Latin and Greek borrowings in the Russian language.
MODERN HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY
ABSTRACT
at the rate in English
on the topic of: "Latin borrowings in English"
Completed: student I course
groups 1038
Filippov A.V.
Ulyanovsk
1998
I . Introduction
If we consider the vocabulary of the English language, then all the words included in it should be considered English, with the exception of those words that, by their form, betray their foreign origin. For example:
Padishah - padishah from Persian:
Khaliff - caliph (caliph) from Arabic, etc.
But there are relatively few such words in the English language. The overwhelming majority of words are perceived in modern language like English words, whatever their actual origin. In fact, the original English words are those that have been known since the Old English period. They make up less than half of the English vocabulary. The rest of the dictionary language is words of foreign origin, coming from Latin, Greek, French, and Scandinavian other languages.
Words of foreign origin are called borrowings .
Borrowing lexical elements from one language to another is a very ancient phenomenon and is already known to the languages of the ancient world.
In the process of its development, the English language encountered many languages, from which it borrowed various words. They are not the same in quantity and specific gravity in the vocabulary of the English language.
II . Latin borrowings.
Latin elements occupy a significant place in the English vocabulary. The most ancient of them are the earliest borrowings in the English language. Among words of Latin origin in the English language, three layers are usually distinguished. They differ in the nature of the semantics (meaning, meaning) of words and the time of their borrowing.
1. First layer.
Ancient tribes, the ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons, who inhabited the northern part of Central Europe conducted trade exchanges with the Roman Empire, fought with it, clashed with Roman merchants and borrowed from the Romans a number of words associated with the concept of trade, or the type of goods and objects new to these tribes.
For example:
Latin word Modern English word
vinum - wine wine [‘wain] - wine
pondo - measure of weight pound - pound
uncia - ounce ounce [‘auns] - ounce
moneta - pieces of metal mint - mint coins
for exchange
cista - box (container chest [ʧest] - chest
for storage)
discum - dish, disc dish [‘diò] - dish
As we can see, these words are simple in form, with everyday content; they entered the English language orally, through direct live communication. This includes the names of food products and plants.
For example:
Latin word Modern English word
pipere - pepper [‘pepə]
persicum - peach peach [‘pi:ʧ]
pirum - pear (pirea) pear [‘pɛə]
prunum - plum plum [‘plʌm]
butyrum - butter [‘bʌtə]
plante - plant plant - plant,
plant a plant
caseus - cheese cheese [ʧi:z]
To measure long distances, the Romans used a unit of length equal to a thousand steps (»1.5 km). This measure was adopted by the ancient English along with its name.
Latin word Modern English word
millia passuum mile [‘mɑɪl] – mile
Roman merchants and soldiers crossed rivers and seas in flat-bottomed ships. This type of vessel was borrowed by the ancient English and the name entered the language:
Latin word Modern English word
ponto – flat-bottomed vessel punt [‘pʌnt] – flat-bottomed boat
Those places where it was possible to moor received Latin names:
Latin word Modern English word
portus – harbor port [‘pɔ:t] – pier, port, city
The first layer also includes words borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons later, already in the British Isles. These words are associated mainly with the construction techniques of the ancient Romans, traces of which the Anglo-Saxons found in Britain.
For example:
Latin word Modern English word
strata via - paved road street - street
campus - camp camp [‘kæmp] - camp
colonia - settlement colony [‘kɔlənɪ] - colony,
castra - chester fortress [‘ʧestə] - included in
Colchester, Lincoln city names Manchester,
Chester, Winchester, etc.
vallum - shaft, type of fortification wall - wall
2. Second layer.
The second layer of Latin borrowings is associated with Christianity, which was brought by Roman preachers who converted the pagan Anglo-Saxons to a new faith. The language of church services was Latin, so many Latin words of religious content penetrated into the ancient Roman language. Most of these words were not originally Latin, but came into the Latin language from Greek, since Christianity developed in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. Christian books were translated into Latin.
Here are some words related to this period:
Latin word Modern English word
episcopus - bishop bishop [‘bɪʃəp]
presbyter - priest priest [‘prɪ:st]
monachus - monk monk
scrinium - sacred tomb, shrine [‘ʃrɑɪn]
candela - candle candle [‘kændl]
monasterium - monastery mynster (minster) [‘mɪnstə]
Westminster - Western Priory
Eastmynster -Eastern monastery
The adoption of Christianity and the activities of preachers had a strong influence on the entire culture of the Anglo-Saxons. The Latin alphabet was introduced. Monastic schools, literary works in Latin, etc. appeared. Many words were borrowed, indicating the expansion of the horizons of the Anglo-Saxons.
For example:
Latin word Modern English word
schola - school school [‘sku:l]
magister - teacher schoolmaster [‘sku:lmʌstə]
rosa - rose rose [‘rouz]
palma - palma [‘pɑ:m]
phoenix - phoenix fenix
leo - lion lion[‘lɑɪən]
pardus - leopard leopard [‘lepəd]
The group of words is borrowed from the field of education, science, literature, study, and art.
For example:
Latin word Modern English word
canon - rule canon [‘kænən]
chronica - chronicle [k]chronical
versus - poetry verse [‘və:s]
grammatika nota - grammar evaluation [‘græmə]
notarius - scribe note [‘nout]
notary [‘noutərɪ] - notary
papirus - paper paper [‘peɪpə]
chorus - choir [k]chorus [‘kɔrəs]
theatrum - theater theater [‘ɵɪətə]
3. Third layer.
The Middle Ages were replaced by the Renaissance, which is characterized by the rapid development of science and technology, the unprecedented flowering of literature and art, the invention of printing, great geographical discoveries, the successes of materialist philosophy in the fight against church dogmas and the dominance of the church.
During this period, the English language borrowed many words from classical languages. They differed sharply from the previous ones in their character: these words are, as a rule, scientific. They penetrated the language through writing, through literature, scientific works, which contributed to the maximum preservation of the Latin form of the word.
For example:
animal - in English [‘ænɪməl] - animal
formula - in English - formula
inertia - in English [ɪn’ə:ʃʝə] - inertia
maximum - in English - maximum
minimum - in English - minimum
memorandum - in English [,memə’rændum] - memorandum
veto - in English [‘vɪ:tou] - veto
alibi - in English [‘ælɪbɑɪ] - alibi
autograph - in English [‘ɔ:təgrəf] - autograph
atmosphere - in English [‘ætmɔsfɪə] - atmosphere
excursion - in English [ɪks’kə:ʃn] - excursion
jurisprudence - in English [‘ʤuərɪs,pru:dəns] - jurisprudence
Latin borrowings of the Renaissance are divided into direct, that is, taken directly from the Latin language, and indirect, penetrating through the French language. Establishing the direct source of borrowing of individual words is not of fundamental importance, since ultimately, all these words are of Latin origin:
For example:
lat. factum - English fact (fact) – fr. fait – borrowed from English in the form feat (feat)
lat. radius (radius) – from French. ray (ray)
defect (disadvantage) – defeat (defeat)
turris (tower) - French. tour - English tower [‘tɑuə].
Many of the Latin borrowings belong to the so-called international vocabulary, i.e. are repeated in the languages of many peoples, united by common features of cultural and social development.
Even in the 17th century, scientific treatises were mostly written in Latin. English translations These treatises were replete with Latinisms in order to preserve the scientific style of presentation (associated with the Latin tradition).
The Latin loanwords of Middle English and Early Modern English are mainly abstract nouns and scientific words. Many of them are not currently used, but the number of Latinisms preserved in the vocabulary of the English language from the 13th to 18th centuries. is still very large.
For example:
locution - phrase, idiom of speech
magnanimity [,mægnə’nɪmɪtɪ] - generosity
medium [‘mɪ:dɪəm] - environment, condition
memory [‘memərɪ] - memory, memory
vortex [‘vɔ:teks] - whirlpool, whirlwind
to abhor [əb’hɔ:] - to feel disgusted
to absolve [əb’zɔlv] - forgive, let go (sins)
to add [‘æd] - add, add
to collide - collide
to discriminate - to distinguish, to differentiate
accurate [‘ækʝurɪt] - accurate
efficient [ɪ’fɪʃənt] - efficient, skillful
finite [‘fɑɪnɑɪt] - having a limit
igneous [‘ɪgnɪəs] - fiery, fiery
latent [‘leɪtənt] - hidden
Regarding these words, we can say with almost certainty that they came into English directly from Latin, bypassing French. Some of these words do not and never existed in the French language, while others were borrowed by the French language later than by English.
medical term borrowed from Latin
In Russia, Latin became widespread with the reforms of Peter I. At first it was used exclusively by scientists, diplomats and lawyers, but gradually Latin became Russified and became understandable to wider layers of society, and many latin words firmly entered the Russian language and took root: literature, architecture, fashion, notary, lawyer and many other words are no longer perceived as foreign.
In modern society, Latin is extremely necessary not only for doctors, but also for entrepreneurs, lawyers, barristers and representatives of other professions. Persona non grata, status quo, terra incognita - this is just a tiny part of those Latin expressions and catchphrases that we come across almost every day. Moreover, without minimal knowledge of the Latin language, without understanding well-known Latin expressions, proverbs and catchphrases, it is no longer possible to imagine a modern intelligent person.
The original Russian medical vocabulary is rooted in the common Indo-European base language and the common Slavic base language, on the basis of which in the 7th - 8th centuries. the Old Russian language arose. Writing appeared in Rus' in the middle of the 10th century. in the form of Old Church Slavonic (Church Slavonic) language.
It is possible that the original custodians of medical knowledge among the ancient Slavic tribes, like many other peoples, were the magician priests. The common Slavic word Doctor, which has a common root with the words “grumble”, “speak”, originally meant a sorcerer, sorcerer, fortune-teller, soothsayer, who heals with charms, incantations and incantations. From the depths of centuries, words attested in ancient Russian handwritten monuments that belong to the common Slavic layer have come down to us: thigh (diminutive “thigh, tibia”; hence “tibia”), thorn, side, eyebrow, hair, vospa (smallpox), head, throat , breast, hernia, lip, tooth, face, forehead, urine, nose, nail, fetus, kidney, cancer, hand, spleen, heart, crown, ear, etc.
We can consider Old Russian words that are common to the Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages, as well as words that belonged to one of them, but were firmly included in the Russian literary language, for example: pregnant, infertility, twins, illness, pain, sick, pus, shin, larynx, thirst, stomach, bile, conception, health, vision, intestines, skin, bone, medicine, medicinal, treatment, treat, brain, callus, muscle, nostril, smell, touch, swelling, poisoning, groin, liver, hymen, shoulder, sole, lower back, navel, erysipelas, mouth, cramp, body, jaw, skull, neck, ulcer, etc. Modern terminology includes such ancient names as nuchal ligament1, duodenum, epigastrium (the Church Slavonic and Old Russian word “neck” referred to neck, and the Church Slavonic words “finger” and “belly” meant “finger” and “stomach” respectively).
Many ancient Russian names of diseases and their symptoms have long gone out of use, and identifying them with modern terms is difficult. Such names include, for example, asthma (asthma), goldenrod (jaundice), kamchyug (arthritis), bloody womb (dysentery), epileptic illness (epilepsy), burning stomach (anthrax), leprosy (leprosy, lupus and some other lesions). skin), itching (scabies), shaking (malaria).
Some of the ancient Russian words used in the modern medical dictionary have changed their meaning. So, for example, the word “callus” in ancient times meant enlarged lymph nodes or an ulcer, the word “joint” meant a part of the body or an organ, as well as a joint in the modern sense, the word “gland” could mean a tumor (“gland merli People"). The Old Russian word “belly” had several meanings: life, property, animal. The word “eye”, which originally meant “ball (shiny)”, was used only in the 16th-17th centuries. acquired modern meaning along with its synonym - the common Slavic word “eye” and finally supplanted the latter only in the 18th century. IN literary monuments XVI century the word "back" appears for the first time as a synonym ancient word“ridge”, in the monuments of the 17th century. -- the word "lungs" instead of ancient name“ivies”, the word “cough” appears for the first time.
Many original Russian names that existed in the language of Old Russian empirical medicine and were recorded in all kinds of “Healing books”, “Herbal books” and “Vertograds”, were not retained in the language scientific medicine and gave way to other names, most often of Greco-Latin origin.
Greekisms of anatomical and physiological content are found sporadically already in the early monuments of ancient Russian writing. The penetration of Greekisms after the adoption of Christianity by Russia (10th century) was facilitated both by direct contacts with Byzantium and its culture, and by the growth in the number of translated Church Slavonic works. The latter were often compilations of passages from the works of Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen and Byzantine doctors.
Latin vocabulary was also initially borrowed through the Greek-Byzantine medium, although to an extremely insignificant extent. It began to actively penetrate into the XV-XVI centuries. thanks to the Polish language. In the 17th century In connection with the progress of enlightenment in Ukraine, Latinisms began to be borrowed directly from works in Latin. Perhaps the very first of these works is Vesalius’s “Epitome”, which is the author’s brief extract from the work “On the structure human body", was translated in 1657-1658. prominent Russian enlightener Epiphanius Slavinetsky. It is assumed that the translation was supposed to serve as a textbook on anatomy for students of the school of Russian doctors, allegedly opened in 1654-1655. under the Pharmacy Order. Although the translation of E. Slavinetsky is lost, it can be assumed on the basis of his other work, “The Complete Greek-Slavic-Latin Lexicon,” that he created certain prerequisites for mastering the terminology of Western European medicine of that era. E. Slavinetsky used only two ways of translating terms - the use of original Russian equivalents and tracing [for example, he translated the term polyphagia (from the Greek poly- many and phagein) with the word “multiple eating”] and almost did not use borrowings.
A significant step in the comprehension and mastery of Greek-Latin vocabulary by Russians, including medical content, was made by a remarkable lexicographer of the early 18th century. F.P. Polikarpov. His “Trilingual Lexicon, that is, the sayings of Slavic, Hellenic-Greek and Latin treasures” (1704), consisting of 19,712 articles, contains significant number names of diseases and medicinal herbs in Greek, Latin and Russian. The large number of synonyms he cites indicates a wide range of literary medical sources used. Each article begins with a Russian name, which most often represents either a Russian equivalent (stone disease, smallpox, erysipelas, okovrach or ochnik, etc.), or a descriptive designation; Borrowings and Latinisms (apoplexy, dysentery, doctor, etc.) are used less frequently.
After the first graduations of the Greco-Latin Academy, in 1658 in Moscow, classicism began to be borrowed directly from the works of ancient authors and on a much wider scale than before. Special attention was devoted to teaching scientific anatomical and surgical terminology in Latin at the First Hospital School, established in 1707 on the orders of Peter I and led by N. Bidloo.
During the Peter the Great era and after it, throughout the entire 18th century, hundreds of scientific Latinisms were poured into the actively developing Russian literary language, both directly from Latin works and through Western European languages. At the beginning of the 18th century. The following words are widely used: medic, medicine, medicine, medicine, pill, pharmacist, recipe, sangva (Latin sanguis blood), urine (Latin urina urine), febra (Latin febris fever). In the middle of the 18th century. the words abscess, ampulla, amputation, tonsillitis, vein, consultation, constitution, contusion, muscle, nerve, ophthalmologist, patient, dissector, pulse, respiration (breathing), retina, relapse, section, scalpel, scurvy appear in the literature, temperament, fiber (vein), fistula, etc.
M.V. made a huge contribution to the substantiation of principles and the development of Russian scientific terminology. Lomonosov (1711--1765). A brilliant expert on classical languages, he repeatedly emphasized their importance for the needs of education and for the progress of terminology in Russia. M.V. Lomonosov took part in the review of the first anatomical atlas, translated from German by A.P. Protasov (1724-1796), who laid the foundations of scientific anatomical terminology in Russian.
Russian doctors-translators of the 18th century. belongs to the creation of Russian scientific medical terminology. It was truly a feat of scholarship and patriotism. Russian translators had to overcome significant difficulties in conveying through their native language the names of abstract concepts developed by Western European languages, including the classicisms and neoclassicisms mastered by the latter.
The shortcomings of terminology were especially acutely felt by Russian medical teachers. Teaching medical disciplines in Russian was possible only if domestic terminology was developed. Therefore, many outstanding Russian doctors became both translators and philologists. Among them, first of all, we should mention the chief physician of the St. Petersburg Admiralty Hospital M.I. Shein (1712-1762), who created the earliest summary of Russian anatomical terms in Russian literature.
Translators were able to cope more easily with the names of diseases and symptoms, because for them there were often equivalent designations that existed in the language of traditional medicine. The situation with scientific anatomy was more difficult, since many anatomical formations, for example, pleura, pancreas, trochanter, did not have Russian names at all. In such cases, descriptive compound terms were often created instead of a single Latin (or Latinized Greek) word. So, M.I. Shein created the Russian equivalent for the word diaphragma, “abdominal obstruction.” Along with this, translators resorted to tracing. A.P. Protasov introduced the name Clavicle, which is a tracing paper from the Latin word clavicula (from clavis key).
In the process of formation of domestic terminology, there was almost not a single foreign language term for which several equivalents in Russian were not proposed by different authors. Not all of them have stood the test of time and have been replaced by terms of Greco-Latin origin, including neologisms.
The first dictionaries of medical terms in Latin, Russian and French were compiled by the first Russian professor of “midwifery art” N.M. Ambodik-Maksimovich (1744-1812). In 1783, his “Anatomical and Physiological Dictionary” was published, containing about 4000 titles, and Russian ones were extracted, according to the author, “from various printed, church and civil, also new, old and handwritten books”, and also represented “his own handmade” creativity. The next issue - "Medical-Pathological-Surgical Dictionary" (1785) - collected "the names of diseases and their symptoms in the human body, as well as devices, operations, dressings used in surgery to perform certain manipulations."
Russian medical vocabulary was presented in the first academic dictionary of the Russian language - “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” (1789-1794) - with more than 600 words. Folk common Russian names were included, as well as borrowed ones scientific terms Greco-Latin origin. The words were accompanied by very complete, carefully worded definitions. The medical part of the dictionary was compiled by leading Russians scientists doctors A.P. Protasov and N.Ya. Ozertskovsky (1750--1827). In this dictionary, in particular, the term Inflammation was first recorded, created by Shein in 1761 as a tracing paper from the Latin word inflammatio (from inflammo to set fire, set on fire, ignite).
A major contribution to the creation of Russian anatomical terminology was made by the founder of the Russian anatomical school P.A. Zagorsky (1764-1846), who wrote the first Russian anatomy textbook (1802), where he introduced Russian equivalents of a number of Latin terms. E.O. was heavily involved in the development of domestic anatomical terminology. Mukhin (1766-1850), who also created an anatomy course in Russian.
The “Medical Dictionary” compiled in 1835 by A.N. can be considered a qualitatively new stage in lexicographic processing, clarification and systematization of the rapidly growing Russian medical terminology. Nikitin - founder and first secretary of the Society of Russian Doctors of St. Petersburg. This was the first medical dictionary in Russia in which terms were interpreted. Medical community of the first half of the 19th century. highly appreciated Nikitin’s work “for his deep knowledge of the Russian language and extensive acquaintance with Russian medical literature,” which made it possible “to present the nomenclature fully assembled without innovations and in such a form that henceforth it could serve as a model of Russian medical terminology.”
Throughout the 19th century. Russian medical vocabulary continued to be actively replenished with terms that had an international distribution, the predominant mass of which were classicisms and neoclassicisms, for example Abortion, alveolus (Alveolus of the lung), Ambulatory, Bacillus, Vaccine, hallucination (Hallucinations), Dentin, Immunization, Immunity, Heart attack, Infection, Cavern, Carbuncle, Lymph, Percussion, Pulp, Reflex, Exudate, etc., preserved to this day.
At the same time, among Russian doctors there were also extreme purists who objected to borrowings and neologisms, defending the original Russian common vocabulary, which they endowed with special medical significance. This point of view was held, in particular, by V.I. Dal (1801-1872) - doctor by profession, creator of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”. However, none of the replacements he proposed remained in the language of Russian medicine.
Most Russian doctors defended terms that were well established in professional usage, regardless of whether they were internationalisms of Greco-Latin origin or their Russian equivalents. They also realized the importance of preserving the Latin termini technici, i.e. standard, international not only in meaning, but also in form, according to the Latin transcription of names. In 1892--1893 The Encyclopedic Medical Dictionary by A. Vilare was published in translation from German. The preface to the Russian edition of the dictionary stated that “over the past decades, Russian medical terminology has developed significantly and strengthened among practical doctors, however, it is not yet at such a height that it excludes the use of Latin names.” It defended the advantage of the Latin terms generally accepted at that time such as auto?digestio, abrachia, acromegalia, epilepsia, and raised objections to the corresponding Russian names “self-digestion”, “handlessness”, “ giant growth", "epileptic", etc. It is interesting that the further fate of these terms turned out to be different: Self-digestion, and not autodigestio, was fixed in the language, and the remaining terms were preserved in the form of borrowing, without being accompanied by Russian equivalents (Abrachia, Acromegaly, Epilepsy).
Modern Russian medical terminology, based on linguistic origin, forms of writing, functions performed at the national or international levels, can be divided into the following main groups:
- 1) original Russian names;
- 2) borrowed classicisms, assimilated to varying degrees, adapted to the sound and morphological system of the Russian literary language; the overwhelming majority of them actually perform the function of internationalisms, i.e. terms that have received cross-linguistic distribution in at least three languages from different language groups (for example, in Latin, French, English, German, Russian, etc.);
- 3) original Western Europeanisms, which actually perform the function of internationalisms;
- 4) Latin termini technici.
In the second half of the 20th century. medical vocabulary continues to be enriched with internationalisms. In modern Russian medical terminology, internationalisms and their Russian equivalents (including tracings of a foreign language term) act as synonyms. In some cases, the Russian equivalent is preferably used, for example, Lice instead of pediculosis (Pediculosis), Prurigo instead of Prurigo, Ossification instead of Ossification, Diarrhea instead of Diarrhea, Dwarfism instead of Dwarfism, Incarceration instead of Incarceration, Eversion of the eyelid instead of Ectropion. In other cases, internationalisms are preferred, such as Puncture rather than Puncture, Malignancy rather than Malignancy, Favus rather than Scab, Palpation rather than Palpation, Enucleation rather than Enucleation, Gynecophobia rather than Misogyny. In many of the above cases, the preferred use of a borrowed word is explained by the fact that its Russian equivalent is also used in the general literary language in a broader or different meaning. Sometimes the Russian equivalent gives way to internationalism, since it is easier to form derivative words from the latter, for example Placenta (placental) - Children's place. Often such synonyms are practically equal, for example: Bleeding, Hemorrhage and Hemorrhage (hemorrhagic), Myopia and Myopia (myopic), pancreas and pancreas (pancreatic), Blood transfusion and Hemotransfusion (hemotransfusion).
Many terms of Greco-Latin origin, including neoclassicisms, penetrate into Russian terminology through Western European languages. Often they were able to gain the actual status of internationalisms, appearing almost simultaneously in two or more languages, and it is often difficult or impossible to find out in which Western European language a particular term, marked with the stamp of classical or neoclassical origin, first appeared. Many terms, having originally appeared in English, French or German linguistic form, undergo simultaneous or subsequent formal romanization; however, this process can also develop in the opposite direction: from a term Latinized in form to its nationally adapted analogue.
Sometimes a clear indication that classicism or neoclassicism was borrowed through Western European languages is provided by phonetic features that are not characteristic of classical languages. Thus, the presence in some words of the sound [w], which was absent in classical languages, indicates that the word was borrowed from German (Sciatica, neoclassicisms Schizophrenia, schizothymia, etc.). Under the influence of the phonetic system French The term senestopathy (French cеnestopathie) arose, derived from the Greek words koinos (general), aisthзsis (sensation, feeling) and pathos (suffering, disease).
Influenced by Western European languages in some Latinized words Greek origin a sound [c] absent in the Greek language appeared, for example: Cyst (Latin cysta, from Greek kystis), Cyanosis (Latin cyanosis, from Greek kyanфsis).
The artificial (neoclassical) nature of a number of terms is indicated by the components of different languages, mainly Greek and Latin; for example: Vagotomy (Latin anat. nervus vagus vagus nerve + Greek tomz incision), Coronary sclerosis (Lat. anat. arteria coronaria coronary artery + Greek sklзrфsis hardening, sclerosis), Rectoscopy (Latin rectum rectum + Greek skopef to consider , research). “Hybrids” are formed similarly: Appendicitis, Gingivitis, Duodenitis, Conjunctivitis, Retinitis, Tonsillitis, etc. (to the Latin anatomical terms appendix - appendage, gingiva - gum, duodenum - duodenum, conjunctiva - connective membrane of the eye, retina - retina, tonsilla - tonsil, added the Greek suffix -itis, used to denote inflammation). The Greek prefixes Hyper-, Hypo-, Peri- and others are often combined with the Latin base: hyperfunction, hypotension, perivisceral, perivascular. There are also Greek-Russian “hybrids”: Allochondrium, leukovsus, Rechegramma, etc.
Such “hybridization” is quite natural within the framework of medical and biological terminology, where Greek and Latin roots and word-forming elements have grown into the fabric of national languages over many centuries and formed an international foundation in them. Therefore, the “hybrid” word “acidophilic” (Latin acidus sour + Greek philos loving, inclined) is just as legitimate as the monolingual word “thermophilic” (Greek thermos heat, warmth + Greek philos).
Original Western Europeanisms, i.e. There are relatively few words that arose from the lexical and word-formation material of Western European languages in Russian medical vocabulary. Their active implementation has been noted only since the end of the 19th century. and especially in the 20th century. They are presented mainly in terminology related to medical technology, surgical techniques, genetics, physiology, hygiene, and are much less common in the nomenclature of diseases. Thus, Anglicisms include, for example, Attachment, Blockade, Doping, Inbreeding, Clearance, Crossingover, Pacemaker, Site, shunt (arteriovenous shunt) and “hybrid” terms Aerotank, dumping syndrome, rant disease (Runt disease), Westing- syndrome. Borrowings from the French language include, for example, Absence, Midwife, Bandage, Bougie, Influenza, Drainage, Probe, Cannula, Whooping Cough, Cretinism, Curette, Patronage, Pipette, Raspator, Tampon, Teak, Yaws, Chancre, the “hybrid” term Culdoscopy . Examples of borrowings from the German language include boron (dental boron), Bugel, Klammer, Kornzang, Resort, Reiters, Spatel, Shub, “hybrid” words Abortzang, Rausch-narcosis, etc.
Some nosological terms of Italian origin have become internationalisms: Influenza, Malaria, Pellagra, Scarlet fever. The term Sigwaterra comes from the Spanish language, and Croup from the Scottish language.
There are individual words borrowed from Eastern and African languages: Japanese word Tsutsugamushi, African tribal - Kwashiorkor, Sinhalese - Beriberi. Sex therapists use some words of ancient Indian origin, for example, Vikharita, Virghata, Kumbitmaka, Narvasadata. The names of some are borrowed from the tribal languages of the American Indians. medicinal substances: ipecac, curare, quinine.
A traditional feature of medical and biological terminology continues to be the use of termini technici - terms graphically and grammatically designed in Latin. The identity of their understanding by different specialists in all countries makes termini technici an indispensable means of internationalizing terminology.
Large groups of termini technici are united in modern international nomenclatures and have an officially approved international status. These include nomenclatures of morphological and biological disciplines: anatomical, histological and embryological nomenclatures, codes of botanical and zoological nomenclature and a code of bacterial nomenclature. In the International Pharmacopoeia, the Latin name of the drug is indicated as the main, reference name.
Termini technici have a different status, relating to the dictionary of clinical medicine, denoting diseases, pathological conditions, symptoms, syndromes, etc. In most cases, they actually perform the function of international designations, but their use is optional. The “International Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death” does not contain international Latin names as mandatory. In the USSR, most of these termini technici are used only in conjunction with their Russian equivalents, for example Hernia, Urticaria, Herpes Zoster, Cholecystitis. At the same time, some termini technici of this type are used in domestic medical terminology as preferred terms. These include, for example, Caries sicca, Carcinoma in situ, Partus conduplicato corpore, Situs viscerum inversus, Spina bifida, Status typhosus, Tabes dorsalis, plow vara (Coxa vara).
The Latin language played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated primarily with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words go back to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external student, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution, etc. These Latinisms came to our language, as well as to other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with some other language (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational institutions), but also through other languages. The Latin language in many European countries was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific works up to the 18th century. often written in Latin; Medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian.
The compilers of the anthology of medieval Latin literature write: “The Latin language was not a dead language, and Latin literature was not dead literature. They not only wrote in Latin, but also said: it was colloquial, which united the few educated people of that time: when a Swabian boy and a Saxon boy met in a monastery school, and a Spanish youth and a Pole youth met at the University of Paris, then in order to understand each other, they had to speak Latin. And not only treatises and lives were written in Latin, but also accusatory sermons, meaningful historical works, and inspired poems.”
Most Latin words came into the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, especially through the Polish and Ukrainian languages, for example: school, auditorium, dean, office, vacation, director, dictation, exam, etc. (The role of special educational institutions.) All current names of months from the Latin language are borrowed through Greek.
In addition to borrowing foreign language vocabulary, the Russian language actively borrowed some foreign language word-forming elements to create Russian words themselves. Among such borrowings, special mention is made of a group of international terms, for example: dictatorship, constitution, corporation, laboratory, meridian, maximum, minimum, proletariat, process, public, revolution, republic, erudition, etc.
Let us give examples of the use of Latin as a unified language of science, which allows us to avoid confusion and achieve understanding by people of different nationalities.
· In astronomy, the most famous constellation of the northern hemisphere is the Big Dipper (lat. Ursa Major) - this asterism has been known since ancient times among many peoples under different names: Plow, Elk, Cart, Seven Sages Hearse and Mourners.
· In system chemical elements Uniform naming of all elements is applicable. For example, gold has the symbol Au and the scientific name (Latin) Aurum. Proto-Slavic *zolto (Russian gold, Ukrainian gold, Old Slavic gold, Polish złoto), Lithuanian geltonas “yellow”, Latvian zelts “gold, golden”; Gothic gulþ, German Gold, English Gold.
· “Golden grass is the head of all herbs” - this is a popular saying about one of the most poisonous medicinal plants in Russia. Common names: chistoplot, chistets, podtynnik, warthog, prozornik, gladishnik, glechkopar, yellow milkweed, yellow spurge, nutcracker, zhovtilo, dog soap, swallow grass. It is unlikely that we recognized the well-known celandine. To understand which plant we are talking about, scientists use the Latin names (Chelidónium május).
If the Greeks took upon themselves the “responsibility” of giving names to poetic and theatrical terms, then the Romans took prose seriously. Latin experts will tell us what it is a short word can be translated into Russian by the phrase “purposeful speech.” The Romans generally loved precise and short definitions. It is not for nothing that the word lapidary came to us from the Latin language, i.e. “carved in stone” (short, compressed). The word text means “connection”, “connection”, and illustration means “explanation” (to the text). A legend is “something that should be read,” a memorandum is “something that should be remembered,” and an opus is “work,” “work.” The word fabula translated from Latin means “story”, “legend”, but it came to the Russian language from German with the meaning “plot”. A manuscript is a document “written by hand,” but an editor is a person who must “put everything in order.” Madrigal is also a Latin word, it comes from the root “mother” and means a song in the native, “mother” language.
The Romans developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched world culture with many legal terms. For example, justice (“justice”, “legality”), alibi (“elsewhere”), verdict (“the truth has been spoken”), lawyer (from the Latin “I urge”), notary (“scribe”), protocol (“ first sheet"), visa ("looked through"), etc. The words version ("turn") and intrigue ("confuse") are also of Latin origin. The Romans came up with the word lapse - “fall”, “mistake”, “wrong step”.
The following medical terms are of Latin origin: hospital (“hospitable”), immunity (“liberation from something”), disabled (“powerless”, “weak”), invasion (“attack”), muscle (“little mouse”) , obstruction (“blockage”), obliteration (“destruction”), pulse (“push”).
Currently, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new, never existing words and terms. For example, allergy is “another action” (the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke).
Nowadays, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in antiquity: astronaut [gr. kosmos - Universe + gr. nautes - (sea) - swimmer]; futurology (lat. futurum - future + gr. logos - word, teaching); scuba (Latin aqua - water + English lung - lung). This is explained by the exceptional productivity of Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international character, which facilitates the understanding of such roots in different languages.
Even before the settlement of the Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in the British Isles, there were trade relations between these tribes and the Romans, which left some traces in the languages of these tribes. The borrowings of this period, which is commonly called the first period of Latin borrowings, reflect the nature of the cultural, economic and military relations of the Roman and Germanic tribes. New words usually express new concepts that arose in connection with the introduction to the higher culture of the Roman people of this period. Such borrowings include the following words: port (Lat. portus), cycene (kitcen) from Lat. coquina, piper (pepper) from Lat. Piper et al.
The assumption that these words were borrowed by the Anglo-Saxons even before moving to the British Isles is based on comparative historical analysis. By comparing the lexical composition of various Germanic languages and dialects, comparative historical linguistics has established the commonality of many words of Latin origin in these languages. Naturally, the assumption arose that the Anglo-Saxons brought these words with them. However, the presence of many of these words in the language of the Celts, with whom the Anglo-Saxons came into contact on the islands, does not make it possible to accurately establish, due to the lack of monuments, whether these words came into Old English directly from the Latin language or were borrowed from the Celtic language already on the territory Britain.
The bulk of Latin borrowings are associated with the introduction of Christianity in 597. Most of these borrowings express church and religious concepts. The general rise of culture associated with the introduction of Christianity led to the emergence of new concepts that needed appropriate linguistic design. New words appeared from the Latin language, denoting concepts from the sphere of culture and everyday life.
Here are examples of Latin words that found their way into Old English and are preserved in modern English.
Household items, tools, implements: ancor (anchor) from Lat. ancora; box (box) from Lat. buxus; cealc (chalk) from Lat. calcem; paper (paper) from Lat. paryrus; pyle (pillow) from Lat. pulvinus; post (post) from Lat. postis; purs (purse) from Lat.bursa; sicol (sikle) from Lat. secula;
Items of clothing: cappe (cap) from Lat. cappa; socc (sock) from Lat. soccus.
Measures of weight and length: circul (circle) from Lat. circulus; pund (pound) from Lat. pondo; ynce (inch) from Lat. incia.
Names of animals, birds and fish: assa (ass) from Lat. asinus; camel (camel) from Lat. camelus; turtle (turtle) from Lat. turtur; truht (trout) from Lat. tructa.
Plant names: palm (palm) from Lat. palma; pere (pear) from Lat. pirum; rose (rose) from Lat. Rosa; lilie (lily) from Lat. lilium; plante (plant) from Lat. planta
Words related to religion:
engel (angel) from Lat. angelus; biscop (bishop) from Lat. episcopus; cyrice (church) from Lat. cyriaca; munuc (monk) from Lat. monachus; nunne (nun) from Lat. nonna; papa (pope) from Lat. papa.
In total, according to the calculations of the English linguist Bo, by the end of the Old English period there were about 450 Latin borrowings, not counting derivative words and proper names.
A significant number of Latin words entered the English language between the 11th and 13th centuries, during the Norman period. However, these words, for the most part, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.
The largest number of words borrowed by the English language from the Latin language are so-called book borrowings. These are words that entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less susceptible to all kinds of changes, especially semantic ones. This is logical to explain by the fact that book borrowings, for a long period of time, are limited to the sphere of their use - the literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.
Most of the Latin book borrowings in English occur during the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, during the Renaissance in England. There are over a thousand Latin words in the works of Wycliffe, Langland and Chaucer that have not previously been attested in English. During the Renaissance, words from the fields of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms, etc. appeared. A list of these words cannot be given within a short chapter. To do this you need to compile a special dictionary.
Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological characteristics, for example, verbs with the suffix –ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of the first conjugation, such as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix –ute- in the infinitive, obtained from the stem of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of the third conjugation, such as prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with bases on –ant- and –ent-, for example, evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.
The subsequent centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases, these are so-called “learned words”, often retaining the features of the morphological character of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.
Finally, in modern English there are also borrowings that have completely retained their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotations from the Latin language. The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in scientific prose styles, in business documents, in an elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include expressions such as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine quanon, and so on.
As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words by one language from another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages come into contact. This is precisely the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appeared in English twice: once from French, another time from Latin itself. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time, which is necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as new. The result is etymological French-Latin doublets.
Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be included among the Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later interpreted as word-forming morphemes. However, in linguistic literature they are usually called borrowed affixes.
Thus, the Latin language had a significant influence on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, prepared the way for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological affinities. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word came into English from French or Latin.
Among the borrowed Latin words, a certain group of words stands out, which in one or another sound form, grammatical design and semantic content can be found in a number of languages - international words. It was the Latin language that gave the most significant number of such words. This is explained by the fact that the Latin language in the era of feudalism was for many countries Western Europe the international language of science, and in some countries a literary language in general. The Latin language retained its importance as the language of science until the 17th-18th centuries. Modern medicine, chemistry, botany, zoology, philosophy, politics, and art still widely use Latin bases to denote newly emerging concepts. Of the Latin words borrowed by the English language and which are international words, the following words can be mentioned: obligation, constitution, alibi, agriculture, microscope, modern, laboratory, program, system, socialism, communism, capitalism, climate, radius, tradition and so on.
Vorobyova Maria
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Latin and Greek borrowings in Russian
Vorobyova Maria
MOBU "Lyceum No. 3", 6 "B" class
School teacher
Babaskina Irina Evgenevna,
teacher of Russian language and literature
Orenburg 2012
1. Introduction 3
Purpose and objectives of the study.
2. Literature review on issues raised in educational and research work 4
3. Classification and methods of penetration of Latinisms and Greekisms into the Russian language. 7
4. Objects and methods of research 9
5. Research results 9
6. Conclusion 15
7. Practical significance of the study. 16
8. References 17
Purpose of the study:
I. At the lexical level, consider the functioning of Latin and Greek borrowings in the modern Russian language.
II. Raise your cultural level, expand your horizons of knowledge.
Tasks:
1. Acquaintance with the literature on the problems raised in educational and research work.
2. Identify ways of penetration of Latinisms and Greekisms into the Russian language.
3. Collection of lexical material and compilation of a working card index.
1. Introduction
For almost 20 centuries, the Latin language served the peoples of Europe as a means of communication; with its help, they became acquainted with and perceived Roman and Greek culture. He had a huge influence on the languages of European peoples, both in the field of grammar and especially in the field of vocabulary. Russia became familiar with the heritage of Roman civilization through books; as early as the 15th century, translations of Latin works became widespread in Rus'.
The Greek language played a huge role in the development of Slavic writing and the Old Church Slavonic language. In addition, cultural achievements Greek civilization not only had a significant influence on Russian culture, but also almost completely laid the foundations of the Western European civilizational type. Language serves as a means of accumulating and storing culturally significant information.
We believe that this topic is relevant. In this work, we analyzed only a small part of the vocabulary of Latin and Greek origin. This was painstaking but interesting work, because behind every word there is a whole story.
2. Literature review on issues raised in educational and research work.
In the process of their historical development, human languages have constantly entered into and continue to enter into certain contacts with each other. Language contact is the interaction of two or more languages that has some influence on the structure and vocabulary of one or more of them. The simplest case of language contact is the borrowing of a word from one language to another. As a rule, borrowing a word is associated with borrowing an object or concept denoted by this word.
Behind every word in any language there is a whole story. Language, as the most important means of our cultural and national identity, can tell us a lot of interesting things. It influences the consciousness of the people who speak it no less than the people influence it.
Language, like people, can be flexible or conservative, or even “dead” like ancient Greek and Latin. “A language has its ancestor, who gave it life; under favorable conditions, it can end up far from its progenitor, giving birth, like the Latin language brought by the Romans, to a whole family of noble offspring” (W. Stevenson).
Since ancient times, the Russian people have entered into cultural, trade, military, and political ties with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowings. In the process of use, most of them were influenced by the borrowing language. Gradually, borrowed words, assimilated (from Latin assimilare - to assimilate, liken) by the borrowing language, became among the words in common use and were no longer perceived as foreign. IN different eras Words from other languages penetrated into the original language (Common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper).
Borrowing - the process as a result of which a word appears and becomes fixed in a language. Borrowing expands the vocabulary of a language. Borrowed words reflect the completeness of contacts between peoples. Thus, in the Germanic languages there is a vast layer of ancient Latin borrowings, in Slavic languages the oldest borrowings are from Germanic and Iranian languages. For example, the German word Arzt "doctor" comes from the Latin arhiator (Chief physician), etc.
When borrowing, the meaning of a word often changes. Thus, the French word chance means “ luck " or "you're lucky", while the Russian word " chance " means only "opportunity of luck." Sometimes the meaning changes beyond recognition. For example, the Russian word " idiot" comes from the Greek " private person", the word "barn" goes back to the Persian word meaning " castle" (it entered the Russian language through the Turkic languages). It also happens that a borrowed word returns in its new meaning back to the language from which it came. This is the history of the word " bistro" , which came to the Russian language from French, where it arose after the War of 1812, when parts of Russian troops found themselves on French territory - probably as a transmission of the replica “Quickly!”
The main flow of borrowing foreign words comes through the colloquial speech of professionals.
Among the borrowings, a group of so-called internationalisms stands out, i.e. words of Greek-Latin origin, widespread in many languages of the world. These include, for example, the Greek words:philosophy, democracy, problem, revolution, principle, progress, analysis.In addition to ready-made Latin and Greek words, individual Greco-Latin morphemes are widely used in international scientific terminology: roots, prefixes, suffixes (many Greek morphemes were borrowed by the Latin language back in ancient times). Building elements of Greek origin include, for example:bio-, geo-, hydro-, anthropo-, pyro-, chrono-, psycho-, micro-, demo-, theo-, paleo-, neo-, macro-, poly, mono-, para-, allo-, -logy, -graphy-, super-, inter- , extra-, re-, or-, -izationetc. When constructing terms, international Greek and Latin elements can be combined with each other (for example: television, sociology), as well as with morphemes borrowed from new European languages, for example, speedometer (from the English Speed “Speed”).
Words of Greek origin in the Russian language are of two types - in accordance with the era and the method of their borrowing. The largest group consists of those Greek words that came into the Russian language through Latin and new European languages - this includes all international scientific terminology, as well as many generally significant words, such astheme, scene, alphabet, barbarian, department, Athens, date.Finally, in the Russian language there are single words borrowed from ancient Greek in its classical version, for example, the philosophical term oikoumene (lit."population "), going back to the same word " house", which is included in the words economy or ecology.
Especially important role In the Russian language, borrowings from Church Slavonic are used - a closely related language in which worship was conducted in Rus' and which until the mid-17th century. simultaneously performed the function of the Russian literary language. These include: anathema, angel, archbishop, demon, icon, monk,monastery, lamp, sexton and others.
In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must take hold in a new language, firmly enter its vocabulary - just as many foreign words, such asbread, mug, umbrella, sail, market, bazaar, station, tomato, cutlet, car, cucumber, church, tea, sugar andothers, many of whom turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign language origin.
3. Classification and methods of penetration of Latinisms and Greekisms into the Russian language.
Latinisms and Greekisms first began to penetrate the Russian language several centuries ago. The largest number of them came into our language in the 18th and 19th centuries. This is due to the general cultural influence on Russia of Western European countries and, above all, France, whose language is the closest descendant of Latin. Latinisms came to us directly from the Latin language, but could be borrowed indirectly - through other languages. Therefore, Latinisms and Greekisms are divided intodirect and indirect. The intermediary languages most often were French, English, German, Italian and Polish. So many European words were borrowed by the Russian language through Polish, for example, music (a word of Greek origin that came to the Russian language through Europe and Poland), the word market (Polish ryneh with the same meaning, which arose, in turn, from the German Ring- ring, circle ) etc. There are borrowings with a very long and complex history, for example, the word"varnish" : it came into the Russian language from German or Dutch, into these languages from Italian, but the Italians most likely borrowed it from the Arabs, to whom it came through Iran from India.
Latinisms and Greekisms are classified into artificial and natural. Artificial Latinisms are words that arose as terms for technical devices, art history or socio-political terminology. These words were created by individuals, mostly in modern times, and did not exist in living Latin.
Tracing paper. In some cases, one Latin and also Greek word served as a source for two borrowings in the Russian language. They arise by literal translation into Russian of individual meaningful parts of a word (prefixes, roots). A calque is, for example, the word“spelling” (gr. Orthos et grapho), adverb (lat ad t verbum). Derivational tracings are known from Greek, Latin, German, and French words.
Neologisms. Among the neologisms of recent years, we observe vocabulary of Latin origin, which came into the Russian language through the English language. These are Latinisms in anglicized form. Word office (English Office, Latin Officum - service, duty), sponsor (English Sponsor, Latin Spondare - to solemnly promise, philanthropist, private person or any organization that finances something, someone).
4. Objects and methods of research.
The material for educational and research work is the etymological dictionary of the Russian language by the authors Shansky N.M., Ivanov V.V., Shanskaya T.V. This dictionary includes over 3000 words. In difficult cases, we used the Newest Dictionary of Foreign Words. By sampling from this dictionary, the author’s working card index was created, which contains 100 cards. Each card indicates the source (this dictionary), the title word (vocabula), the Latin and Greek word, origin, and translation into Russian. Latinisms and Greekisms are represented by words that actually function in the Russian language, as well as the latest borrowings (computer, counterfeiting, etc.)
Consideration of borrowed words can be done in different ways. We will look at the languages from which these borrowings entered the Russian language in different periods development and put it on cards. Borrowings occur at all language levels, but in our work it is most convenient to work with borrowed vocabulary, because at the same time, it was possible to obtain a fairly complete picture of interlingual interaction, based on dictionary data.
Our card index contains vocabulary: socio-political, economic, legal, religious, medical, education and education vocabulary, philological, commonly used words and terms that are included in the active vocabulary of the Russian language.
5. Results of our own research
Any research involves, first of all, the classification of the objects being studied. Having studied the theory of classification and methods of penetration of borrowings into the Russian language, we set ourselves the task of identifying the basis for the classification of our material.
Working with the card index, we were able to establish that various bases are possible for the classification of lexical Latinisms and Greekisms. We have chosen the following:
1) Direct borrowings
Direct ones are those that came into the Russian language directly from the source language (Latin).
In our card index of 100 words there are 40 direct borrowings.
Symposium, scholarship, incentive, university, board, presidium, session, nonsense, tomato, passport, decoration, carnival, physician, audience, maximum, index, stroke, president, pluralism, lecture, abstract, seminar, rector, professor, alibi, symbol, etc.
Stipendium lat. 1) soldier's salary. 2) cash scholarship
Stroke (insulto< лат) 1) скачу, впрыгиваю. 2) острое нарушение мозгового кровообращения.
October -October, octo - eight in Ancient Rome, the 8th month of the year after the reform of the calendar by Julius Caesar, the 10th month.
Session - session< лат происхождение от глагола “sedere” (сидеть), буквально - сидение.
Stimulus - stimulus< лат 1) остроконечная палка, которой погоняли скот. 2)в русском языке - поощрение, стимул.
Symposium - symposium< лат. 1) пир, пирушка. 2) совещание
Style - stulus< лат. палочка для письма у древних греков.
Lecture - lectio< лат. вид учебного занятия.
2) Indirect borrowing
Of the 100 words in our card index, 60 lexemes are indirect or indirect borrowings. We have established that the intermediary languages through which Latin words came into the Russian language are French, German, Polish, English, Italian. They went through a difficult path, moving from language to language, and got into the Russian language through not one language, but two or three.
For example, a lawyer (Latin advocatus, German -Advokat)
Introvert (Latin - intro inside + vertere - English introvert - turn)
Classification (Latin - classis, German - Klassifikation)
Grosh (Latin - grossus, Polish - gross)
Bottle (Latin - buticula, Polish - butelka)
Bath (Latin - wannus, German - Wanne)
Public (Latin - publicum, Polish - publica)
Lady (Latin - domina, Polish - dama)
Board (Greek - discos, Lat. - discus, German - tisch)
Coin (Latin - moneta, through the Polish language from the Latin language)
Patch( emplastrum.borrowed from it. language, in which pflaster goes back to Lat. emplastrum, adopted in turn from the Greek language)
Tomato (via French from Latin), in which pomidoro means "golden apples"
Russian word "Crystal" "(the obsolete form "crystal" was borrowed directly from Greek, and through the Latin language - crystallus, then through German Kristall it entered the Russian word in the form "crystal").
Student - borrowed at the beginning of the 18th century from it. language in which Studens is a student (from studio - studying, studying)
Exam - lat. origin, where amen - truth, ex - coming out - truth coming out, i.e. examination. In church services, the Orthodox often use the word “amen” - this means “in truth.”
Session - lat. The origin of “sessio” is from the verb sedere - to sit, literally - sitting.
Crib - formed using the suffix -ka, from shpargal - paper, borrowed from the Polish language. The Polish word “szargal” - old paper with writing on it - goes back to the Latin sparganum - diaper, which in turn was learned from the Greek language.
Stimulus - lat (a pointed stick used to drive cattle, and in Russian - encouragement, incentive - the internal form of the word was lost).
3) Artificial borrowing.
Artificial borrowings, as a rule, consist of 2 multilingual elements.
Biathlon (Latin Bi+ Greek athlon - competition) - cross-country skiing with rifle shooting (standing and prone) on several stages.
Sociology (Latin soci - society + Greek logos - concept, teaching) - the science of society.
Fluorography (Latin flour - flow + Greek grapho - write) - a method of x-ray examination of the organs of the human body by transferring an image from a translucent screen to photographic film.
Futurology (Latin futurum - future + Greek Logos) - science, a field of scientific knowledge aimed at foreseeing the future.
Scuba (Latin Aquva - water, English lung - lung) - a device for scuba diving at great depths.
Supermarket (Latin super - over, English - market - market) - large (usually a grocery store)
Deodorant (French des + Lat odor - smell) - a means to remove unpleasant odors.
4) Traces and semi-traces
Humanity (Latin Humanus + Russian suf. ost)
Tolerance (Latin tolerantio - patience)
Creativity (Latin creo - I create, I create)
Erudition(eruditus - learning)
There are only 4 words in our card index, which are composed using the Russian suffix ost and the Latin root.
5) Neologisms
In the Russian language of modern times, Latinisms appear in an anglicized form. This vocabulary is associated with latest achievements science and technology.
There are 6 neologisms in our card index.
Computer English computer< лат.compulor - счетчик
Cursor English cursor< указатель <лат cursorius - быстро бегающий или cursor - бегун - вспомогательный, подвижный знак, отмечающий рабочую точку экрана компьютера.
Scuba - (at aqua-water + English lung - lung) - apparatus for scuba diving
Internet (inter-lat and eng -net) - world wide web.
Office (English officium - service, duty) - office
Sponsor (English sponsor and Latin spondare - philanthropist) - an individual or organization, a company that finances someone.
Our catalog contains Greekisms.
1) Direct borrowings
Direct borrowings from the Greek language. These are words related to various spheres of human activity, commonly used words, church vocabulary.
For example:
Bed - borrowing from Greek. Celebrated since the 17th century by the Greek Krabbation.
Alphabet - Alphaboetos is a compound word in Greek, made up of the names of the first 2 letters alpha and beta (“alphabet”).
2) Indirect borrowings
A large number of Greek words came to us through the French and German languages. This can be explained by the fact that Russian culture is historically connected with the culture of France and Germany. Many French Greekisms (plastic, cream, scandal) appeared in the era of enlightenment, when Russian art and the direction of scientific thought were formed under the influence of French philosophy. So, in our card index of indirect Greek borrowings there are 10.
Borrowings from the Greek language came to Europe, Russia, and Ukraine, usually through the Latin language, in a Latinized form. Carcinogen (Latin cancer - cancer, Greek genesis - origin)
Mausoleum (Latin - mausoleum + gr. - mausoleon) - the tomb of the Carian king Mausoleum.
Symposium (lat. - symposium, gr. - symposion) - feast
6. Conclusion
For us, the Latin language is, first of all, the language of science, culture, religion, and medicine. As a result of the study of lexical Latinisms and Greekisms, the following conclusions were made:
1. Many words are terms of various fields of science, so among them the vocabulary of medicine, legal, vocabulary of enlightenment and education, commonly used, stands out. All Latinisms and Greekisms function in modern Russian.
2. Classifying lexical Latinisms and Greekisms according to the method of borrowing, we determined that most of the studied words are indirect borrowings (60%). The intermediary languages are: in 20% of cases - French, equally in 15% - German and Polish, in 10% - English. A separate group consisted of 13% of Greek words borrowed into the Russian language through Latin. Direct borrowings from the Latin language accounted for 40% of the studied lexical units.
3. The bulk of Latinisms and Greekisms were borrowed from French and German; this can be explained by the fact that Russian culture is connected with the culture of France and Germany.
4. As a result of borrowings, the Russian language is replenished with international terms. International words are words that are found in many languages (artery, aorta, democracy, problem, revolution, principle, progress, analysis).
5. The national identity of the Russian language did not suffer at all from the penetration of foreign words into it, since borrowing is a completely natural way of enriching any language. The Russian language has retained its complete originality and has only been enriched by borrowed Latinisms and Greekisms.
Latin is “dead,” but its “death” was beautiful - it died for a thousand years and nourished most European languages, becoming the basis for some and giving hundreds and thousands of words to other languages, including Russian. This can be easily verified by reading the following text, in which words of Latin and Greek origin are highlighted in italics:
- "The school principal hands over class certificates maturity of applicants, which then hand over exams in institutes. Rector of the university, deans of history, economics, legal and philological faculties read to undergraduate and graduate students lecture courses in classrooms and carry out special seminars.
7. Practical significance.
The practical significance of our research lies in the possibility of using the obtained material for extracurricular activities (competitions, olympiads and weeks in English and Russian, publishing wall newspapers, booklets, leaflets, memos) in order to improve the cultural level of schoolchildren. Teachers can also use the results of the study
Bibliography
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2 Large dictionary of foreign words. - M.: UNVERS, 2003
3 Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M., 1990
4. Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: 72,500 words and 7,500 phraseological expressions / Russian Academy of Sciences. Russian Language Institute; Russian Cultural Foundation; - M.: AZ, 1993
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7. G.P.Savin. Basics of the Latin language and medical terminology. Moscow 2006.
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