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What is speech? Speech: classification of speech, types and styles of speech. Oral and written speech

We have already told you that speech is divided into oral and written. One of the principles of the method of speech development is the interconnected development of oral and written speech. The methodology for developing written speech in school has been developed much more thoroughly than the methodology for developing oral speech. Therefore, work on the development of written speech is carried out in a more organized manner.

Oral and written language - these are two forms of the process of communication between people through language, each of which has its own specific characteristics.

Oral speech marks the process of direct, live communication between people; it presupposes the presence of a speaker and a listener. Its nature depends on the specific communication situation, i.e. who speaks, with whom, about what, sometimes and for what purpose. Oral speech has such rich expressive means as intonation, pauses, logical stress, gestures, and facial expressions. All this allows you to understand oral speech at a glance, which cannot but be reflected in its specific design. The syntax of oral conversational speech is usually distinguished by the presence of short sentences, often incomplete, the absence of complex structures, isolated phrases with various forms of participles and gerunds, etc. Oral speech also allows for abbreviation of word forms.

Written speech always graphic, mostly monologue, not presuming the presence of an interlocutor. It often uses complicated simple sentences and complex syntactic constructions.

It has been noticed that good speakers usually express their thoughts well in writing. On the other hand, many shortcomings in written speech are closely related to irregularities in oral speech.

In this regard, the development of oral and written coherent speech is equally important.

When developing a system of exercises in oral speech, one should take into account the specific features of one type of speech compared to another. Oral speech requires the speaker to be quick in selecting the right words, constructing sentences and constructing speech in general. Oral speech does not allow for amendments or going back. It is somewhat more economical, since the speaker uses such additional means of expressing thoughts as intonation, pause, gesture, and facial expressions.

Written speech, by its design, is characterized by greater verbosity, greater bookishness, and, as a rule, does not allow “liberties” of style, which are often quite appropriate in colloquial speech.

Oral speech can be both dialogical and monological.

It has a number of features: - intonation expressiveness; - intonation of a whole text, a separate sentence, which is associated with the logical division of the text, place logical stress etc.

Work on oral speech should go in parallel with work on developing written language. So, for example, a written presentation should be preceded by an oral presentation of the same or a similar text, an essay on a picture should be preceded by an oral story on the same or a specially selected picture, or an oral drawing. A written essay may be preceded by an oral essay on the same topic. literary theme, the plan can be drawn up not only for written, but also for oral composition.

The concept of forms of speech: oral and written is given in 5th grade: oral- this is the speech we make, written, which we write and see (p. 8, § 2, grade 5). On page 10 Special attention focuses on auxiliary means of oral speech: people can speak in different ways: cheerfully and sadly, quickly and slowly. Much can be said without words, with the help of hand movements or facial expressions, that is, with gestures or facial expressions. By means expressiveness oral speech is the pitch of the voice, its timbre, rate of speech, facial expressions, gestures.

Speech classification may be based on various signs, which make it possible to distinguish oral and written forms of speech, dialogic and monologue speech, functional styles and functionally semantic types of speech.

Depending on the form of information exchange - using sounds or using written signs - they distinguish two forms of speech - oral and written.

Based on the number of active participants in communication, speech can be presented in the form of a monologue (that is, a detailed statement by one person) or dialogue (a conversation between two or more people).

Based on the use of speech in a particular field of science and practice, functional styles of speech are distinguished: scientific, official business, journalistic, artistic, colloquial, school. Each functional style is determined by the situation and the nature of the content of communication, has its own specific features and its own structure of speech

Monologue speech exists in the form of oral or written text, which is characterized by its social communicative function, purpose, and way of reflecting reality. Depending on the purposes of the monologue utterance, the presence of certain content-semantic and compositional-structural features of the text, functional-semantic (communicative) types of speech: description, narration, reasoning.

Oral and written forms of speech

The basis of both written and oral speech is literary speech, which acts as the leading form of existence of the Russian language.

This phenomenon is associated with the rich intonation capabilities of oral speech. Intonation is created by the melody of speech, the intensity (loudness) of speech, duration, increase or decrease in the tempo of speech and the timbre of pronunciation. In oral speech, the place of logical stress, the degree of clarity of pronunciation, and the presence or absence of pauses play an important role. Oral speech has such intonation variety of speech that it can convey all the richness of human feelings, experiences, moods, etc.

Perception of spoken language direct communication occurs simultaneously through both the auditory and visual channels. Therefore, oral speech is accompanied, enhancing its expressiveness, by such additional means as the nature of the gaze (wary or open, etc.), the spatial arrangement of the speaker and listener, facial expressions and gestures.

Irreversibility, progressive and linear nature deployment in time is one of the main properties of oral speech. It is impossible to return to some point in oral speech again, and because of this, the speaker is forced to think and speak at the same time, that is, he thinks as if “on the go,” therefore oral speech may be characterized by unfluency, fragmentation, division of a single sentence into several communicatively independent units, for example. “Open your textbooks to page 89. Look at the drawing of a device for producing oxygen. At home, sketch the installation. Now look, I have a similar device installed on my table.”(This is a teacher’s speech in a chemistry lesson). At the same time, the teacher must observe and control the actions of students who cannot quickly and mechanically follow the teacher’s instructions. Therefore, intonation emphasis appears in the teacher’s oral speech important points, underlining, clarification of some parts, pauses, repetitions.

Oral speech can be prepared (report, lecture, etc.) and unprepared (conversation, conversation). Prepared oral speech It is distinguished by thoughtfulness, a clearer structural organization, but at the same time, the speaker, as a rule, strives for his speech to be relaxed, not “memorized”, and to resemble direct communication. This is how the teacher should speak when explaining.

Many shortcomings of written speech - the functioning of unfinished statements, poor structure, the introduction of pauses, reprises, elements of hesitation, etc. - are a necessary condition for the success and effectiveness of the oral method of communication. In oral speech, emotionally and expressively colored vocabulary, figurative comparative constructions, phraseological units, proverbs, sayings, and even colloquial elements are used.

The teacher’s speech must still more strictly comply with literary norms than the speech of the average person.

Writing is an auxiliary sign system created by people, which is used to fix the sound language (and accordingly sound speech) and is secondary to oral speech. On the other hand, writing is an independent communication system, which, while performing the function of recording oral speech, acquires a number of independent functions. Written speech makes it possible to assimilate the knowledge accumulated by a person, expands the sphere of human communication, and breaks the boundaries of the immediate environment. Thanks to writing, we learned about the great civilizations of Ancient Egypt, Sumerians, Incas, Mayans, etc.

Written speech unfolds not in a temporary, but in a static space, which gives the writer the opportunity to think through the speech, return to what has already been written, rearrange sentences and parts of the text, replace words, clarify, carry out a long search for a form of expression of thought, turn to dictionaries and reference books. Written speech uses bookish language, the use of which is quite strictly standardized and regulated.

I give as an example an excerpt from the work “TECHNICS AND METHODS OF NATURAL EDUCATIONAL CHEMICAL EXPERIMENT”:

“By the concept of “full-scale educational chemical experiment” we mean a means of teaching chemistry in the form of specially organized and conducted experiments with substances (reagents), included by the teacher in the educational process for the purpose of knowledge, verification or proof by students known to science chemical fact, phenomenon or law, as well as for students to master certain methods of research in chemical science.

An educational chemical experiment should be considered, first of all, as a didactic tool for achieving the main learning goals. With the help of a chemical experiment at school, you can teach children to observe phenomena, form concepts, study new educational material, consolidate and improve knowledge, form and improve practical skills, promote the development of interest in the subject, etc.”

Written speech is focused on perception by the visual organs, therefore it has a clear structural and formal organization: has a page numbering system, division into sections, paragraphs, paragraphs, a link system, font selection, etc. You can return to a complex text more than once, think about it, comprehend what has been written, having the opportunity to look through this or that passage of text with your eyes. The written form is the main form of existence of speech in the scientific and journalistic; official business and artistic styles.

Thus, saying that verbal communication occurs in two forms - “oral and written”, one must keep in mind the similarities and differences between them. The similarity lies in the fact that these forms of speech have a common basis - literary language and in practice they occupy approximately equal space. The differences most often come down to the means of expression. Oral speech is associated with intonation, melody, non-verbalism, it uses a certain amount of “its own” linguistic means, it is tied more to the conversational style. Writing uses alphabetic and graphic symbols, often bookish language with all its styles and features, normalization and formal organization.

General characteristics of speech forms

Speech communication occurs in two forms - oral and written. They are in a complex unity and occupy an important and approximately equal place in their importance in social and speech practice. And in the sphere of production, and in the spheres of management, education, law, art, in the means mass media There are both oral and written forms of speech. In real communication conditions, their constant interaction and interpenetration is observed. Any written text can be voiced, that is, read aloud, and oral text can be recorded using technical means. There are such genres of written speech as: for example, dramaturgy, oratorical works that are intended specifically for subsequent scoring. And vice versa, in literary works, techniques of stylization as “orality” are widely used: dialogical speech, in which the author seeks to preserve the features inherent in oral spontaneous speech, monologues of characters in the first person, etc. The practice of radio and television has led to the creation of a unique form oral speech, in which spoken and voiced written speech constantly coexist and interact (for example, television interviews).

The basis of both written and oral speech is literary speech, which acts as the leading form of existence of the Russian language. Literary speech is speech designed for a conscious approach to the system of means of communication, in which orientation is carried out on certain standardized patterns. It is such a means of communication, the norms of which are fixed as forms of exemplary speech, that is, they are recorded in grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks. The dissemination of these norms is facilitated by schools, cultural institutions, and mass media. Literary speech is distinguished by its universality in its functioning. On its basis, scientific essays, journalistic works, business writing, etc. are created.

However, oral and written forms of speech are independent and have their own characteristics and features.

Oral speech

Oral speech is sounding speech that functions in the sphere of direct communication, and in a broader sense it is any sounding speech. Historically, the oral form of speech is primary; it arose much earlier than writing. The material form of oral speech is sound waves, i.e., pronounced sounds that are the result of the complex activity of the human pronunciation organs. The rich intonation capabilities of oral speech are associated with this phenomenon. Intonation is created by the melody of speech, the intensity (loudness) of speech, duration, increase or decrease in the tempo of speech and the timbre of pronunciation. In oral speech, the place of logical stress, the degree of clarity of pronunciation, and the presence or absence of pauses play an important role. Oral speech has such intonation variety of speech that it can convey all the richness of human feelings, experiences, moods, etc.

The perception of oral speech during direct communication occurs simultaneously through both the auditory and visual channels. Therefore, oral speech is accompanied, enhancing its expressiveness, by such additional means as the nature of the gaze (wary or open, etc.), the spatial arrangement of the speaker and listener, facial expressions and gestures. Thus, a gesture can be likened to an index word (pointing to some object), can express emotional condition, agreement or disagreement, surprise, etc., serve as a means of establishing contact, for example, a raised hand as a sign of greeting (in this case, gestures have national and cultural specifics, so they must be used carefully, especially in oral business and scientific speech). All these linguistic and extralinguistic means help to increase the semantic significance and emotional richness of oral speech.

Irreversibility, progressive and linear nature deployment in time is one of the main properties of oral speech. It is impossible to return to some point in oral speech again, and because of this, the speaker is forced to think and speak at the same time, that is, he thinks as if “on the go,” therefore oral speech may be characterized by unfluency, fragmentation, division of a single sentence into several communicatively independent units, for example. “The director called. Delayed. It'll be there in half an hour. Start without him"(message from the director’s secretary for participants in the production meeting) On the other hand, the speaker is obliged to take into account the reaction of the listener and strive to attract his attention and arouse interest in the message. Therefore, in oral speech there appears intonation highlighting of important points, underlining, clarification of some parts, auto-commenting, repetitions; “The department/ carried out a lot of work/ over the course of a year/ yes/ I must say/ great and important// educational, and scientific, and methodological// Well/ everyone knows/ the educational// Do I need to detail/ the educational// No// Yes / I also think / it’s not necessary //"

Unprepared oral speech characterized by spontaneity. An unprepared oral utterance (the basic unit of oral speech, similar to a sentence in written speech) is formed gradually, in portions, as one realizes what has been said, what should be said next, what needs to be repeated, clarified. Therefore, in oral unprepared speech there are many pauses, and the use of pause fillers (words like uh, hmm) allows the speaker to think about what happens next. The speaker controls the logical-compositional, syntactic and partially lexical-phraselogical levels of the language, i.e. makes sure that his speech is logical and coherent, chooses the appropriate words to adequately express thoughts. The phonetic and morphological levels of the language, i.e. pronunciation and grammatical forms, are not controlled and are reproduced automatically. Therefore, oral speech is characterized by less lexical precision, even the presence of speech errors, short sentence length, limited complexity of phrases and sentences, the absence of participial and participial phrases, and the division of a single sentence into several communicatively independent ones. Involved and participial phrases usually replaced by complex sentences, verbs are used instead of verbal nouns, inversion is possible.

As an example, here is an excerpt from a written text: “Distracting slightly from domestic issues, I would like to note that, as the modern experience of the Scandinavian region and a number of other countries has shown, the point is not at all in the monarchy, not in the form of political organization, but in the division of political power between the state and society.”(“Star”. 1997, No. 6). When this fragment is reproduced orally, for example at a lecture, it will, of course, be changed and may have approximately the following form: “If we abstract from domestic issues, we will see that the issue is not at all about the monarchy, it is not about the form of political organization. The whole point is how to divide power between the state and society. And this is confirmed today by the experience of the Scandinavian countries"

Oral speech, just like written speech, is standardized and regulated, but the norms of oral speech are completely different. “Many so-called flaws of oral speech - the functioning of unfinished statements, poor structure, the introduction of interruptions, auto-commentators, contactors, reprises, elements of hesitation, etc. - are a necessary condition for the success and effectiveness of the oral method of communication" *. The listener cannot retain in memory all the grammatical and semantic connections of the text, and the speaker must take this into account, then his speech will be understood and meaningful. Unlike written speech, which is constructed in accordance with the logical movement of thought, oral speech unfolds through associative additions.

* Bubnova G. I. Garbovsky N. K. Written and oral communications: Syntax and prosody M, 1991. P. 8.

The oral form of speech is assigned to all functional styles of the Russian language, but it has an undoubted advantage in the colloquial and everyday style of speech. The following functional varieties of oral speech are distinguished: oral scientific speech, oral journalistic speech, types of oral speech in the field of official business communication, artistic speech and colloquial speech. It should be said that colloquial speech influences all types of oral speech. This is expressed in the manifestation of the author’s “I”, the personal principle in speech in order to enhance the impact on the listeners. Therefore, in oral speech, emotionally and expressively colored vocabulary, figurative comparative constructions, phraseological units, proverbs, sayings, and even colloquial elements are used.

As an example, here is an excerpt from an interview with the Chairman of the Constitutional Court of Russia: “Of course, there are exceptions... The mayor of Izhevsk approached us with a claim to declare the law adopted by the republican authorities unconstitutional. And the court actually recognized some articles as such. Unfortunately, at first this caused irritation among the local authorities, to the point that, they say, as it was, so it will be, no one can tell us. Then, as they say, “heavy artillery” was launched: the State Duma got involved. The President of Russia issued a decree... There was a lot of noise in the local and central press" ( Business people. 1997. № 78).

This fragment also contains colloquial particles well, they say, and expressions of colloquial and phraseological nature at first, no one ordered us, as they say, there was a lot of noise, expression heavy artillery V figurative meaning, and inversion issued a decree. The number of conversational elements is determined by the characteristics of a specific communicative situation. For example, the speech of a speaker leading a meeting in the State Duma and the speech of a manager leading a production meeting will, of course, be different. In the first case, when meetings are broadcast on radio and television to a huge audience, you need to be especially careful in choosing spoken language units.

Written speech

Writing is an auxiliary sign system created by people, which is used to record sound language (and, accordingly, sound speech). On the other hand, writing is an independent communication system, which, while performing the function of recording oral speech, acquires a number of independent functions. Written speech makes it possible to assimilate the knowledge accumulated by a person, expands the sphere of human communication, breaks the boundaries of the immediate

environment. By reading books, historical documents from different times of peoples, we can touch the history and culture of all mankind. It was thanks to writing that we learned about the great civilizations of Ancient Egypt, Sumerians, Incas, Mayans, etc.

Writing historians claim that writing has come a long way historical development from the first notches on trees, rock paintings to the sound-letter type, which most people use today, i.e. written language is secondary to oral. Letters used in writing are signs that represent speech sounds. The sound shells of words and parts of words are depicted by combinations of letters, and knowledge of the letters allows them to be reproduced in sound form, that is, to read any text. Punctuation marks used in writing serve to divide speech: periods, commas, dashes correspond to intonation pauses in oral speech. This means that letters are the material form of written language.

The main function of written speech is to record oral speech, with the goal of preserving it in space and time. Writing serves as a means of communication between people in cases where When direct communication is impossible when they are separated by space, i.e., located in different geographical locations, and time. Since ancient times, people, unable to communicate directly, exchanged letters, many of which have survived to this day, breaking the barrier of time. The development of such technical means of communication as the telephone has to some extent reduced the role of writing. But the advent of the fax, and now the spread of the Internet system, which help to overcome space, has again activated the written form of speech. The main property of written speech is the ability to store information for a long time.

Written speech unfolds not in temporary, but in static space, which gives the writer the opportunity to think through the speech, return to what has already been written, and rearrange sentences And parts of the text, replace words, clarify, carry out a long search for the form of expression of thoughts, refer to dictionaries and reference books. In this regard, the written form of speech has its own characteristics. Written speech uses bookish language, the use of which is quite strictly standardized and regulated. The order of words in a sentence is fixed, inversion (changing the order of words) is not typical for written speech, and in some cases, for example in texts formal business style speech is unacceptable. The sentence, which is the basic unit of written speech, expresses complex logical and semantic connections through syntax, therefore, as a rule, written speech is characterized by complex syntactic constructions, participial and participial phrases, common definitions, inserted constructions, etc. When combining sentences into paragraphs, each of these is strictly related to the preceding and subsequent context.

From this point of view, let us analyze an excerpt from the reference manual by V. A. Krasilnikov “Industrial architecture and ecology”:

"Negative impact on natural environment is expressed in the ever-increasing expansion of territorial resources, including sanitary gaps, in emissions of gaseous, solid and liquid waste, in the release of heat, noise, vibration, radiation, electromagnetic energy, in changes in landscapes and microclimates, often in their aesthetic degradation.”

This one simple sentence contains a large number of homogeneous members: in ever-increasing expansion, in emissions, in excretion, in change; heat, noise, vibration etc., participial phrase including..., participle increasing, those. characterized by the features mentioned above.

Written speech is focused on perception by the visual organs, therefore it has a clear structural and formal organization: it has a page numbering system, division into sections, paragraphs, a system of links, font selection, etc.

"The most common form of non-tariff restriction foreign trade is a quota, or contingent. Quotas are a restriction in quantitative or monetary terms on the volume of products allowed to be imported into the country (import quota) or exported from the country ( export quota) for a certain period."

This passage uses font emphasis and explanations given in parentheses. Often, each subtopic of the text has its own subtitle. For example, the above quote opens the part Quotas, one of the subtopics of the text " Foreign trade policy: non-tariff methods of regulation international trade"(ME and MO. 1997. No. 12). You can return to a complex text more than once, think about it, comprehend what has been written, having the opportunity to look through this or that passage of text with your eyes.

Written speech is distinguished by the fact that in its very form speech activity find a certain reflection of the conditions and purpose of communication, for example piece of art or a description of a scientific experiment, a vacation application, or a news item in a newspaper. Consequently, written speech has a style-forming function, which is reflected in the choice of linguistic means that are used to create a particular text that reflects the typical features of a certain functional style. The written form is the main form of existence of speech in the scientific and journalistic; official business and artistic styles.

Thus, when we say that verbal communication occurs in two forms - oral and written, we must keep in mind the similarities and differences between them. The similarity lies in the fact that these forms of speech have a common basis - literary language and in practice they occupy approximately equal space. The differences most often come down to the means of expression. Oral speech is associated with intonation and melody, non-verbalism, it uses a certain amount of “its own” linguistic means, it is tied more to the conversational style. Writing uses alphabetic and graphic symbols, often bookish language with all its styles and features, normalization and formal organization.

Dialogue and monologue

Dialogue

Dialogue - is a conversation between two or more persons, a form of speech consisting of an exchange of remarks. The main unit of dialogue is dialogical unity - a semantic (thematic) unification of several remarks, which is an exchange of opinions and statements, each subsequent of which depends on the previous one.

Pay attention to the consistent connection of replicas that form a dialogic unity in following example, where the question-and-answer form assumes a logical progression from one topic raised in the dialogue to another (dialogue between a correspondent of the newspaper “Business Petersburg” and the mayor of Stockholm):

- Days of Stockholm in St. Petersburg - Is this part of the city government's overall strategy?

- We spend a lot of money on international marketing. We try to represent the region to foreign investors as widely as possible.

- Who are these efforts primarily aimed at?

- To European companies that enter the international market. Stockholm has representative offices in Brussels and St. Petersburg. The city is also represented in Tokyo and Riga. The functions of representative offices include establishing relationships with local firms.

- City authorities somehow support these companies?

- Advice, but not money.

- How important are companies from Russia for the authorities and entrepreneurs of Stockholm?

- Swedes' interest in the Russian market is constantly growing. More and more Russian citizens are discovering Scandinavia. Entrepreneurs appreciated how favorable the business conditions are in Stockholm. There are 6,000 companies registered in the city that have Russian owners or shareholders (Business Petersburg 1998 No. 39).

In this example, we can identify several dialogic units, united by the following topics and representing the development of the topic of dialogue: days of Stockholm in St. Petersburg, expansion of international marketing, support of foreign firms by city authorities, interest of the Swedes in the Russian market.

So, dialogic unity is ensured by the connection of various kinds of remarks (formulas of speech etiquette, question - answer, addition, narration, distribution, agreement - disagreement), for example, in the dialogue presented above using question-answer remarks:

- How important are companies from Russia for the authorities and entrepreneurs of Stockholm?

- Swedes' interest in the Russian market is constantly growing.

In some cases, dialogical unity can also exist due to remarks that reveal a reaction not to the previous remark of the interlocutor, but to the general situation of speech, when the participant in the dialogue asks his counter question:

- Have you brought the report for the first quarter?

- When will we get new computers?

Replicas in their general nature and nature may depend on various factors: these are, first of all, the personalities of the interlocutors with their specific communicative speech strategy and tactics, general speech culture interlocutors, the degree of formality of the situation, the factor of the “potential listener,” i.e., a listener or viewer who is present but does not take part in the dialogue (ordinary everyday and broadcast, i.e., dialogue on radio or television).

Here are two examples of dialogues.

The first example is a dialogue with the general director of the World Fair “Russian Farmer” JSC - a captain of the 3rd rank, who retired and took up farming (newspaper “Boy and Girl”. 1996. No. I):

- Did you know where you were going?

- No, he just went nowhere. Just to get away, I tried to change my life.

-Wasn’t it scary?

-I knew that I wouldn’t be lost. It was still worse at work. And, being a lieutenant commander, I spent 2-3 evenings a week “cracking around” in the car. I reasoned like this: it couldn’t get any worse. I’ll earn my more than two hundred somehow. It was decided: we need to change our lives!

- So, right from the ship - they got into the village?

- Not really. At first I worked in a cooperative that specialized in A tennis, “grew up” to deputy director. But then my friends shared with me interesting idea- the idea of reviving Russian fairs. I got carried away and read several books. Five years have passed, and I am no less passionate about this idea, this business, than before.

The second example is an interview with a corresponding member International Academy information, professor (Moscow News. 1997. No. 23):

– Professor, I saw that employees of Russian oil and financial firms and banks are already coming to your university to test the waters. Why do they need American ones in the unpredictable realities of Russian business? theoretical knowledge ?

- On the one hand, the volume of foreign investment in all-Russian production is increasing, on the other hand, our enterprises are increasingly entering the international financial market As a result, in Russia there is a growing need for specialists in the field of investment process management. And such a specialist, moreover international level, for now you can only get into a prestigious Western business school.

-Or maybe the owners of Russian banks are guided by considerations of prestige: let their employees have a solid diploma, especially since for your bank the cost of training is low.

- Prestige of the diploma - a good thing, it helps in establishing contacts with Western partners and can become business card Russian enterprise.

Using the example of these two dialogues, one can see that their participants (primarily the interviewees) have their own distinct communicative and speech strategy: the speech of a university professor is distinguished by greater logic and consistency of presentation and vocabulary. The remarks of the general director of the fair reflect the peculiarities of colloquial speech; they contain incomplete structures.

The nature of the remarks is also influenced by the so-called code of relationships between communicants, i.e., the type of interaction between the participants in the dialogue - the communicants.

There are three main types of interaction between dialogue participants: dependence, cooperation and equality. Let's show this with examples.

The first example is a dialogue between a writer and an editorial employee, described by S. Dovlatov in his “ Notebooks" This example shows dependency relationship between the participants in the dialogue (the petitioner, in in this case writer, asks for the opportunity to write a review):

I go to the editorial office the next day. A beautiful middle-aged woman asks rather gloomily:

- What do you actually need?

- Yes, write a review.

- What are you, a critic?

- No.

Second example– phone conversation client with an employee of a computer repair company - an example of a dialogue by type cooperation(both the client and the company employee seek to resolve a certain problem through joint efforts):

- The computer writes that there is no keyboard and asks you to press F1. What to press?

- So did you remove the keyboard from the connector while the power was on?

- No, they just moved the connector. So what now?

- The keyboard fuse on the motherboard has blown. Bring(Entrepreneur of Petersburg. 1998. No. 9).

The third example of dialogue - an interview of a correspondent of the newspaper "Delo" (1998. No. 9) with an employee of the City Bureau of Registration of Real Estate Rights of St. Petersburg - represents dialogue-equality, when both participants in the dialogue conduct a conversation that is not aimed at achieving any specific result (as, for example, in the previous dialogue):

- One of the most frequently asked questions is whether state registration lease agreements non-residential premises, concluded for a period of up to a year?

- Any real estate lease agreement is subject to registration, regardless of the object and the period for which it is concluded.

- Is a joint activity agreement, an integral part of which is a real estate transaction, subject to state registration?

- Such an agreement can be registered as an encumbrance of the owner’s rights

In the last two dialogues, the factor already mentioned above, the degree of formality of the situation, clearly manifests itself. The degree of control over one’s own speech and, accordingly, compliance with language norms. In the dialogue between a client and a company employee, the degree of formality of the situation is low and the speakers reveal a deviation from literary norms. Their dialogue contains elements of colloquial speech, such as the frequent use of particles (press something, so you, but no).

Any dialogue has its own structure, which in most types of dialogue, as in principle in any text, remains stable: beginning - main part - ending. The reason may be the formula of speech etiquette (Good evening, Nikolai Ivanovich!) or the first response is a question (What time is it now?), or replica-judgment (It's a good weather today). It should be noted that the size of the dialogue is theoretically unlimited, since its lower limit can be open: the continuation of almost any dialogue is possible by increasing the dialogic unities that comprise it. In practice, any dialogue has its own ending (a replica of speech etiquette (Bye!), response-consent (Yes, sure!) or response-replica).

Dialogue is considered as a primary, natural form of speech communication, therefore, as a form of speech, it is most widespread in the sphere of colloquial speech, but dialogue is also represented in scientific, journalistic, and official business speech.

Being the primary form of communication, dialogue is an unprepared, spontaneous type of speech. This statement concerns primarily the sphere of colloquial speech, where the topic of dialogue can arbitrarily change during its unfolding. But even in scientific, journalistic and official business speech, with the possible preparation of (primarily question-related) remarks, the development of the dialogue will be spontaneous, since in the vast majority of cases the interlocutor’s response remarks are unknown or unpredictable.

In dialogic speech the so-called universal principle saving means of verbal expression. This means that participants in a dialogue in a specific situation use a minimum of verbal, or verbal, means, replenishing information not expressed verbally through non-verbal means of communication - intonation, facial expressions, body movements, gestures. For example, when going to an appointment with a manager and being in the reception area, a company employee will not turn to the secretary with a question like “Nikolai Vladimirovich Petrova, director of our company, is he in his office now?” or it may be limited to a nod of the head towards the office door and the remark “ At your place? When reproducing a dialogue in writing, such a situation is necessarily developed and shown by the writing author in the form of a remark or a comment.

For the existence of a dialogue, on the one hand, a common initial information base of its participants is necessary, and on the other hand, an initial minimum gap in the knowledge of the participants in the dialogue is necessary. Otherwise, the participants in the dialogue will not provide each other with new information on the subject of speech, and therefore, it will not be productive. Thus, lack of information negatively affects the productivity of dialogic speech. This factor can arise not only when the communicative competence of the participants in the dialogue is low, but also when the interlocutors have no desire to enter into a dialogue or continue it. A dialogue consisting of only one form of speech etiquette, the so-called etiquette forms, has a formal meaning, is uninformative, there is no need to obtain information, but it is generally accepted in certain types of situations (when meeting in public places):

- Hello!

-Hello!

- How are you?

- Thank you, it's fine.

A necessary condition for the existence of dialogues aimed at obtaining new information, is a factor such as the need for communication arising from a potential gap in knowledge.

In accordance with the goals and objectives of the dialogue, the communication situation, and the role of the interlocutors, the following main types of dialogues can be distinguished: everyday, business conversation, interview. Let us comment on the first of them (the last two will be discussed in more detail later).

Everyday dialogue characterized by unplanning, possible deviation from the topic, variety of topics discussed, lack of goal setting and the need to make any decisions, widespread use of non-verbal (non-verbal) means of communication, personal expression, conversational style.

As an example of everyday dialogue, here is an excerpt from Vladimir Makanin’s story “The Simple Truth”:

A sedate gray-haired lady entered Terekhov’s room at almost the same second.

-...You’re not sleeping - I seemed to hear your voice.

- Clearing her throat, she asked:

-Give me some matches, honey.

- Please.

- The old woman wanted tea. And the matches disappeared somewhere - sclerosis.

- She sat down for a minute:

- You are polite, I love you.

- Thank you.

- And Sitnikov, what a scoundrel he is, decided to start the tape recorder at night. You heard how I beat him up - something, but I know how to teach wisely.

And, condescending to her own weakness, she laughed.

- Senile, it must be.

This text contains all the typical characteristics of everyday dialogue: unplannedness (the neighbor accidentally came to Terekhov, although she needed matches), transition from one topic to another (the matches that the elderly neighbor lost, her positive attitude towards Terekhov, negative attitude towards another neighbor, the desire to teach the young), non-verbal means communication (the laughter of an old woman, pleased with herself, which is also a sign of affection for Terekhov), conversational style (syntactic constructions: the matches went somewhere - sclerosis, use of colloquial vocabulary: start a tape recorder, finish anyone like would).

Monologue

Monologue can be defined as a detailed statement by one person.

A monologue is characterized by relative length (it can contain parts of the text of varying volume, consisting of structurally and meaningfully related statements) and diversity vocabulary. The topics of the monologue are varied and can change freely as it unfolds.

There are two main types of monologue. Firstly, monologue speech is a process of purposeful communication, conscious appeal to the listener and is characteristic primarily of the oral form of book speech: oral scientific speech (for example, an educational lecture or report), judicial speech and received in Lately widespread oral public speech. The monologue received its most complete development in artistic speech.

Secondly, a monologue is a speech alone with oneself, that is, a monologue may not be directed to a direct listener (this is the so-called “internal monologue”) and, accordingly, is not designed for a response from the interlocutor.

A monologue can be either unprepared, spontaneous, which is typical primarily for the sphere of spoken language, or prepared, thought out in advance.

According to the purpose of the statement, monologue speech is divided into three main types: informational, persuasive and stimulating.

Information speech serves to transfer knowledge. In this case, the speaker must first of all take into account both the intellectual abilities of listeners to perceive information and cognitive abilities.

Varieties of informational speech include various kinds of speeches, lectures, reports, messages, reports.

Let's give an example of an informational speech (a message from the director of the Leisure company about the results of the international exhibition "Small Business-98. Technology of Success"):

“The last exhibition, on the one hand, was a broad advertisement for small business in general. On the other hand, it is a demonstration of the achievements of enterprises participating in this exhibition. From the third - The exhibition provided an opportunity to communicate with business colleagues. But the most the main task I think such an event is educational"(Entrepreneur of St. Petersburg. 1998. No. 9).

Persuasive speech addressed primarily to the emotions of the listener. In this case, the speaker must take into account his sensitivity. Persuasive types of speech include: congratulatory, solemn, parting.

As an example, let us cite the speech of the Governor of St. Petersburg at the opening of the monument to N.V. Gogol:

“A truly historical event has occurred; we are unveiling a monument to the great Russian writer Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol. We are finally fulfilling our duty to the genius of world literature. The authors of the monument created the image of a mature, wise, self-absorbed person. “I always wrap myself in my cloak when I walk along Nevsky Prospekt,” - he wrote. This is exactly how we saw Gogol today.”(Week. 1997. No. 47).

Motivational speech is aimed at inducing listeners to various kinds of actions. Here there are political speech, speech-call to action, speech-protest.

As an example of a political speech, here is an excerpt from the speech of the Vice-Governor of St. Petersburg, a member of the political council of the Yabloko Movement:

“The most important task for the next year and a half is to stabilize the city’s debt, including with the help of international financially more profitable loans. If this problem is solved, a completely different financial situation will arise in the city. In which the issues of paying wages and pensions and implementing the most important social programs will be better resolved.

I believe that we will succeed.”(Nevsky Observer. 1997. No. 3).

The monologue has a certain compositional form, which depends on the genre-stylistic or functional-semantic affiliation. Genre-stylistic varieties of monologue include oratorical speech (which will be discussed separately later), artistic monologue, official business monologue and other types; functional-semantic types include description, narration, reasoning (will also be considered separately).

Monologue speech is distinguished by the degree of preparedness and formality. An oratorical speech is always a pre-prepared monologue delivered in a formal setting. However, to a certain extent, a monologue is an artificial form of speech, always striving for dialogue; in this regard, any monologue can have means of its dialogization, for example, appeals, rhetorical questions, a question-and-answer form of speech, i.e. everything that can indicate about the speaker’s desire to increase the communicative activity of the interlocutor-addressee, to evoke his response. (More details about the means of dialogizing monologue speech will be discussed in Chapter III.)

Let's consider the features of constructing a monologue speech and its characteristics using a specific example.

“Well, I don’t have much time. 30 minutes. Enough? Great. So what are you interested in? My education is in economics, but I started working in a law office, and quite quickly I moved from secretary-assistant to deputy director. The time began favorable for those who possessed the basics of economic knowledge. And I owned it. But very soon I realized this and began to do something. It so happened that there were philologists with knowledge of languages around, and I organized courses, then a translation center.

We didn’t immediately begin to prosper, of course, but at some point we almost went bankrupt.

Everything was not easy. But I coped with the situation. Yes, I haven’t been on vacation for five years. I don't travel abroad. My home is this office from day to night. No, it's not true that I don't need anything else. Of course it is necessary. But relationships with men are difficult.

The son remains. In the end, everything I do is for him...” (Shulgina E. - Monologues about the important // newspaper “Boy and Girl”. 1997. No. 1).

This passage provides an example of an informal unprepared monologue - an extended statement by one person. This monologue is a message deliberately directed to a specific listener. Thematically, it is distinguished by a certain monotony: it is a woman’s message about her life - education, work, problems, family. Based on the purpose of the statement, it can be characterized as informational. The monologue in question has a certain structure: introduction (Okay, I don’t have much time. 30 minutes. That’s enough? Great; So, what are you interested in?) in which the speaker defines the topic of his speech ( What are you interested in?), the main part is the actual story about life, and the conclusion is the final part of the monologue, where the speaker, summing up what has been said, claims that ultimately he does everything for his son.

Thus, monologue and dialogue are considered as two main types of speech, differing in the number of participants in the act of communication. Dialogue as a way of exchanging thoughts between communicants in the form of replicas is the primary, natural form of speech, in contrast to a monologue, which is a detailed statement by one person. Dialogue and monologue speech can exist both in written and oral form, but written speech is always based on monologue, and oral speech is always based on dialogic.

Related information.

Oral and written forms of speech.

Speech communication occurs in two forms - oral and written. They are in a complex unity and occupy an important and approximately equal place in speech practice in terms of their importance. In the sphere of production, the spheres of management, education, law, art, and in the media, both oral and written speech forms of speech take place. In real communication conditions, their constant interaction and interpenetration is observed. Any written text can be spoken, i.e. read aloud, and oral - written down using technical means. There are such genres, for example, drama, oratorical works, which are intended specifically for subsequent scoring. And, conversely, in literary works, techniques of stylization for “orality” are widely used: dialogic speech, in which the author seeks to preserve the features of oral spontaneous speech, monologues of characters in the first person, etc. The practice of radio and television has led to the creation of a unique form of oral speech, in which oral and voiced written speech constantly coexist and interact - television interviews.
! The basis of written and oral speech is literary speech, acting as the leading form of existence of the Russian language. Literary speech is speech designed for a conscious approach to the system of means of communication, in which orientation is carried out on certain standardized patterns. It is such a means of communication, the norms of which are fixed as forms of exemplary speech, i.e. they are recorded in grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks. The dissemination of these norms is facilitated by schools, cultural institutions, and mass media. Literary speech is distinguished by its universality in its functioning. On its basis, scientific essays, journalistic works, business writing, etc. are created. Oral and written forms of speech are independent and have their own characteristics and features.

Oral speech.

! Oral speech is any spoken language. Historically oral form of speech is primary, it arose much earlier than writing. Material form of oral speech are sound waves, i.e. pronounced sounds that arise as a result of the activity of the human pronunciation organs. This phenomenon is associated with the rich intonation capabilities of oral speech. Intonation is created by the melody of speech, the intensity (loudness) of speech, duration, increase or decrease in the tempo of speech and the timbre of pronunciation. In oral speech, the place of logical stress, the degree of clarity of pronunciation, and the presence or absence of pauses play an important role. Oral speech has this intonation variety of speech, which can convey all the richness of human experiences, moods, etc.
The perception of oral speech during direct communication occurs simultaneously and through the auditory and visual channels. Oral speech is accompanied, strengthening it expressiveness, such additional means, such as the nature of the gaze (wary or open, etc.), the spatial location of the speaker and listener, facial expressions and gestures. A gesture can be likened to an index word (pointing to some object), can express an emotional state, agreement or disagreement, surprise, etc., serve as a means of establishing contact, for example, a raised hand as a sign of greeting.
Irreversibility, progressive and linear nature of unfolding in time is one of the main properties of oral speech. It is impossible to return to some point in oral speech again, so the speaker is forced to think and speak at the same time, i.e. he thinks as if “on the go”, in connection with this, oral speech may be characterized by sluggishness, fragmentation, division of a single sentence into several communicatively independent units: message from the secretary to the meeting participants “The director called. He’s delayed. He’ll be there in half an hour. Start without him.” On the other hand, the speaker is obliged to take into account the reaction of the listener and strive to attract his attention and arouse interest in the message. Therefore, in oral speech there appears intonation highlighting of important points, underlining, clarification of some parts, auto-commenting, repetitions: “The department carried out a lot of work during the year / yes / I must say / great and important / And educational, and scientific, and methodological / Well / educational/ everyone knows/ Do I need detailed/ educational/ No/ Yes/ I also think/don’t/.
Oral speech can be prepared(report, lecture, etc.) and unprepared(conversation, conversation).
Prepared oral speech is distinguished by thoughtfulness and a clearer structural organization, but at the same time, the speaker, as a rule, strives for his speech to be relaxed, not “memorized,” and to resemble direct communication.
Unprepared oral speech characterized by spontaneity. An unprepared oral utterance (the basic unit of oral speech, similar to a sentence in written speech) is formed gradually, in portions, as one realizes what has been said, what should be said next, what needs to be repeated, clarified. Therefore, in oral unprepared speech there are many pauses, and the use of pause fillers (words) like uh, um) gives the speaker the opportunity to think about the future. The speaker controls the logical-compositional, syntactic and partially lexical-phraseological levels of the language, i.e. makes sure that his speech is logical and coherent, chooses the appropriate words to adequately express thoughts. Phonetic and morphological levels of language, i.e. pronunciation and grammatical forms are not controlled and are reproduced automatically. Therefore, oral speech is characterized by less lexical precision, short sentence length, limited complexity of phrases and sentences, the absence of participial and adverbial phrases, and the division of a single sentence into several communicatively independent ones.
!Oral speech just like written normalized and regulated, however, the norms of oral speech are completely different. “Many of the so-called flaws of oral speech - the functioning of unfinished statements, the introduction of interruptions, auto-commentators, contactors, reprises, elements of hesitation, etc. - are a necessary condition for the success and effectiveness of the oral method of communication.” The listener cannot retain in memory all the grammatical and semantic connections of the text, and the speaker must take this into account; then his speech will be understood and meaningful. Unlike written speech, which is constructed in accordance with the logical movement of thought, oral speech unfolds through associative additions.
The oral form of speech is assigned to all functional styles of the Russian language However, it has an advantage in the colloquial style of speech. The following functional types of oral speech are distinguished: oral scientific speech, oral journalistic speech, types of oral speech in the field of official business communication, artistic speech and colloquial speech. It should be said that colloquial speech influences all types of oral speech. This is expressed in the manifestation of the author’s “I”, the personal principle in speech in order to enhance the impact on the listeners. Therefore, in oral speech, emotionally and expressively colored vocabulary, figurative comparative constructions, phraseological units, proverbs, sayings, and even colloquial elements are used.

Written speech.

! Writing is a human-created auxiliary sign system, which is used to capture sound language and sound speech. At the same time, writing is an independent communication system, which, while performing the function of recording oral speech, acquires a number of independent functions: written speech makes it possible to assimilate the knowledge accumulated by a person and expands the scope of human communication. By reading books and historical documents from different times and peoples, we can touch the history and culture of all mankind.
! Writing has gone through a long path of historical development from the first notches on trees, rock paintings to the sound-letter type that most people use today, i.e. written language is secondary to oral. Letters used in writing are signs that represent speech sounds. The sound shells of words and parts of words are depicted by combinations of letters; knowledge of the letters allows them to be reproduced in sound form, i.e. read any text. Punctuation marks used in writing serve to divide speech: periods, commas, dashes correspond to intonation pauses in oral speech. It means that letters are the material form of written speech.
The main function of written speech is to record oral speech, with the goal of preserving it in space and time. Writing serves as a means of communication between people when direct communication is impossible, when they are separated by space and time. The development of a technical means of communication - the telephone - has reduced the role of writing. The advent of the fax and the spread of the Internet help overcome space and reactivate the written form of speech.
The main property of written speech is the ability to store information for a long time.
Written speech unfolds not in a temporary, but in a static space, which allows the writer to think through the speech, return to what was written, rebuild the text, replace words, etc. In this regard, the written form of speech has its own characteristics:
Written language uses bookish language, the use of which word is strictly standardized and regulated. The order of words in a sentence is fixed; inversion (changing the order of words) is not typical for written speech, and in some cases, for example, in texts of an official business style of speech, is unacceptable. The sentence, which is the basic unit of written speech, expresses complex logical and semantic connections through syntax. Written speech is characterized by complex syntactic structures, participial and participial phrases, common definitions, plug-in constructions, etc. When combining sentences into paragraphs, each sentence is strictly related to the preceding and following context.
Written speech is focused on perception by the visual organs, therefore, it has a clear structural and formal organization: it has a page numbering system, division into sections, paragraphs, a system of links, font selection, etc.
You can return to a complex text more than once, think about it, comprehend what has been written, having the opportunity to look through this or that passage of text with your eyes.

Written speech is different in that the very form of speech activity definitely reflects the conditions and purpose of communication, for example, a work of art or a description of a scientific experiment, a vacation application or an information message in a newspaper. Consequently, written speech has a style-forming function, which is reflected in the choice of linguistic means that are used to create a particular text. The written form is the main form of existence of speech in scientific, journalistic, official business and artistic styles.

Thus, when talking about the fact that verbal communication occurs in two forms - oral and written, we must keep in mind the similarities and differences between them. The similarity lies in the fact that these forms of speech have a common basis - literary language and in practice they occupy approximately equal space. The differences most often come down to the means of expression. Oral speech is associated with intonation and melody, non-verbalism, it uses a certain amount of “its own” linguistic means, it is tied more to the conversational style. The letter uses alphabetic and graphic symbols, often bookish language with all its styles and features.

a productive type of speech activity in which information is transmitted using speech sounds. U.r. - living speech, which is not only pronounced, sounds, but - most importantly - created in a matter of seconds, at the moment of speaking. This is created, spoken speech. The expression living word is often used to characterize it. (By the way, in the 20s of the 20th century there was even an Institute of the Living Word in our country.) U. r. should not be confused with spoken written speech, which occurs when reading aloud or reproducing a written source by heart. In U.R. conditions, as a rule, there is a direct addressee of the speech, which makes it possible for the speaker to take into account the immediate reaction of the listeners. It is necessary to note the following features of oral speech: 1) redundancy (repetitions of what was said, various kinds of clarifications, explanations, etc.); 2) economy (when the speaker does not name, omits something that is easy to guess; 3) interruptions (self-interruptions) (when the speaker, without finishing the sentence he started, begins another, when he makes corrections, clarifications to what was said, etc. ); 4) the use of non-verbal means of communication: volume, flexibility of voice, gestures, facial expressions, etc. The following genres of U. R. are distinguished. (only literary speech is considered). In a conversational style: 1) conversation in the family or with friends, acquaintances; 2) anecdote; 3) a story about yourself. U.r. used in all four types of book style: 1) report, discussion speech - scientific style; 2) report - business style; 3) parliamentary speech, report, interview, discussion speech - journalistic style; 4) story from the stage (for example, I. Andronikova) - style fiction. In contrast to written speech, where planning and control of the utterance plays an important role, the degree of preparedness of the U. R. depends on different speech situations. It should be noted that creative genres that have not been prepared in advance, the so-called spontaneous genres, when the content, structure, and form of presentation have not been thought out. This is a conversation in the family, with friends, acquaintances, an interview (without pre-written questions), a speech in a debate. In addition to unprepared speech, there is a distinction between partially prepared speech, when the content and purpose of the statement are mainly thought through. This is a business conversation, i.e. a conversation with official, as a rule, in an official setting, an interview (with pre-prepared questions), a speech in a debate, an anniversary public speech, a scientific report, etc. And, finally, there is a prepared U. r. The following so-called verbal-spontaneous genres are distinguished (the verbal expression is not thought out, the main thing is not thought out, what will be done and in what sequence). These are a lecture, oral abstracting, an opponent’s speech in a discussion, a public anniversary speech, a scientific report, etc. In educational activities, such genres of educational activities as conversation, lecture, report, speech in debate, and less often interviews are used. Lit.: Melibruda E.Ya. I-you-we: Psychological possibilities for improving communication. - M., 1986; Odintsov V.V. Speech formulas for popularization. - M., 1982; Spoken speech in the system functional styles modern Russian literary language. - Saratov, 1992; Varieties of urban oral speech. - M., 1988; Sokolov V.V. Culture of speech and culture of communication. - M., 1995. L.E. Tumina 261

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