the production of information become one of the criteria for truth, which must correspond to formal requirements controlled by the bureaucracy. Bureaucratization and state regulation had dual consequences, and, in some cases, contributed to the development of Byzantine science and education, while in other conditions they became an obstacle to their development. Excessive formalization became a characteristic feature of Byzantine science, bureaucratization led to its ossification. The utilitarian attitude to science dominated: its goal was to educate students and process previously acquired knowledge. The prevailing attitude was that scientific wisdom can be found in the ancient past, of which the Byzantines considered themselves direct heirs. As a result, the formalized ancient heritage turned into the cause of stereotypical thinking, which did not give development to original scientific creativity.

The ancient classics, as well as the Bible, constituted the totality of all the necessary knowledge. The basis of knowledge was tradition, which, according to the Byzantines, turned to essence, while experience made it possible to get acquainted only with superficial manifestations of the surrounding world. Experiment and scientific observation were poorly developed. Ideas that could not be confirmed by bookish authority were perceived as rebellious.

Since the XIV century, pressure on the Byzantine Empire of the Ottoman Turks has constantly increased. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell. This rainy day marked the end of Byzantium, where for eleven centuries the science of the ancient past was carefully studied and preserved. The political decline of Byzantium led to an active transmission of scientific experience to the West, which became the most important factor that prepared the Western European Renaissance.

Throughout the early Middle Ages, the Byzantine Empire was the center of a bright and unique spiritual and material culture. Its originality lies in the fact that it combined Hellenistic and Roman traditions with the original culture dating back to ancient times not only of the Greeks, but also of many other peoples who inhabited the empire - Egyptians, Syrians, peoples of Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, tribes of the Crimea, as well as settled in the empire of the Slavs. The Arabs also had a certain influence on it. During the early Middle Ages, the cities of Byzantium remained centers of education, where, based on the achievements of antiquity, sciences and crafts, fine arts and architecture continued to develop. Trade and diplomatic relations of Byzantium stimulated the expansion of geographical and natural science knowledge. Developed commodity-money relations gave rise to a complex system of civil law and contributed to the rise of jurisprudence.

The entire history of Byzantine culture is colored by the struggle between the dominant ideology of the ruling classes and opposition currents expressing the aspirations of the broad masses of the people. In this struggle, on the one hand, the ideologists of church-feudal culture oppose each other, defending the ideal of subordinating the flesh to the spirit, man - religion, glorifying the ideas of strong monarchical power and a powerful church; on the other hand, representatives of freethinking, usually dressed in the clothes of heretical teachings, defending to a certain extent the freedom of the human person and opposing the despotism of the state and the church. Most often, these were people from the opposition-minded urban circles, small estate feudal lords, the lower clergy and the masses.

A special place is occupied by the folk culture of Byzantium. Folk music and dance, church and theatrical performances that retain the features of ancient mysteries, heroic folk epics, satirical fables that denounce and ridicule the vices of the lazy and cruel rich, cunning monks, corrupt judges - these are the diverse and vivid manifestations of folk culture. The contribution of folk craftsmen to the creation of monuments of architecture, painting, applied arts and artistic crafts is invaluable.

Development of scientific knowledge. Education

In the early period in Byzantium, the old centers of ancient education were still preserved - Athens, Alexandria, Beirut, Gaza. However, the attack of the Christian Church on ancient pagan education led to the decline of some of them. The scientific center in Alexandria was destroyed, the famous Library of Alexandria died during a fire, in 415 fanatical monasticism tore to pieces the outstanding woman scientist, mathematician and philosopher Hypatia. Under Justinian, the high school in Athens, the last center of ancient pagan science, was closed.

In the future, Constantinople became the center of education, where in the 9th century. Magnavra High School was created, in which, along with theology, secular sciences were also taught. In 1045, a university was founded in Constantinople, which had two faculties - law and philosophy. A higher medical school was also established there. Lower schools, both church-monastic and private, were scattered across the country. In large cities and monasteries there were libraries and skiptorias where books were copied.

The dominance of the scholastic theological worldview could not stifle scientific creativity in Byzantium, although it hindered its development. In the field of technology, especially handicrafts, thanks to the preservation of many ancient techniques and skills, Byzantium in the early Middle Ages was significantly ahead of the countries of Western Europe. The level of development of the natural sciences was also higher. In mathematics, along with the commentary of ancient authors, independent scientific creativity developed, fueled by the needs of practice - construction, irrigation, and navigation. In the IX-XI centuries. In Byzantium, Indian numerals in Arabic writing begin to be used. By the 9th century includes the activities of the largest scientist Leo Mathematician, who invented the light telegraph system and laid the foundations of algebra, using letter designations as symbols.

In the field of cosmography and astronomy, there was a sharp struggle between the defenders of ancient systems and supporters of the Christian worldview. In the VI century. Cosmas Indikoples (i.e., "sailing to India") in his "Christian topography" set the task of refuting Ptolemy. His naive cosmogony was based on the biblical notion that the Earth is a flat quadrilateral surrounded by an ocean and covered by a vault of heaven. However, ancient cosmogonic ideas are preserved in Byzantium and in the 9th century. Astronomical observations are made, although they are still very often intertwined with astrology. Byzantine scientists achieved significant success in the field of medicine. Byzantine physicians not only commented on the works of Galen and Hippocrates, but also summarized practical experience.

The needs of handicraft production and medicine stimulated the development of chemistry. Along with alchemy, the rudiments of genuine knowledge also developed. Ancient recipes for the production of glass, ceramics, mosaic smalt, enamels and paints were preserved here. In the 7th century In Byzantium, "Greek fire" was invented - an incendiary mixture that gives a flame that cannot be extinguished by water and even ignites when it comes into contact with it. The composition of the "Greek fire" was kept a deep secret for a long time, and only later it was established that it consisted of oil mixed with quicklime and various resins. The invention of "Greek fire" for a long time provided Byzantium with an advantage in naval battles and greatly contributed to its hegemony at sea in the fight against the Arabs.

The wide trade and diplomatic relations of the Byzantines contributed to the development of geographical knowledge. The "Christian Topography" by Kosma Indikoplov preserved interesting information about the animal and plant world, trade routes and the population of Arabia, East Africa, and India. Valuable geographical information contains the writings of Byzantine travelers and pilgrims of later times. In parallel with the expansion of geographical knowledge, there was an acquaintance with the flora and fauna of various countries, generalized in the works of Byzantine natural scientists. By the X century. includes the creation of an agricultural encyclopedia - Geoponics, which summarized the achievements of ancient agronomy.

At the same time, the desire to adapt the achievements of empirical science to religious ideas is increasingly manifested in Byzantine culture.

Byzantine geographers achieved success: they skillfully drew maps of the country and the seas, plans for city blocks and buildings, which was still unattainable for the West. At the beginning of this stage, scientific creativity did not stop in Byzantium. In the IV century. prominent mathematicians, researchers in the field of astronomy and astrology, as well as optics worked here. Significant advances were made in medicine. Doctor Oribasium(326-403) compiled a medical encyclopedia that included 70 books. It contained extensive extracts from the works of ancient physicians, as well as the author's own conclusions and generalizations.

After the establishment of Christianity as the state religion, the best representatives of science began to be persecuted. Hypatia perished, Oribasius managed to escape with difficulty. Scientific centers were destroyed: in 489, at the insistence of the bishops, the school in Ephesus was closed, in 529 - the school in Athens - one of the largest centers of Greek education. At the end of the IV century. fanatical monks destroyed a significant part of the Alexandrian library. At the same time, church theological schools, and higher ones, were created to spread Christianity.

With the approval of the positions of the church, science becomes theological, which is especially evident in the field of natural sciences. In the middle of the VI century. monk Kosma Indikoplov wrote "Christian Topography" in which he recognized the Ptolemaic system as incorrect and contrary to the Bible. According to Cosmas, the shape of the Earth is a flat quadrilateral, surrounded by the ocean and covered with a vault of heaven, where paradise is located. This work was distributed not only in Byzantium, but also in the West, as well as in Ancient Russia.

In the VI-VII centuries. in Byzantium, alchemy dominated, busy searching for the "divine elixir", with which you can turn any metals into gold, heal various diseases, and restore youth. At the same time, a chemical craft was developed - the manufacture of paints for painting and dyeing fabrics, ceramic products, mosaics and enamels, which were widely used in Byzantine fine arts and the manufacture of fabrics.

Despite the lack of sources, it is known that already at the end of the 7th century. Byzantines invented "greek fire" an incendiary mixture of gunpowder, resin and saltpeter, which had the ability to burn on water. This helped the Byzantines to defeat their enemies in naval battles. "Greek fire" was widely used during the siege of fortresses in the 7th-15th centuries. Byzantine scholar Lev Mathematician improved the light telegraph. Doctor Nikita compiled a collection on surgery (IX century). There were a number of works of a historical nature, in which the social struggle of this period is reflected from the positions of the ruling class.

Introduction……………………………………………………………… 3 pages
1. Byzantium-Keeper of ancient knowledge………………………. 5 pages
1.1 Byzantine Empire ……………………………………………… 5 p.
1.2 Education and science……………………………………………… 6 p.
1.3 Inventions and achievements ……………………………………… 12 p.
2. Grammar Photius …………………………………………………. 16 p.
3. Lev Mathematician ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………. 25 pages
List of used literature………………………………….26 p.

Introduction
The European Middle Ages has long been considered an era of savagery, ignorance and technical stagnation. Meanwhile, it is to this era that humanity owes such outstanding achievements as the invention of book printing, mechanical clocks, the mass introduction of water mills into production, the development of long-distance navigation technologies, and much more, without which neither the geographical discoveries of the 16th century nor the scientific revolution of the 17th century would have been possible. century, nor the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century.
These were the times when a fortified castle, signifying power, served as a refuge... When pilgrims and crusaders rushed to the East... When monasteries and cathedrals were built in Europe... When fairs roared outside the city walls and a plague raged... When arose from the waves, Venice created a maritime empire on trade.
Science in the Middle Ages, as in any other period of its history, existed simultaneously in two forms: as an impersonal system of knowledge about the world and as one of the spheres of the spiritual life of society. As the latter, it could not help but be exposed to other spheres of public life.
Speaking about the socio-cultural influence on science, one should distinguish between two kinds of influence. Changes in production methods, technical improvements, shifts in social structure, population growth, development of communications, political and ideological movements have a strong influence on science, presenting it with problems for research, focusing scientists' attention on solving certain problems and at the same time predetermining the social organization of scientific research. research, prerequisites and conditions of scientific work.
Since Christianity determined the system of value orientations characteristic of medieval society, it left its mark on any type of activity, including the very attitude of a person to work. A medieval scholar in Western Europe is usually a monk or cleric. Almost all authors of works on natural philosophy wrote essays on theological topics. Naturally, a person who was both a theologian and a scientist was able to transfer the formally ordering principles and intuitions developed within the framework of one system of knowledge to another, just as the same methods of mathematics are currently used in different disciplines.
The dynamic development of technical improvements, the introduction of new technologies in both agriculture and handicraft production could not but affect the spiritual climate of the Middle Ages, including scientific creativity. But this influence was not direct. Science in the Middle Ages was mainly a book business, it relied mainly on abstract thinking, with a direct appeal to nature, it used, as a rule, methods of observation, extremely rarely - experiment, saw its role not in contributing to the transformation of nature, but sought to understand the world as it appears in the process of contemplation. In this respect, medieval science was the antipode of both modern science and medieval technology. Therefore, it was not technical achievements and problems that had a direct impact on medieval science, nor did it, in turn, have any noticeable impact on the development of technology. But the indirect influence of technology and technology on the development of science was enormous. First, the prerequisites were created for expanding the social base of science. The layer of the bourgeoisie, growing in the process of urbanization of Europe, quickly utilize technical innovations. The well-being of the population, despite the protracted periods of economic recession, is increasing. All this gradually prepares the conditions for the ensuing in the XVI - XVII centuries. explosion of scientific activity. Secondly, a special atmosphere of enterprise was created, new practical attitudes towards nature, new value regulators were formed.

Byzantium is the Keeper of ancient knowledge.

Grammar Photius