8 pound gun 1 26 model. French artillery at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries (Historical and technical essay)

Fully machined, copper plated and blackened cast guns made Dmitry Shevelev, gold champion of the world and Russia in ship modeling. The author has his own outstanding style, his works are distinguished by historical authenticity, artistic taste and the effect of antiquity.

To cast the guns, a dental alloy with a melting point of 105 degrees is used, then the casting is mechanically processed on a lathe, a channel is drilled, brushed, copper-coated and only then blackened. The process is not easy, but the result is amazing. There’s no need to even stutter about historical authenticity; a mosquito won’t hurt your nose. The master model of this gun was made according to drawings from the monograph Le Cygne by the French publishing house Ancre.

Technical characteristics of the gun:

• length 59 mm; - scale 1:48;
• caliber 8 pounds;
• channel diameter 2.2 mm;
• France, 1806;
• initial development for the Le Cygne brig model. Requires 2 pieces.

The price of the product is quite high, but these are tools for which no shame at any price. We are proud the fact that we can offer work Dmitry Shevelev.

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TOOLS

Guns.

In French field artillery, as in Russian, the guns were cast from bronze with a composition of 11±1 parts of tin to 100 parts of copper.

There were 5 types of guns: the Gribovalevsky 4-, 8- and 12-pounders, adopted for service in 1765, as well as the 6- and 12-pounder systems of the 11th year (according to the republican calendar, i.e. 1803 according to the Gregorian). New 12-lb. the gun was 278 pounds (136 kg) lighter than the old one.

The Gribovalev guns had the usual division for those times into a muzzle, swivel and breech, and they weighed 150 cannonballs, and in the XI year system, the appearance of all guns was simplified as much as possible - almost no decoration was left, and their weight was equal to 130 cannonballs. I note that the 6-pound guns were completely new, and were not obtained as a result of drilling out the 4-pound Griboval guns, as Nilus writes. We tried to drill only long Valer 4-lb. guns.

Channel ended with a flat bottom with a 1/8 caliber rounding. The fuse has a diameter of 2.5 lines. Note that the French inch was duodecimal, as opposed to English decimal) drilled at an angle in the seed screw.

Diameter trunnions was equal to the diameter of the kernels, and they all had shoulders. The axis of the trunnions of the Gribovalev guns is 1/12 of the core diameter below the axis of the gun.

Dolphins had the form of a rectangular octagonal bracket.

Vingrad was 1 caliber in diameter.

Front sight usually had the appearance of a tide on the rear slope of the muzzle thickening, which did not protrude beyond the dimensions of the latter, but was sometimes indicated by engraving.

Torel- frustum.

Aim was simpler in design than even Markevich’s sight. It consisted of a copper plate embedded in a torel with a vertical cutout and a moving bar in it, which was fixed with a screw at the required height.

The relative length of all guns is 17 3/4 cores. The length of the channel for the Gribovalev guns is 16 5/6 cores, for the guns of the XI year system - 17.

Each French cannon had its name stamped in a band on the front of the gun's muzzle. On the breech they first stamped the monogram of Louis XVI, then French Republic and finally, Napoleon's coat of arms. On the left trunnion is the weight of the gun, on the right is the weight in pounds, and after the adoption of the metric system - in kilograms. On the torel belt there is the date, place of manufacture and the name of the craftsman. France had many more foundries than Russia; the main ones were, in order of decreasing importance, in Strasbourg, Douai, Metz, Turin and Paris.

The system of the 11th year, like the Gribovalev system in its time, had many opponents. Even under Napoleon, in 1810, it was decided to change the design of the 6-pounder. guns according to the Gribovalev model, but it seems that it was never implemented. After the Restoration 6-lb. the guns were completely cancelled.

Table 1. Dimensions and weight of guns.

		Gribeauval system				Year XI system
		V parts	12-lb.	8-lb.	4-lb.	V parts	12-lb.	6-lb.
			f. d.l. T.	f. d.l. T.	f. d.l. T.		f. d.l. T.	f. d.l. T.
Caliber		C	0.4.5.9	0.3.11.0	0.3.1.4		0.4.5.9	0.3.6.6
Core diameter		D=12p	0.4.4.9	0.3.10.0	0.3.0.4	D	0.4.4.9	0.3.5.6
Length	guns without propeller	L = 17 3/4 D	6.6.0.0	5.8.0.0	4.6.0.0	17 3/4 D	6.5.11.3	5.1.4.11
	channel	16 5 / 6 D	6.1.11.8	5.4.5.10	4.3.2.9	17D	6.2.8.9	4.10.9.6
	breech	1/3 L	2.2.0.0	1.10.8.0	1.6.0.0
	swivel part	1/6 L	1.1.0.0	0.11.4.0	0.9.0.0
	muzzle without head	1/2 L - 2D	2.6.2.6	2.2.4.0	1.8.11.4
	heads	2D	0.8.9.6	0.7.8.0	0.6.0.7	2D	0.8.9.6	0.6.11.0
	all vingrad	1 6 / 12 D	0.6.7.1	0.5.9.0	0.4.6.6		0.6.5.0	0.5.2.3
			2.6.5.3	2.2.6.0	1.9.1.8		2.6.11.1	2.0.0.3
	from the axle of the trunnions to the axis of the gun	1/12 D	0.0.4.6	0.0.3.10	0.0.3 1 / 3			0.0.3.5
Thickness walls	at the end of the breech	9 5 / 8 p.	0.3.6.4	0.3.0.11	0.2.5.1
	at the beginning of the breech	8 15 / 16 p.m.	0.3.3.4	0.2.10.3	0.2.3.0
	at the end of the swivel part	8 1/4 p.	0.3.0.3	0.2.7.7	0.2.0.11
	at the beginning of the swivel part	7 1/3 p.	0.2.8.3	0.2.4.1	0.1.10.2
	at the end of the muzzle	6 3 / 16 p	0.2.3.3	0.1.11.9	0.1.6.9
	at the head frieze	4 5 / 18 p.	0.1.6.10	0.1.4.5	0.1.0.11
	at the head	7 1/3 p.	0.2.8.3	0.2.4.1	0.1.10.2		0.2.7.9	0.2.0.6
	at departure	4 5 / 18 p.	0.1.6.10	0.1.4.5	0.1.0.11
Diameter	at the toreli	34p	1.0.5.6	0.10.10.6	0.8.7.4		0.11.9.9	0.9.4.7
	at the head	26 2 / 3 p	0.9.10.3	0.8.7.3	0.6.9.8		0.9.9.3	0.7.7.6
	Wingrad necks	8p	0.2.11.2	0.2.6.8	0.2.0.2
	in the middle of the vingrad's hand	D	0.4.4.9	0.3.10.0	0.3.0.4	D	0.4.4.9	0.3.5.6
	and trunnion length	D	0.4.4.9	0.3.10.0	0.3.0.4	D	0.4.4.9	0.3.5.6
	seeds		0.0.2.6	0.0.2.6	0.0.2.6		0.0.2.6	0.0.2.6
Thickness	dolphins	8 / 24 C	0.1.5.0	0.1.3.0	0.1.0.0
	shoulders near the trunnions	4p
	shoulders near the gun	1 1/2 p.
Weight of guns, lbs.			1808	1186	590		1530	790

Howitzers.

The field artillery was armed with 3 types of howitzers: the 6-inch Gribovalevskaya and the elongated one of the same caliber (along) a howitzer adopted outside any system, and a 24-pounder of the XI year, the model for which was the 7-pounder (by stone weight) Austrian. Since the elongated howitzer appeared in the period between the adoption of the Gribeauval system and the XI year, its appearance was appropriate: the barrel had the same friezes as the Gribeauval guns, and the carriage was similar to the carriages of the XI year. By the way, in the literature, 6-inch howitzers are often mistakenly called 6-pound howitzers, which gives rise to the illusion that they are smaller in caliber than 24-pounders, the caliber of which was equal to the caliber of 24-pounders. guns. The history of the appearance of these howitzers is as follows: at the beginning of the revolutionary wars, the French noticed the insufficient power of the Gribovalev howitzers, so very quickly, in 1795, they copied the Prussian 10-pound (by stone weight) howitzer. That's what they called her - a l "instar des prussiens, those. “Prussian model” (other names: a grande portee- “long-range”, de la garde- “guards”). True, very few of them were made (about 20), and the French made up for the deficiency with the same Prussian howitzers - of the 20 large-caliber howitzers that Napoleon took on his campaign to Russia, most, if not all, were Prussian.

In documents of that time, 24-lb. howitzers, together with howitzers of similar caliber from other countries, were collectively called obusiers de 5 pouces 6 lignes(howitzers caliber 5 inches 6 lines), although they had a caliber of 5 "7" "2"", and large-caliber howitzers were called obusiers de 6 pouces 4 lignes.

The chambers of all howitzers were cylindrical. Length of howitzers without turrets and wings in grenade diameters:

1. 6" Gribovalevskaya - 4.75
2. 6" long-range - 6.5
3. 24 lb - 6.75

Since the length of the 24-pound howitzer was too long to be loaded by hand, in 1810 it was decided to shorten it to 4.5 calibers, while maintaining the weight of 600 pounds, but, as with the cannons, this decision was not implemented.

French howitzers, unlike cannons, did not have names.

Table 2. Dimensions and weight of howitzers.

		6"	24-lb.	6" extended
		f. d.l. T.	f. d.l. T.	f. d.l. T.
Caliber		0.6.1.6	0.5.7.2	0.6.1.6
Length	channel	1.6.4.6	2.3.9.1 1 / 2	2.2.2.3
	channel in calibers	3	5	4 1 / 3
	chambers	0.7.0.0	0.7.0.0	0.9.8.6
	without wingrad	2.4.4.6	3.1.5.1 1 / 2	3.3.6.6
	all vingrad	0.4.9.6	0.5.0.3	0.7.0.0
	general	2.9.2.0	3.6.5.4 1 / 2	3.10.6.6
	from the torsion to the rear of the trunnions	1.1.6.6	1.2.5.5 1 / 2	1.4.7.0
	trunnions	0.3.9.0	0.3.9.0	0.4.6.0
	from the axle of the trunnions to the axis of the gun	0.0.6.0	0.0.2.0
Diameter	chambers	0.3.0.0	0.2.11.0	0.3.10.6
	trunnions	0.3.9.0	0.3.9.0	0.4.9.2
	seeds	0.0.2.6	0.0.2.6	0.0.2.6
	at the toreli	0.11.0.0	0.9.4.7 1 / 2	1.1.9.0
	at highest point heads	0.11.1.6	0.9.4.7 1 / 2	0.11.7.6
Distance between the last two diameters		2.3.9.6	3.1.0.0	3.3.1.6
Weight, lbs.		650	600	1368
Charge to full chamber, lbs. un.		1.12	1.10	4.8

CARRIAGES

The carriages of the French guns had two features: firstly, all of them, with the exception of the 6" Gribovalevsky howitzer, had iron axles; secondly, a simpler lifting mechanism consisting of a vertical screw rotating in a bronze bushing, on which rests a board connected hinge (hooks and loops on carriages of the XI year system) with a front cushion. Such a lifting mechanism was more reliable and made it possible to quickly move from the traveling position to the combat position and back by turning the bushing with the screw 90°. At the same time, carriages 12 and 8 -pounder guns had an additional traveling pair of sockets for the trunnions, which facilitated transportation, but made it difficult to move into a combat position. This was one of the reasons for the adoption of 6-pounder guns, which did not have such sockets. Another reason was that the opposing powers had precisely such calibers, which made it possible to use captured ammunition, which was facilitated by the fact that the caliber of the 6-pounder French guns was almost the largest among similar guns in other countries. To end this topic, I will also say that the French artillery was completely rearmed with guns of the XI year system only by the end of 1808, and Napoleon did not take a single 8-pounder and only 32 4-pounders on the Russian campaign. guns (4 companies of artillery of the Young Guard). All these calibers were transferred to the army that fought against the Spaniards, who at one time adopted the Griboval system.

The carriage adopted in 1803 for the new 12-lb. guns were not suitable for old ones, because the new guns had 16 lines less distance between the ends of the shoulders. This flaw was then corrected.

There were 4 types of axes in total:

1. for 12 lb. guns;
2. for 8-, 6-lb. guns, 6" long-range and 24-pound howitzers;
3. for 4-lb. cannons, charging boxes, carts and forges;
4. wooden for 6" Gribovalevsky howitzer.

5 types of big wheels:

The guns had a carriage box in which several shells were stored.

The French artillery did not have any special mounted guns. The horse artillery initially used Gribovalev howitzers and 8-pounders. guns, then 24-lb. howitzers and 6-pound. guns of the XI year system. 4-lb. the guns were never used in horse artillery, despite repeated mentions in modern publications.

All guns except the 4-pounder. guns, had 4 rules. Two of them, as usual, were inserted into brackets on the trunk cushion, and the other two into special brackets on the frames. At 4-lb. guns there were only 3 rules.

Each weapon was assigned one transportation 44 feet long, 11 lines in diameter, and weighing 18 pounds. LENDERS

The limbers of the French guns had almost the same design as the Russian ones: two wheels, an axle (iron, unlike the wooden Russian one), a drawbar, two lugs. The difference between the Gribovalevsky limbers was the absence of a box and the fact that the king pin was located above the axle. In the Gribeauval system there were 3 types of limbers:

1. for 12-, 8-lb. guns, howitzers and charging box
2. for 4-lb. guns
3. for forge and cart

They were supplied with 2 types of small wheels: with a diameter of 3" and 2" - for 4-pound limbers. guns and 3" 6" - for everyone else. The low height of the forward wheels was one of the shortcomings of the French artillery - largely for this reason Napoleon lost Waterloo.

As you can see, the French artillery used 7 types of wheels. In this respect, it was inferior to the Russian one, which had only 2 species.

A limber with a box was developed for the guns of the XI year system, but it was never introduced, and the old Gribovalevskie limbers from 12-lb. were used for the new guns. guns.

Gribeauval believed that for a 4-lb. 3-4 horses will be enough for a gun, for an 8-pounder. and 6" howitzers - also 4, and for a 12-pounder - 6 horses. But experience has shown that the team of the last three guns should be increased by 2 horses.

CHARGING BOXES

French charging boxes were a long narrow box with a gable iron lid and 4 wheels. Initially there were three charging boxes:

1. for 4- and 8-lb. guns,
2. for 12 lb. guns and
3. for 6" howitzers.

They differed from each other in the height of the sides and internal division into sections. Later only one was left - for 12-lb. guns. These same charging boxes were also used to transport ammunition for infantry.

In the year XI system, a new charging box was proposed, but the Gribovalevsky one was retained with corresponding changes to the internal space for the new 6-lb. and 24-lb. shells.

In 1791, a “flying” flight was organized. (volante) artillery, armed with 8-pound cannons and 6" howitzers, in which the servants were seated on charging boxes specially adapted for this purpose. These boxes had handrails, footrests and a leather-covered rounded lid, on which 8 people sat, and such boxes were called " wurst" (from German "Wurst" - sausage). With the introduction of normal horse artillery in 1792, "wurst" were abolished.

Napoleon considered it necessary to carry one and a half ammunition with him, i.e. about 300 shells per gun: full ammunition at the guns and half in the artillery park.

Table 4.

gun	When	Stock		1/2 stock		Total snar.	Of them		In the charging box				In the fire monitor box
		charger boxes	snar.	charger boxes	snar.		cores or pomegranate	buckshot	cores or pomegranate	buckshot		Total snar.	cores or pomegranate	kart.
										far	near
12-lb.	Gribeauval	3	213				153	60	48	12	8	68	9
	1812	3	224	1,5	108	332	278	56	60	12		72	6	2
8-lb.	Gribeauval	2	199				139	60	62	10	20	92	15
	1806	2	199	1	92	291	231	60	72	20		92	15
4-lb.	Gribeauval	1	168				118	50	100	26	24	150	18
	1806	1	168	0,5	75	243	198	45	120	30		150	18
6" howitzer	Gribeauval	3	160				147	13	49	3		52		4
	1812	3	160	1,5	78	238	220,5	17,5	49	3		52		4
6-lb.	1812	1,5	231	0,75	105	336	279	57	116	24		140	18	3
24-lb. howitzer	1812	2	156	1,5	112,5	268,5	256	12,5	72	3		75	4	2

Wurst charging box for 8-lb. The gun contained 66 shells, and for a 6" howitzer - 30 shells.
AMMUNITION

French gunpowder was slightly different in composition from Russian: 75 parts of saltpeter, 12.5 parts of sulfur and 12.5 coal versus 75:10:15.

The minimum clearance of the French guns was less than that of the Russians - only 1 line, the maximum - 2 lines, so the average core diameter is 1.5 lines less than the caliber.

Cores they were not lubricated to the pins, but were attached using two strips of tin nailed crosswise to the pins. The spies looked like truncated cones. The depth of the cup in the spiegel was approximately 1/4 of the diameter of the core. French spies for 12- and 6-lb. cores were 1.7 and 1.4 times lighter than Russians, respectively.

Unlike the Russians, in French caps they did not put tow on top of the gunpowder, but tied the cap in two places: around the groove in the spigot and under the sppiel; and the cap was not tied on top of the core.

The French artillery did not have much artillery weight, and the mass of the cannonball corresponded to the caliber, i.e. A 12 pound cannonball weighed exactly 12 pounds, etc.

Table 5. Cores.

		12	8	6	4
		fun. un.	fun. un.	fun. un.	fun. un.
Powder weight		4	2 1 / 2	2	1 1 / 2
Finished charge weight		16.11	11.2	8 1 / 2	5.12
		d.l. T.	d.l. T.	d.l. T.	d.l. T.
Powder charge height		8.3	6.9	6.3	6.1
Total charge height		13.6	11.6	10.8	9.11
Spiegel diameter	up	4.0.9	3.6.0	3.4.0	2.9.4
	at the bottom	3.7.0	3.0.6	3.2.0	2.7.6
Spiral height		2.0.0	1.10.0	1.10.0	1.6.0
Spiegel cup depth		1.1.0	0.11.0	0.10.0	0.8.0
Tin strips	length	14.0.0	12.0.0	11.0.0	10.0.0
	width	0.5.0	0.5.0	0.5.0	0.4.0

Grenades (obus, where obusier- howitzer; actually grenades - grenades- in the French army they were manual) had the same design as the Russians.

Composition for the tube channel: 5 parts pulp, 3 saltpeter and 2 sulfur. A whole tube for a 6" grenade burned for 30-40 seconds.

The 24-pound grenade had a spigot, since the large length of the channel did not allow the grenade to be installed correctly by hand.

The French field artillery did not have special incendiary shells, instead they used grenades with pieces of incendiary composition placed inside.

Buckshot, as in Russian artillery, consisted of a tin cup with an iron bottom, and wrought iron bullets poured in a special order, and was also divided into long-range ( grande- large) and near ( petite- small). Actually, Russian grapeshot was copied from the French after the campaigns of 1805-1807.

The experience of military operations showed that the need for short-range grapeshot was small, and it was canceled. And in general, throughout the Napoleonic wars, there was a tendency towards a decrease specific gravity buckshot in the total number of shells, which indicates a change in tactics - the predominance of long-range combat.

Buckshot for 12-pound and 8-pound. the guns were not connected to the charge in the cap, since together they would be too long and heavy, so that the armored bag could tear, and for 6- and 4-lb. guns, the powder charge was tied to the buckshot using a wooden shpiel, unlike Russian buckshots, which did not have shpiels. Buckshot for 6" howitzers was nailed to a spiegel, which had the shape of a wooden hemisphere.

Table 7. Buckshot.

			12		8		6	4		6"	24
			d.l. T.		d.l. T.		d.l. T.	d.l. T.		d.l. T.	d.l. T.
Bullet diameter	№1		1.5.0		1.2.9		1.1.6	0.11.10		1.5.0	1.2.9
	№2		1.0.0		0.10.9			0.10.6
	№3		0.11.6		0.10.2
Tin cylinder	sheet length		13.11.3		12.2.6		11.1.0	9.9.3		18.9.0
	height for buckshot	large	9.0.0		7.6.0		7.9.0	6.4.0		8.0.0
		small	8.4.0		7.5.0			7.3.0
Diameter of tray and lid			4.3.0		3.8.6		3.5.0	2.11.0		5.10.0
Pallet thickness			0.3.6		0.3.0		0.3.0	0.2.6		0.4.0
Cover thickness			0.1.0		0.1.0		0.1.0	0.1.0		0.1.0
Height	finished buckshot (without sppiegel for 6- and 4-lb.)	large	8.3.0		6.9.0		7.0.0	5.7.0		7.4.0
		small	7.6.0		6.8.0			6.6.6
	powder charge		8.7.0		7.4.0		7.1.0	7.0.0		6.6.0
Number of bullets	for large buckshot No. 1		41		41		41	41		60	76
	for small buckshot	№2	80	112	80	112		4 №1	63
		№3	32		32			59 №2
			fun. un.		fun. un.		fun. un.	fun. un.		fun. un.	fun. un.
Empty glass weight with tray			1.12		1.9			0.14
Pallet weight			1.5					0.6
Approximate weight	finished large buckshot		20.14		14.6			7.8		32.8
	finished small buckshot		20.4		14.7			8.9
Powder charge			4.4		2.12		2.4	1.12		1.6	2.0

ORGANIZATION

The organization of French artillery was radically different from Russian. When in Russia guns, service personnel and convoys were brought together, in the French army all this was separated.

1792. Field artillery is divided into reserve and regimental. In reserve - 12-, 8-, 4-lb. guns and 6" howitzers, in the regimental - only 4-pounder guns. All guns are divided into divisions of 8 guns of the same caliber, each division is served by one company of artillerymen. In total - 7 artillery regiments, each regiment has 20 companies. 9 companies are formed horse artillery.

1793. New 11 horse batteries were created, making a total of 20. The number of howitzers was increased, instead of 1/6 - 1/3 of the total number of guns. They are no longer combined into special batteries.

1799. The French armies consist of: 693 cannons, 173 howitzers, 2262 charging boxes. Regimental guns were abolished. A cavalry company of the guard was created.

1803. Year XI system adopted. By decree of the 10th floreal (April 30) of the XI year, 1 company was added to each foot artillery battalion, and the 7th company was also added to the 6th horse artillery regiment. Now each of the 16 battalions now has 11 companies, and the foot regiment has 22 companies. In total there were 8 regiments of foot and 6 regiments of horse artillery. All 17 additional companies were intended for service in the colonies.

1806. The horse artillery of the guard was consolidated into a regiment of 6 companies in 3 squadrons.

1808. Guard foot artillery was created - 6 companies of 84 people each. Horse Guards Artillery consists of 2 squadrons of 2 companies each. In this composition it will exist until 1815.

1810. Foot artillery - 9 regiments. The 7th Horse Artillery Regiment was created, but it was soon disbanded and its companies were distributed between the 1st and 4th regiments.

1811. Napoleon recreated the regimental artillery, transferring to it a huge number of captured 3-pounder cannons, mainly Prussian and Austrian. Each regiment was usually assigned 4 such guns.

1812. The Grand Army had 1372 guns. Most of them remained in the fields of Russia. After the end of the war, 875 captured or abandoned guns were taken to Moscow to create a monument, which, fortunately, was not built. Of these 875 guns, only 41% (358) were of French origin. The rest, in order of decreasing number, are Austrian, Prussian, Italian, Neapolitan, Bavarian, Dutch, Saxon, Württemberg, Spanish, Polish, Westphalian, English (Hanoverian) and Baden.
The regimental artillery ceased to exist.
The foot companies consisted of 6 cannons and 2 howitzers, but there were also pure cannon companies, for example, all 4 companies of the Young Guard were equipped with 8 4-pounder cannons. Horse companies had 4 cannons and 2 howitzers. Each division was assigned 1 infantry and 1 cavalry company, each heavy cavalry division - 2 cavalry companies, each light - 1. The corps usually had 2 companies of reserve artillery with 12 pounds. cannons and 6" howitzers.

1813. The 1st and 3rd regiments of horse artillery each had 7 companies, and each of the 9 infantry regiments had 28 companies. The foot artillery of the guard has 16 companies. In 1813-1814 there was a cavalry company of the Young Guard.

During the Empire, the number of guns in the French artillery increased by exactly 50%:

Table 9. Development of field artillery during the Empire.

Quantity	Initial state			Absolute increase			Relates. increase	Final state
	Guard.	Lin.	Total	Guard.	Lin.	Total		Guard.	Lin.	Total
Foot company	-	176	176	16	76	92	52 %	16	252	268
Mounted mouth	2	36	38	4	6	10	26 %	6	42	48
Guns	15	1 624	1 639	175	644	819	50 %	190	2 268	2 458
Artillery convoy company	2	40	42	14	30	44	105 %	16	70	86

Shotgun AN-IX

French 6- pound gun and 6-inch howitzers

However, even such a magnificent gun had drawbacks, such as insufficient reliability and a tendency to corrosion of some components. But the main thing was some difference in caliber of the guns produced and the need for individual fitting of parts. This created certain difficulties in creating and arming a mass army. Therefore, in 1801 the French adopted the AN-IX gun, which became the main one by the time of the invasion of Russia. This gun was almost identical to the gun of the 1777 model and differed from the old one by greater unification of parts and the replacement of corroded, but not load-bearing, iron parts with copper ones. In addition, it was possible to slightly reduce the weight of the gun.

Perhaps the excellent capabilities of the 1777 model gun had an effect, but less attention was paid to rifled weapons in France. The main type of rifled weapon was the "Carbine de Versailles" model 1793 in infantry and cavalry versions. It was only in 1804 that a slightly improved AN-XII carbine was developed, which differed only slightly from the Carbine de Versailles. Saturation of the French army rifled weapons was slightly lower than the Russian one. Non-commissioned officers, sergeants and sappers from light infantry and 6 riflemen in a voltigeur company were mainly armed with rifled carbines.

The characteristics of the main guns in service with the French army were as follows.

Shotgun AN-IX. Its weight (without bayonet) is 4.375 kg, length 151.5 cm (bayonet length 46.5 cm). Caliber – 17.5 mm, bullet weight – 27.2 g, gunpowder weight – 12.24 g. Maximum firing range is 300–400 steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) – more than 100 steps.

Rifled carbine "Carbine de Versailles": Its weight (without bayonet) is 3.45 kg, length is 102.5 cm. Caliber is 13.5 mm, bullet weight is 17.5 g, gunpowder weight is 4 g. Maximum range is approximately 1 thousand steps, effective aimed shooting range (probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) - more than 500 steps.

In the field of artillery, the French army held a leading position for a long time, which was not lost in the quarter century that passed after Gribeauval's reform. But Napoleon, himself an excellent artilleryman, noted the presence of excessive calibers in the Gribeauval system. For example, Napoleon pointed out that in most cases, when firing, commanders do not make a difference between 8-pounder and 4-pounder guns. At the same time, the 8-pounders are too heavy, and the 4-pounders have weak ammunition. As a result, it was decided to settle on a 6-pound gun, which should replace both calibers.

It was also decided to switch to a new howitzer with a longer barrel length and a smaller caliber. This made it possible to increase the flatness of the trajectory and more effectively use these weapons in maneuverable field battle. In addition, this made it possible to unify the ammunition with the 24-pound siege gun.

Finally, Colonel Villentroy created heavy long-range howitzers with an increased powder charge and barrel length. These howitzers had calibers of 8, 9 and 11 inches. At the same time, the most powerful 11-inch howitzer could fire at a distance of up to 5.8 versts. The 8-inch howitzer was also used in field battles. In addition to changes in the calibers used and barrel lengths, the guns of the new models were lightweight and simplified in design.

The reform was supposed to bring French artillery to a new qualitative level. In fact, it was not carried out as decisively and effectively as in Russia. The reason was the slight superiority of French artillery over the artillery of most opponents, which already existed at the time the reform began. The “patchwork” nature of Napoleon’s empire and the lack of clear management of military production also had a negative impact. Many factories of Napoleon's empire, especially in conquered territories such as the Confederation of the Rhine, produced according to old models and in the old caliber system. So, in the end, the reform not only did not reduce, as required, the number of calibers in the army, but, on the contrary, increased it. Of the new guns, only the 6-pounder gun and the 24-pounder howitzer were fired in significant quantities. The “Grand Army” entered the war with more than two dozen artillery systems.

The characteristics of the main guns in service with the French army were as follows.

12-pounder gun of the Gribeauval system:

Gun weight - 860 kg (54 pounds), system weight - 2160 kg (135 pounds), caliber - 4.76 inches (121 mm), barrel length - 16.5 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 2.7–3 km, grenade – about 1.2 km, buckshot – up to 600 meters.

8-pounder Gribeauval gun

Gun weight - 580 kg (36 pounds), system weight - 1760 kg (110 pounds), caliber - 4.1 inches (104 mm), barrel length - 16.5 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 2.7 km, grenade – about 1 km, buckshot – up to 500 meters.

4-pounder Gribeauval gun

Gun weight - 280 kg (18 pounds), system weight - 1120 kg (70 pounds), caliber - 4.76 inches (121 mm), barrel length - 16.5 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 2.6 km, grenade – about 1.1 km, buckshot – up to 400 meters.

6-pounder gun of the new system

Gun weight - 400 kg (25 pounds), system weight - 1440 kg (90 pounds), caliber - 3.9 inches (96 mm), barrel length - 16.5 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 2.3 km, grenade – about 1 km, buckshot – up to 400 meters.

6-inch extended howitzer

Gun weight - 320 kg (20 pounds), caliber - 6 inches (164 mm), barrel length - 4 1/3 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 3 km, grenade – about 3 km, buckshot – up to 400 meters.

24-pound howitzer of the new system

Gun weight – 320 kg (20 pounds), caliber – 6 inches (155 mm), barrel length – 5 calibers.

Firing range: cannonball – 3 km, grenade – about 3 km, buckshot – up to 500 meters.

Although in general French artillery looked worse than Russian due to the wide variety of calibers and large quantity low-power regimental guns, it had an advantage in the fight against fortifications and manpower at long distances due to the presence of large-caliber howitzers and with a steep trajectory, which made it possible to hit the enemy behind the fortifications.

When comparing the characteristics of Russian and French weapons, several need to be taken into account general points related to its use.

During the Napoleonic Wars, volley rifle and artillery fire dominated. Only rangers and voltigeurs in loose formation could fire differently. This was caused, among other things, by the black powder used. When there was a discrepancy in the salvo, the latecomers fired into the smoky cloud, which after each salvo clouded the battle formations.

The maximum rate of fire largely depended not on the characteristics of the weapon, but on the training of the soldiers. A well-trained soldier, as practical shooting has shown even today, could easily ensure a rate of fire of 3-4 rounds per minute from a smoothbore gun using a cartridge. This pace could not be maintained for long, but it allowed for 10–12 salvoes to be fired at a battalion column attacking at a fast pace, 7–9 at a running attack, and 2–3 at a cavalry attack at a gallop. Given the low accuracy of fire even against close battle formations, rifle fire alone was usually not able to stop the attack of battalion columns or cuirassiers.

Field artillery had a longer firing range than smooth-bore shotguns. At the same time, the field gun had a maximum rate of fire thanks to cap loading of 7–9 rounds per minute. At the same time, the accuracy of artillery fire at equal distances was also higher. Here, too, the high tempo could not be maintained for long, but it made it possible to fire 25–35 volleys of grapeshot at a battalion column attacking at a fast pace, 15–20 against an attacking run and 7–10 against a cavalry attacking at a gallop. This rate of fire was a powerful stopping force against both infantry and cavalry, provided there were a sufficient number of guns along the length of the attacked front. Such superiority of artillery usually made it possible to win a firefight with infantry even at short distances. The power of artillery on the battlefield in relation to other types of troops was, perhaps, greatest precisely in early XIX century.

French artillery on turn of XVII-XVIII centuries
(Historical and technical essay)

Part 1
Guns and ammunition for them.

Preface.
The artillery of the Russian regular army, created by the genius of Emperor Peter I, developed under the clear and strong influence of the European. It is believed that the king was a great admirer of Holland and perceived a lot from there.

However, Surrey de Saint-Rémy's book on artillery, first published in France in 1697, republished in 1706, was translated into Russian in 1732. In the preface to this book, the author indicates that his work is original and that the book was then translated into a number of languages, including Dutch.

It can be assumed that French developments served as the basis for regulating the artillery of the Russian Imperial Army. This does not mean at all that before Peter I there was no artillery in Russia, or that it was something vague and amorphous, that guns were poured out as needed and as needed. Peter I simply brought order to this matter, gave the artillery harmony and clear regulations, not far behind Europe in this regard.

It seems that the description of French artillery late XVII- the beginning of the 18th century is of particular interest in this regard. So to speak, in order to understand “where the ears grow from” and be able to compare. And this, in turn, makes it clear that in building the Army, Emperor Peter did not blindly copy the experience of Europeans, but only used it to create Russian artillery that met the conditions of Russia.

Note that I am not using the original French book, but its translation into Russian, made by Field Marshal Count Munnich in 1732. Hence I am not able to indicate the names in the original language. The names are given as Minich translated them.

The book contains quite a lot of figures indicating the sizes and weights of products. However, it is unclear from the book exactly which units of measurement are used in the text. Either Minich changed French measures to Russian ones, or he made a translation without changing anything.
On top of that, until the introduction in France of a single metric system of measures for the entire country, which happened only at the end of the 18th century, there was complete inconsistency in this matter. Although the names of the units of measurement were generally the same, literally every province had its own pounds, feet, and inches. Worse, in the same area they could change over time.

The difference is not particularly big, but it still exists. I think that Minich did not bother with recalculations, but gives the data in French measures, leaving the reader to figure out exactly what pounds and feet the French author had in mind.

For the convenience of readers, I give sizes both in French and in our usual units, recalculating from French.

For reference:
*1 Russian inch = 2.54 cm (divided into 10 lines),
*1 French inch = 2.71 cm (divided into 12 lines),
*1 Russian foot = 0.3048 m.,
*1 French foot = 0.3001 m.,
*1 French royal foot = 0.3248 m.

*1 Russian pound = 409.51 grams,
*1 French pound = 489.502 grams,
*1 French artillery pound = 491.4144 gr.
*1 French ounce = 30.588 gr.

In addition, it is advisable to indicate the names of the elements of gun barrels:

A - the bottom or treasury with its own nail.
B - flat frieze and bottom decoration.
C - ignition field.
D- astragalus or friezes fuse.
E-first ledge.
F-flat hoop and decoration, or frieze of the first ledge.
G - second ledge.
H - dolphins or ears.
I- trunnions.
K-flat hoop and decoration, or frieze of the second ledge.
L - belt or decoration, or frieze near the muzzle end.
M-banded astragalus or frieze.
N-izlet sound.
O- islet astragalus or frieze.
P-neck.
Q - burleite or muzzle decoration, or frieze.
R-barrel.
S-shell in which the fuse.

The gun barrel is divided into three main parts, called ledges:
-brown color"first ledge" highlighted
-green color"second ledge" highlighted
-blue color“Izlet yadrovoy” is highlighted.

The difference between these parts is mainly in the outer diameter, and accordingly, in the wall thickness. The greatest pressure of powder gases is in the first ledge, and therefore this part of the table should be the most durable.
The second ledge, in addition to the internal pressure of the powder gases (which is already less than in the first ledge), also experiences external forces, since this is where the trunnions are located, with the help of which the barrel is secured to the carriage.
This structure of the gun barrel ensures its lighter weight with the same strength in comparison with more ancient guns that had a barrel of the same diameter along the entire length.

From the author. I give these difficult-to-remember names of the elements of gun barrels so as not to obscure the text below, explaining each time what, say, “frieze”, “trunnions” or “astragalus” are. The reader himself will have to take the trouble to either remember these terms or refer to this picture every time.
And at the same time, from here the reader can learn and understand some of the terms found in military historical literature.

And further. From the book it follows that at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries in France, guns were either copper, or cast iron. There were no bronze cannons. There were attempts to make cannons from wrought iron and there were quite a lot of enthusiasts of such guns, but the first experiments were unsuccessful and at the beginning XVIII centuries, the attitude towards them was generally negative.

Attention! The text of the book is not perfect and there are mathematical errors in it. Some of them are awkward and very obvious. I have corrected them whenever possible, but the reader should take into account that the data presented in the book may differ from other sources. This is the result of either errors by the author of the book, or the result of different readings of units of measurement. In addition, the low quality of printing in some cases makes it difficult to read the numbers and you have to guess based on logic and similar data from different places in the book.

End of the preface.

Comment.
In artillery there is a term “caliber”, which indicates the characteristics of the projectile being sent, i.e. gun power. Today, caliber is usually determined by the internal diameter of the gun barrel and the outer diameter of the projectile used, and it is measured in millimeters. However, until the advent of rifled guns and oblong shells (and in England even during the Second World War), the caliber of guns was determined by the weight of the cannonball, which was placed in the barrel of the gun. It was measured in pounds.
But the caliber of mortars was measured in inches and lines, i.e. along the diameter of the bore.

From the author. A very, very inconvenient way to calibrate guns. First of all, pounds in different countries were different. Secondly, kernels of the same weight could have different diameters depending on the material from which they were made. For example, the density of the same cast iron today ranges from 6.8 to 7.3 tons/cub.m.
Hence, weighing captured, and even our own, cannonballs did not give anything in terms of answering the question - will these cannonballs fit our guns?
The solution to the problem is very simple - you need to measure the diameter of the core and compare it with the inner diameter of the trunk. This is what was done in practice. For this purpose, the artillerymen had special tools. In particular, artillery compasses and templates. In the artillery arsenals, or magazines, as they were called then, and in the shelves there were templates, i.e. wooden, copper or iron rings with handles, which were called “kugellers”. The hole of the kugeller was of the exact size, and the caliber to which it corresponded was stamped on the frame. These simple measuring instruments were used to control the size of nuclei.
I use one of the tables (page 61 of Memoria), which gives the diameters of barrels in inches and lines depending on the caliber defined in pounds, to convert the calibers indicated in pounds into millimeters that are more familiar and understandable to us.
Please keep in mind that the pounds used here are French artillery pounds (different from regular French pounds). The caliber listed in inches and lines in millimeters is only approximate and indicative.

Guns produced in the 16th-17th centuries and out of use by the end of the 17th century

De Saint-Rémy points out that at the beginning of the 18th century these cannons could still be found in fortresses, in particular in Brest and Strasbourg, as well as in the French colonies. I took the liberty of giving double numbers in the table (converting pounds and feet into our usual kilograms and meters) in order to make it easier to imagine the weight and size of the guns.

Gun name	Caliber		Weight lbs/tons	Length feet/meters
	pounds/kilogram	millimeters
Basilisk (Basilisk)	48 / 23.59	192.5	7200 / 3.54	10 / 3.25
Dragon (Snake)	40 / 19.66	181.3	7000 / 3.44	16.5 / 5.36
Dragon Shuttlecock (Flying Serpent)	32 / 15.73	168.8	7200 / 3.54	22 / 7.15
Serpentina (Zmeeevka)	24 / 11.79	153.0	4300 / 2.13	13 / 4.22
Culverina (Hose)	20 / 9.83	143.6	7000 / 3.54	16 / 5.2
Pasmur	16 / 7.86	133.2	4200 / 2.06	18 / 5.91
Aspid	12 / 5.9	121.3	4250 / 2.09	11 / 3.61
Half-culverine (Half-hose)	10 / 4.9	114.1	3850 / 1.89	13 / 4.27
Passando	8 /3.93	106.0	3500 / 1.72	15 / 4.93
Pelican	6 / 2.95	96.2	2400 / 1.18	9 / 2.96
Sakr	5 / 2.46	90.6	2850 / 1.4	13 / 4.27
Secret	4 / 1.97	84.2	2550 / 1.25	12.5 / 4.11
Fokon (Falcon)	3 / 1.47	76.3	2300 / 1.13	8 / 2.63
Fokono (Sokolets)	2 / 0.98	66.8	1350 / 0.663	10.5 / 3.45
Ribadekin big	1 / 0.49	53.0	750 / 0.387	8 / 2.63
Ribadekin small	0.5 / 0.246	42.0	450 / 0.221	6 / 1.97
Emirlon	0.25 /0.123	33.3	400 /0.197	4 or 5 / 1.31 or 1.64

There is no information in the book about the metal from which the old type guns were made. Based on their weight, we can assume that these guns were cast iron.
The transition to a new scale of artillery calibers at the end of the 17th century was accompanied by the fact that artillery pieces have lost the proper name for each caliber.

Guns produced since the end of the 17th century

In this scale, 48 and 40 pound guns were excluded as too heavy, but having no special advantage over 33 pounders. The length of the trunks was sharply reduced. If previously the longest trunk was more than 7 meters, now the maximum length was 3.32 meters. In turn, this led to a significant reduction in the mass of the guns and an increase in their mobility while reducing the number of horses in the team.

In addition, the number of gun models was reduced from 17 to 14, and the number of calibers from 17 to 10. The latter greatly facilitated the work of ammunition supply services.

Classic copper cannons

Cannon sample	Caliber		Weight lbs/tons	Length feet/meters
	pounds/kilogram	millimeters
French 33-pounder	33 / 16.22	170.0	6200 / 3.05	11 / 3.32
Half-cartown Spanish 24-pounder	24 / 11 .79	153.0	5100 / 2.51	11/ 3.32
Half Cart French (Hose) 16-lb.	16 / 7.86	133.2	4100 / 2.02	10.8 / 3.31
Quarter cart Spanish 12 pounder	12 / 5 .9	121.3	3400 / 1.67	10.8 / 3.31
Quarter Frenchman. (Batard) 8-lb.	8 / 3.93	106.0	1950/0.958	10 / 3.28
Short 8lb	8 / 3.93	106.0	?	8.5 / 2.65
Medium 4 lb.	4 / 1.97	84.2	1300 / 0.639	10.8 / 3.31
Short 4lb	4 / 1.97	84.2	?	8.5 / 2.65
Fokon (Falcon) 2-pounder	2 / 0.98	66.8	800 / 0.393	7 / 2.3
Other Fokon (Other Falcon) 2-pounder	2 / 0.98	66.8	700 / 0.344	7 / 2.3
Faucon (Falcon) 1 1/2-pound	1.5 / 0.74	?	500 / 0.245	7 / 2.3
Fokonets (Sokolets) 1-pound	1 / 0.491	53.0	400 / 0.197	7 / 2.3
Other fokonets (Other Sokolets) 1-pound	1 / 0.491	53.0	200 / 0.098	7 / 2.3
Fokonets (Sokolets) 1/2 - pound	0.5 / 0.245	42.0	150 /0.074	7 / 2.3

The bore of all guns is strictly cylindrical along its entire length, with the exception that in the breech of 33, 24 and 16 pound caliber guns the bore narrows somewhat and takes on the appearance of a truncated cone. This is done to better compact the powder charge and increase the gas pressure in First stage shot.

The firing range of copper classical cannons, according to de Saint-Rémy, was:
*33-pounder gun: sighting range 600 steps, maximum range 6000 steps,
*24-pounder gun: sighting range 800 steps, maximum range 6000 steps,
*16-pounder gun: sighting range 800 steps, maximum range 8000 steps,
*12-pounder gun: sighting range 450 steps, maximum range 5000 steps,
*8-pounder gun: sighting range 400 steps, maximum range 4500 steps,
*4-pounder gun: sighting range 300 steps, maximum range 3000 steps,
*2-pounder gun: sighting range 150 steps, maximum range 1500 steps.

Copper new invention guns

As of 1706, in addition to the cannons described above, cannons of the latest type were already being cast, called in the book “cannons of a new invention (new invention).” These newly invented guns differed from the classic ones in that the breech of the barrel was made oval shape chamber for gunpowder, which provided an increase in the powder charge in comparison with classic guns, and hence an increased firing range.

This also made it possible to make the barrel shorter and significantly reduce the weight of the gun. For example, the weight of a 24-pound gun decreased from 2.5 tons to 1.5, and the length from 3.3 to 2 meters.

The new guns were distinguished by an increased outer diameter of the first ledge because increased strength was required.

From the author. It seems that the new invention guns required more durable metal, since the problem of increasing the powder charge cannot be solved by simply thickening the walls of the breech. It was also necessary new technology drilling barrels, as well as higher quality gunpowder, which has more complete combustion, because It is quite difficult to remove unburned powder particles from the charging chamber.
Obviously, these moments predetermined that with the start of production of new innovation guns, the production of old ones was not curtailed.

Copper cannons of a new invention.

Cannon sample	Caliber		Weight lb/ton	Length feet/meters
	pounds/kilogram	millimeters
24 lb.	24 / 11.79	153.0	3000 / 1.47	6.6 / 2.01
16 lb.	16 / 7.86	133.2	2200 / 1.08	6.2 / 1.98
12 lb.	12 / 5.9	121.3	2000 / 0.98	6 /1.97
8 lb.	8 / 3.93	106.0	1000 / 0.49	4.9 / 1.37
4 lb.	4 / 1.97	84.2	600 / 0.295	4.8 / 1.34

According to tests carried out by Lieutenant General Mense in Flanders, the maximum firing range from cannons of the new invention with a powder charge of 1/3 of the weight of the cannonball and a barrel elevation angle of 45 degrees) was:
*24-pounder gun - 2250 toise (4386 m.),
*16-pounder gun - 2020 toise (3937 m.),
*12-pounder gun -1870 toise (3645 m.),
*8-pounder gun - 1660 toise (3235 m.),
*4-pounder gun -1520 toise (2963 m.).

At the same time, de Saint-Rémy writes that the standard powder charge of the guns was half of the maximum and the aimed firing range did not exceed 300 toises (585 meters). As the guns wore out, the powder charge had to be reduced to a quarter of the maximum and the firing range was reduced to 102 toises (200 meters). The same had to be done when reaching half daily value shots, i.e. after 40-50 shots.

From the author. This generally reminds huge difference between technically possible maximum speed modern cool foreign cars are 250-300 km/h and the realistically possible driving speed in the city is 60-100 km/h. Of course, there are reckless drivers who accelerate to these maximum speeds, but the end result is always extremely sad - the car is a pile of twisted iron, and the driver is in a cemetery. Same with guns.

De Saint-Rémy notes that in addition to standardized calibers, it is possible to find guns of larger calibers. (one of the cannons of the Strasbourg fortress has a caliber of 96 pounds), as well as cannons of intermediate calibers. These are mainly captured guns or guns cast privately.

Cast iron cannons.

It was believed that their use was no longer practical due to the poor quality of the metal, which rusted too quickly, especially from inside the barrel, thereby increasing the actual caliber of the gun. Or fistulas form in the metal, which makes shooting from cast iron guns dangerous.
Of all the cast iron cannons during this period, only cannons cast at the Se-Gervais foundry were allowed for use in French artillery, since the cast iron was very soft and viscous there. And even then, only a few coastal cities and towns in the mountains were supposed to be equipped with cast-iron cannons.

From the author. I believe that the French returned to the production of cast iron cannons for reasons of economy. Copper was very expensive in those days. It is no coincidence that small denomination coins were stamped from copper and their denomination was determined by their weight.

Cast iron cannons are noticeably heavier than copper ones. If the classic 24-pound copper cannon weighed 2.5 tons, the new invention 1.5 tons, then the cast iron one weighed 2.7 tons.

The book gives the characteristics of the following cast iron cannons:

Cannon sample	Caliber		Weight lb/ton	Length feet/meters
	pounds/kilogram	millimeters
24 lb.	24 / 11.79	153.0	5550 / 2.73	?
16 lb.	16 / 7.86	133.2	4500 / 2.21	?
8 lb.	8 / 3.93	106.0	2250 / 1.1	?
4 lb.	4 / 1.97	84.2	1300 / 0.64	?

In addition, in January 1693, 90 cast iron cannons cast in private forges were purchased in the cities of Angoumoa and Perigio:

Cannon sample	Purchased guns	Caliber		Weight lb/ton	Length feet/meters
		pounds/kilogram	millimeters
36 lb.	3	36 / 17.69	174.9	7100 /3.49	?
24 lb.	25	24 /11.79	153.0	5730 / 2.82	?
18 lb.	14	18 / 8.85	138.9	4370/ 2.15	?
12 lb.	23	12 / 5.9	121.3	3610 /1.78	?
8 lb.	25	8 /3.93	106.0	2310 / 1.14	?

The cost of the purchased guns was 710 livres for 36-pound guns, 573 livres for 24-pound guns, and for smaller calibers from 354 to 185 livres apiece.

From the author. So, for a general idea, so that you can understand the scale of prices in France at that time and to understand that war is a very expensive business:
The Livre was the monetary unit of France until 1795. There are 20 soldi in 1 livre (sous, salt), in 1 soldo there are 12 deniers.
Prices - pound of bread - 2-3 sous; a pound of beef or a liter of wine - 2-3 sous, chicken - 15 sous; pound of butter - 5-8 sous, steam men's shoes- 3 livres, children's - 14 sous; a dozen wooden clogs - 25 sous.
A worker who received a livre per day was considered a wealthy person.

One 36-pound cast iron cannon thus cost 246 pairs of boots or two years' salary of a skilled worker. But copper cannons, which were the majority, were much more expensive.

Successful tests of the purchased cast iron cannons and the depletion of the royal treasury prompted the government to order the production of another 300 cast iron cannons of some calibers for the field troops. Their characteristics are as follows:

Cannon sample	Guns manufactured	Caliber		Weight lb/ton	Length feet/meters
		pounds/kilogram	millimeters
12 lb.	?	12 / 5.9	121.3	3600 / 1.77	8.5 / 2.79
12 lb.	?	12 / 5.9	121.3	3700 / 1/82	9 / 2.96
8 lb.	?	8 /3.93	106.0	2400 / 1/18	8 / 2/63
8 lb.	?	8 /3.93	106.0	2600 /1.28	8.5 / 2/79
4 lb.	?	4 / 1.97	84.2	1400 / 0/689	6.5 / 2/14

At the turn of the 18th and 18th centuries, quite exotic guns were encountered. For example, a twin 4-pounder gun. It consisted of two barrels cast together, 5 feet 4 inches (1.65 m) long, with a common ignition channel. The cannon could fire both regular cannonballs and interconnected rods (the rods were each inserted into its own barrel, and the connecting jumper remained outside). The length of this twin ammunition is 12 feet (3.95 m) and weighs 65 pounds (32 kg).

From the author. The book does not provide other data (firing range, damaging capabilities, etc.). Obviously, this invention remains exotic, since there are few places where you can find information about such guns. I dare to suggest that one of the reasons was that it is difficult to achieve synchronization of shots from both barrels. Apparently, the paired rods flew away aimlessly or even separated from each other during the flight, or worse, damaged the barrels when fired.

There was an option in which a third barrel was located slightly higher in the hollow between the two trunks, and also an option in which the barrel was cast in an oval shape and two channels were drilled into it A. Such guns had a common charging chamber.

De Saint-Rémy writes that cast-iron semi-cartan cannons (24- and 16-pounders) can fire from 90 to 100 shots per day in the summer, and 65-75 shots in the winter. However, according to information from artillery officers, they sometimes fired up to 150 rounds per day. But this is fraught with damage to the machine and swelling of the ignition channel.
16- and 12-pounder copper cannons can fire up to 200 shots in 9 hours or 138 shots in 5 hours. But these are technical capabilities since such shooting does not leave time for proper aiming of the gun.

Ammunition

The main type of ammunition for all guns was spherical all-metal cannonballs.

The translator of de Saint-Rémy's book calls them simply nuclei.

Core. They were usually cast from cast iron. The diameter of the core should be slightly smaller than the diameter of the barrel so that the core can freely roll into the barrel without delay. For example, with a bore diameter of an 8-pound gun of 106.026 mm. the core diameter for it should be 102.36 mm according to the table.

The core hits targets only due to its kinetic energy, i.e. mass and speed.

The cost of a thousand cast iron cannonballs at the turn of the century was about 3 livres.

Hard core. It is a regular core, which is heated to a red glow over a fire before loading. Designed to create fires in a besieged city or fortress. In order to be able to use a hardened cannonball in a cannon, a castle made of crumpled clay is placed between it and the powder charge. This lock also plays the role of a wad.
The use of hardened balls is permitted only in 8-pounder and 4-pounder guns. Cannonballs of smaller calibers cool down too quickly on the trajectory and cannot ignite anything. Larger caliber kernels (12-pounds or larger) are too heavy, difficult to heat to the desired temperature, and are prone to cracking and destruction due to uneven heating.

Empty core. It is a metal cylinder with a diameter of the caliber of a gun and a length of 2.5 calibers. Part of the internal space (one and a half caliber) was filled with lead, and the rest contained a powder charge. At the end of the cylinder, which, when loading the gun, looked towards the powder charge of the gun, a hole was drilled into which a copper ignition tube filled with slowly burning gunpowder was screwed. The outer end of the ignition tube was covered with turpentine (a mixture of pine resin and essential oil).

When fired from a flash cannon powder charge the pyrotechnic composition in the ignition tube caught fire, the cylinder flew out of the cannon, and after this composition burned out, an explosion occurred.

For example, a 24-pound empty cannonball had a total weight of 79 pounds (38.32 kg), i.e. more than three times the weight of a typical 24-pound round ball. In the total weight of this projectile, gunpowder was 6 pounds (2.95 kg), metal body 60 pounds (29.5 kg), 19 pounds (9.34 kg). The projectile diameter is 153 mm, length is about 382.5 mm, wall thickness is 27 mm.

From the author. From de Saint-Rémy’s book it turns out that oblong, and even explosive shells with remote fuse existed at the end of the 17th century. Of course, this cylinder tumbled along its trajectory and flew at a distance three times less than an ordinary cannonball. The accuracy was very unsatisfactory. But such shells existed.
Along the way, de Saint-Rémy briefly mentions (p. 105) that in design these “empty cannonballs” are very similar to some land mines or “undermines” installed on the ground. Unfortunately, he does not develop this thesis and does not describe it in detail. But the conclusion suggests itself that anti-personnel mines and minefields, precisely in the sense in which we understand them today, were used in the 18th century.
But just as today they write very little and in passing about mines, so it was with them in those distant times.

Core messenger. Basically it is a means of delivering written documents to and from a besieged fortress.
This is a hollow screwed spherical core coated with lead or made of lead.

Chain core (nipple). There were several types of knipples. The simplest is two cores connected by a rigid jumper (similar in shape to modern sports dumbbells). The nipple could be immediately cast in this mold. There were options when two half-nuclei were connected by a chain. Or the half-cores were hollow, and the chain was laid in the cavities of the half-cores before firing.
In de Saint-Rémy's book, only one option is given - simply two cores connected by a chain.

Nipples are effective at relatively short distances and mainly on ships, where they are good at destroying spars and rigging. On land they were sometimes used to fire at fortified camps or approaching infantry.
The accuracy of shooting with nipples (apparently consisting of two cores with a chain) on land is unsatisfactory, and the firing range half as much as with regular cores.

De Saint-Rémy gives in his book a variant of a nipple consisting of two half-cores connected by a rigid jumper. However, he points out that this type of pin is intended for use as an incendiary projectile.

A cannonball filled with an incendiary composition (incendiary nipple). It is a nipple on rigid jumper (shown just above), The gap between the half-cores is filled with a solid rosin-based incendiary composition and wrapped in several layers of canvas impregnated with resin. When fired, the canvas ignites from the gunpowder charge, and falling near the target creates a fire.

There is an option in which an ignition tube similar to the tube of the empty core is screwed into one of the two semi-cores through a drilled hole. In this case, the nipple shell is made of lead.

From the author. De Saint-Rémy does not provide descriptions of incendiary compositions. One of the books describes that powder balls could be placed inside the train, which, when fire reached them, exploded and scattered the burning composition, thereby increasing the source of the fire.

Interesting feature. The diameter of the cylindrical part of the nipple was slightly larger than the diameter of the half-cores, due to which the nipple was inserted into the gun barrel with force. This made it possible not to use a wad, since the canvas of the nipple performed its role.

De Saint-Rémy points out that incendiary nipples and “empty cannonballs” generally did not live up to the hopes placed on them due to the low reliability of the ignition system (ignition tubes). When fired, they either did not light up at all, or, on the contrary, ignited the filling prematurely. Their use was more of a one-time or test nature.

From the author. From these lines from the author of the book (p. 106) it becomes clear why incendiary nipples and cylindrical explosive shells, although they existed at the turn of the century, are little known and are not mentioned at all in most historical literature. Large weight, short firing range, unreliable operation, and difficulty in manufacturing did not contribute to their introduction into artillery practice.
The use of empty cannonballs generally posed a danger to the guns. Often, the pressure of the powder gases during a shot squeezed the ignition composition inside the projectile, which led to the rupture of the projectile in the barrel.
These shortcomings will be eliminated much later.

Modern military historical literature often mentions hollow cores filled with gunpowder that explode at the target. They are usually called bombs and grenades. However, if we rely on de Saint-Rémy’s book, then in France at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries the guns did not have such ammunition.
Bombs were used only in mortars, and the bomb's fuse tube was ignited separately before firing. And the core was inserted so that the ignition tube looked not in the direction of the powder charge, but in the opposite direction,
De Saint-Rémy calls grenades similar products, but which were used in fortresses for throwing them into the ditch by hand in order to destroy enemy soldiers who had penetrated the ditch and which could no longer be removed from cannons and rifles.

"MEMORIES OR ARTILLERY NOTES which describe MORTARS, PETARDS, DOPPEL jacks, muskets, fuses, and everything that belongs to all these weapons. bombs, frames and grenades, and other castings of cannons, saltpeter and gunpowder, bridges, mines, carries, carts and horses, and in general everything that concerns artillery both at sea and on the land route: disposing of stores, creating charges and stations in armies and in warehouses, marching order, and their disposition in all battles way to defend the fortress and the position of Officer, etc. THROUGH MR. SUREREY DE SEINT REMI VOLUME ONE. TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH LANGUAGE PRINTED IN ST. PETERSBURG in the Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1732."
Page 137-142.

Kartuz, Its varieties are called - cartouche, garguzh, gargush, garguss, buckshot.
Garguzh (gargush, garguss) is a cap made of canvas. It is a fabric shell inside which a sample of gunpowder is placed and a core or lead bullets can be placed.

Kartuz (cartouche) differs from garguzh in that it is made of parchment or multi-layer paper. It can also contain only gunpowder or, in addition to gunpowder, also a core or lead bullets.

Cartuses made of tin and wood are called, respectively, “tin buckshot” and, respectively, “wooden buckshot.” They are necessarily equipped with a cannonball or lead bullets.

From the author. From here the origin and essence of the term “buckshot” (in modern spelling - buckshot) becomes clear. Buckshot is an artillery shot (that is, a set) which necessarily includes a certain number of ready-made destructive elements (lead, cast iron bullets, nails, metal fragments, etc.). When fired, the destructive elements fly out of the barrel in a diverging beam and hit enemy personnel.
We are used to calling only the round bullets themselves buckshot, but it turns out that this is not so. Bullets are just an element of a grape shot.

Along the way. Gunners call a shot both the very phenomenon of the ejection of a certain projectile from a gun, and the set of products for producing this ejection.

Caps made of parchment are considered the best because, unlike canvas and paper, parchment only curls when there is a flash of gunpowder, but does not catch fire and does not leave smoldering scraps stuck to the barrel walls and does not require cleaning the barrel (boiling) before each new loading. When using parchment caps, it is quite enough to clean the barrel (ban) only after three shots.

Reference. Parchment - thoroughly cleaned and degreased thin leather. It was used before the invention of paper, and partly later for writing (documents, books, etc.).
End of help.

The advantage of a parchment cap over a tin and wooden one is that there is no problem of removing a spent cap from a cannon and, moreover, it does not require skilled labor for its production.

The diameter of the cap is equal to the caliber of the gun.

The length of a cap made of parchment, paper or canvas, depending on the mass of the gunpowder charge, reaches six calibers if the cap contains a cannonball or bullets, or four calibers if the cap contains only gunpowder.
The length of a cap made of tin or wood is up to three calibers, of which one caliber is reserved for gunpowder, and two calibers for buckshot.

Cartridge loading is used in cases where hasty shooting is required and it is not possible, for this reason or due to weather conditions, to carry out the usual standard loading of guns (filling gunpowder into the barrel using a shotgun (schaufell), compacting using a hammer, inserting a wad and a cannonball or buckshot).

From the author. Please note - at the beginning of the 18th century, the main method of loading cannons was still pouring gunpowder into the barrel using a special spoon (shuffle).
Cartuz loading, according to the author of the book, is a necessary measure when shooting hastily or shooting in bad weather conditions (strong wind, rain, snowfall). Obviously due to the fact that after a shot, smoldering remains of a textile or paper shell may remain in the barrel bore.

Various sources provide drawings of caps that differ from those shown by me. I don't dare argue about this. I am making reconstructions of caps based on the drawings given in de Saint-Rémy’s book. It is very possible, and most likely, he will not The goal was to show in the book all the possible options for caps that could exist in different countries.

Unfortunately, de Saint-Rémy does not explain how, when fired, the fire from the ignition channel of the gun reached the powder charge in a wooden or tin cap. It is not advisable to make a hole in the cap in advance, since when loading it is almost impossible to align the channel with the hole. Obviously, the hole was made with a wire seeder.
Also, the author does not explain how, after firing, the empty wooden, and especially tin, cap was removed from the cannon barrel. The latter is especially difficult, because... when fired, it resounds and is pressed tightly against the walls of the barrel.

Buckshot.

From the author. Although wooden and tin caps are called buckshot above, there are Also, buckshots are, so to speak, “capless”. Such buckshot is inserted into a cannon instead of a cannonball when it is necessary to hit a mass of infantry at a relatively short distance (up to 100-200m). I found it more convenient to highlight these products in independent species cannon ammunition.

The buckshot is round and oblong.
Designed to defeat enemy soldiers at close ranges. It is a kind of projectile that has a wooden pallet as a base with a diameter equal to the caliber of the gun. A cannonball with a caliber smaller than the caliber of a cannon is placed on it. The core is lined with lead bullets. To hold the core and bullets on the pallet, they are filled with pine resin or tar (tar with resin, resin with lard, tar with lard and soap).
The projectile is given the appearance of a truncated cone one and a half caliber long
To strengthen the projectile and maintain its shape when high temperature air is put on the projectile so-called. shirt, in other words, a canvas shell is glued on.
Caps of this type are preferable for ship guns, since they have a double effect - destruction of ship sides and damage to personnel.

De Saint-Rémy describes a simplified method for preparing such buckshot. A cannonball with a caliber smaller than the caliber of the cannon is taken, dipped in melted resin, after which the cannonball is rolled over a layer of lead bullets. After the bullets stick to the core from all sides, all this is placed together on a wooden pallet with the diameter of the gun's caliber, the bullets and resin that exceed the caliber are removed, and the resulting projectile is inserted into the gun.

Buckshot grazdovik (buckshot in the form of a grape brush).
Designed to defeat enemy soldiers at close ranges. It is a kind of projectile that has a wooden pallet as a base with a diameter equal to the caliber of the gun. A wooden rod the length of the projectile is embedded in the pallet. Lead bullets are placed around the rod. To hold the bullets on the pallet, they are filled with pine resin or tar (tar with resin, resin with lard, tar with lard and soap).
The projectile is given the appearance of a truncated cone one and a half to two calibers long.
To strengthen the projectile and maintain its shape at high air temperatures The resin projectile is wrapped with twine, from which a mesh is formed. The outside of the mesh can be covered with glued canvas.
As soon as this projectile leaves the bore, the bullets fly forward in an expanding beam.

The book also states that for shooting at close ranges, lead bullets, nails, broken chains, and various metal fragments can be placed in the barrel instead of a cannonball.

From the author. The literature describes many variants of buckshot. However, some of them refer either to other times or to other countries. I limit myself to the types of buckshot described in de Saint-Rémy's book. I’m not sure that he described all the types available at that time in the French artillery, but I do not think it is possible to expand this list, since it is easy to mislead the reader as to where and when certain types of buckshot were used.

At the same time, I would like to describe one more ammunition, which does not relate to cannon ammunition, but is described in the book. It is called "musketeer buckshot" or "musketeer buckshot". It is a musket bullet, which is tied to a paper bag with gunpowder by its sprue. The length of the pouch is determined to be 4 musket calibers. De Saint-Rémy emphasizes that after the bullet is cast, its sprue is not removed, but is used to connect it to the musket's powder charge.

From the author. De Saint-Rémy speaks of Musketeer's buckshot as a recent invention and notes that when loading the gun, the far end of the casing is bitten off, gunpowder is poured into the barrel, and the bullet and paper are sent after. The paper shell plays the role of a wad. In the text, he calls this product a cartridge and notes that this significantly speeds up the loading of the gun. Obviously this product was improved later. They began to use the bullet without a sprue and placed it in the bag itself.

Thus, the introduction of a paper rifle cartridge into practice should be dated back to the end of the 17th century. At least in France.

Thus, at the turn of the century, French guns were used:
* ordinary all-metal spherical cannonballs, which were fired both cold and hot,
* explosive cylindrical shells ("empty cannonballs"),
*messenger kernels,
* chain cannonballs (nipples), which could be equipped with incendiary compounds,
*various types of grapeshot shells.

Ball-shaped explosive cores were not used in cannons.

Note. All books on the history of artillery say that initially artillery used gunpowder pulp, and then they learned to granulate gunpowder. And they say fine-grained gunpowder was better suited for guns, and coarse-grained gunpowder was better suited for cannons and mortars. So, they say, since then only coarse-grained gunpowder has been used in artillery.
I don’t presume to argue on this score, but in de Saint-Rémy’s book we find that in 1685, Marc de la Fresiliere conducted a series of experiments with various gunpowders and discovered that a significant part of the large powder grains flew out of the cannon barrel without even igniting, then how small grains burn completely. A charge made from fine-grained powder provides a greater firing range than one from coarse-grained powder.
Based on the results of the experiments, it was decided to produce medium-grain gunpowder, which is equally suitable for muskets and cannons.
End note.

Production of cannon firing.

The gun crew (in modern terms) of 12-24 pound guns consists of two gunners and six gundlangers.

The first gunner (in the command post diagram) is located to the right of the cannon. He carries a natruka (vessel) with seed powder and two pickles (knitting needles for cleaning the gun's ignition channel). His main responsibilities include filling the gun with a powder charge using a shuffle and filling the seed powder into the gun's ignition channel.

The second gunner (in the CL diagram) is located to the left of the cannon. He carries with him a stick (a pole with a burning wick at the end) and a leather bag for gunpowder (the bag is called the captain's armus). His main responsibilities are delivering a powder charge from a small powder magazine, pouring it into the chuffle held by the first gunner, and firing a shot on the orders of the commissar.

Gundlangers are positioned in threes on the left and right sides of the cannon.

The order of loading the gun calibers 12 - 24 pounds:
1. The first gundlangers (1p and 1l) ban the cannon with a bannik, after which the third left gundlanger (3 l) inserts the primer into the ignition channel of the gun and takes the shuffle.
2. At this time, the second gunner (KL), accompanied by the third right gunner (3p), brings a bag of gunpowder from a small magazine, which he pours into the shuffle held by the first gunner (KP).
3. The first gunner (KP) pours gunpowder into the cannon.
4. At this time, the second gunner (KL) puts the leather bag in a safe place and prepares the coat.
5. The second right handlanger (2p) puts a powder wad into the cannon.
6. The first gandlangers (1p and 1l) put the hammer into the barrel together and strike them 8-10 times on the wad.
7. The second left handlanger (2 l) rolls a cannonball into the cannon.
8. The first gundlangers (1p and 1l), together with a hammer, push the cannonball deep into the trunk.
9. The second right handlanger (2p) puts a wad of cannonballs into the cannon.
10. The first gandlangers (1p and 1l) together insert a hammer into the barrel and apply 4 blows to the wad of the cannonball.
11. The first ganglangers (1p and 1l) take the levers in readiness to insert them between the spokes in front of the wheels to turn the gun left or right in the direction of the target.
12. The second ganglangers (2p and 2l) take the levers and stand behind the wheels in readiness to move the cannon forward to the loophole.
13. The third gunlangers (3 l and 3 p) with levers are located at the rear of the machine, ready to turn the gun to the left or right.
14. The first gunner (KP) removes the priming agent from the ignition channel and pours seed powder into it from the powder. He also uses a lever placed along the rear wheel to fix the position of the gun.
15. The second gunner (KL) holds his pistol with a burning fuse in readiness to fire a shot on the order of the commissar.

The order of firing a shot.

After loading the gun and installing it in place, it is aimed at the target. To do this, according to the commands of the commissar, who places a quadrant on the barrel, the second gunlangers (2p and 2l), acting with levers and wedges, give the barrel the desired elevation angle. At the same time, the third ganglangers (3p and 3l), again at the commands of the commissar, standing at the trunk of the machine and using levers, aim the cannon horizontally.

At the command of the commissar, the second gunner (KL) touches the burning fuse of the gun to the fuse of the cannon and fires a shot. The process of loading the gun is repeated.

From the author. The staff of officers on the battery is very unclear. From the book it follows that the battery is commanded by a commissar (Komi sar - in the spelling of 1732). He is assisted by two provincial commissioners, one ordinary and one extraordinary commissioner. There are a total of five officers on the battery. And there are six guns on a standard battery. It follows from this that when firing, the commissars move from gun to gun, and do not each command one gun, as is done in mortar batteries.

August 2016

Sources and literature

1.U. fon Cranachs. Deliciae Cranachianae oder rare und kunstreiche Fried-und Krieges-Inventiones, bestehende in XI Kupfferstiche. Hamburg.1672
2.J.J. fon Wallhausen.Manuale Militare oder Kriegs Manual. Auctorius.Frankfurt. 1616
3. Website "StandingWellBack" (www.standingwellback.com/home/2014/9/11)
4.P.S.de Saint-Rémy. Memories or artillery notes. Volume one Academy of Sciences St. Petersburg. 1732

God of War 1812. Artillery in Patriotic War Shirokorad Alexander Borisovich

Chapter 11 ARTILLERY OF THE GRAND ARMY

GRAND ARMY ARTILLERY

1. French artillery

French artillery in the 18th century is considered by most historians to be the best in the world. In 1732, Lieutenant General de Volliers introduced a system of guns that became the most advanced in the world. It consisted of 4-, 8- and 18-pounder field guns, 24-pounder siege guns, and 8- and 12-inch mortars.

In 1776, a new system under General Jean Baptiste Gribeauval was introduced in France, which lasted from minor changes until 1827

The length of the field guns of the Gribeauval system is 18 calibers. The gap in the channel between the wall and the core was halved - from 5 mm for aviary tools to 2.5 mm, due to which the starting speed projectile and shooting accuracy. On the other hand, reducing the gaps prevented the use of red-hot cannonballs, that is, a very effective incendiary agent of that time.

The gun barrels were cast solid to avoid shells, and then a channel was drilled into them. The Aviary decorations on the trunks have disappeared. The fuses were made in copper seed rods to save the guns from the rapid flare-up of the ignition hole. Sights and front sights, previously absent, were introduced.

Field guns of the Gribeauval system

The trunnion axis was raised slightly closer to the channel axis to reduce impacts of the breech on the carriage's lifting mechanism.

Gribeauval significantly lightened the carriages and replaced the lifting wedge with a lifting screw mechanism. The front end (without a box) is made with a drawbar (instead of the previous shaft) to make it easier for the native horses.

A team of six horses carried a 12-pounder cannon, four horses carried an 8-pounder, and a pair of horses carried a 4-pounder.

To move the gun into position, Gribeauval introduced straps for servants; for the same purpose, wooden levers were inserted into brackets in the middle of the carriage. 14–15 people were enough to move a 12-pound gun in this way, even on inconvenient ground.

Designation of the main parts of the gun barrel of the Gribeauval system

Gribeauval established the composition of the battery at 8 guns of the same caliber (4-pounder, 8-pounder, 12-pounder guns or 6-inch howitzers), considering that:

1) The battery must be divided into two or four platoons.

2) To service eight guns, one company of 120 servants, which has a reserve team in the park, is enough.

3) For carts serving eight guns, one company of convoy is enough.

4) One experienced captain can command these guns.

The Gribeauval 4-pounder gun had a caliber of 86.4 mm and a barrel weight of 295 kg. Accordingly, the 6-pounder, 8-pounder and 12-pounder guns had calibers of 96 mm, 106 mm and 121 mm, and weights of about 400 kg, 590 kg and 870–880 kg. The greatest effective firing range of the French 8-pounder guns was: cannonball - 900 m and grapeshot - 500 m, and 4-pounder guns, respectively, 800 m and 300 m.

A few words need to be said about the system of the 11th year, that is, 1803. Let me remind you that Napoleon returned the country to the old calendar in 1805.

In 1803, a special commission was created in France under the chairmanship of the First Consul Napoleon. Its purpose was to decide whether Gribeauval’s artillery was still suitable, or whether it was time to change it in accordance with the newly developed military requirements. The commission created a new “Year XI system,” which, although not yet fully implemented in practice, influenced the further development of artillery. This system assumed the following.

Eliminate 4- and 8-pounder field and 16-pounder siege guns, 6- and 8-inch howitzers, and 10-inch mortars. Replace 4- and 8-pound calibers with 6-pound long 17 calibers weighing 130 cores, modeled on Prussian artillery. To replace the previous 6-inch howitzers, introduce a 24-pound howitzer with a bore length of 5 calibers and a weight of 600 pounds with a projectile weight of about 14 pounds. Adopt mountain artillery consisting of new short 6-pounder guns weighing 360 pounds (that is, weighing 60 cannonballs), 24-pounder light howitzers and 3-pounder guns weighing 160 pounds (that is, weighing 53 cannonballs).

Section of a 12-pound French cannon. The presence of a chamber is clearly visible

The fortress artillery was to consist of 24-, 12- and 6-pounder guns; 12-, 8-inch and 24-pound Homer mortars and a 15-inch “stone thrower”.

For special mobile siege artillery parks, a new short 24-pounder gun with a length of 16 calibers and a weight of 120 cores was designed.

Coastal artillery included 24- and 36-pound cast iron cannons, as well as 12-inch long-range mortars (charged 12 kg of gunpowder). The coastal cannons were supposed to accept explosive shells with thickened bottoms and spikes.

Field carriages were accepted with straight frames and a box on the front, tied and easily removed.

Gribeauval's charging box was replaced by another - with wheels rolling under the body, but without reducing the diameter of the wheels and without raising the body. The ammunition was located in special boxes that could be easily inserted and removed.

Howitzers of the Gribeauval system

There are three types of iron axles - for the 12-pounder gun and howitzer, the 6-pounder gun and for other carts. Three types of wheels were used. 3-pounder cannons and a special forge were adapted for packing, as were boxes of ammunition. Gribeauval's fortress and siege carriages were replaced by a new type of "boom carriage" with a trunnion axis height of 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m).

Finally, Colonel Villantrois designed long 8-, 9- and 11-inch howitzers with a bore length of 7-8 calibers, firing large charges at large elevation angles. These howitzers were intended to protect coastal fortifications and bays intended to shelter the fleet, as well as for bombardment from long distances. The 11-inch Villantrois howitzer weighed 39 pounds (639 kg); projectile - 215 pounds (88 kg); charge - 60 pounds (24.57 kg). With these data and an elevation angle of 42°, the range was 5.8 versts (6.2 km).

As we can see, there were many reasonable ideas in the “XI year system”. The replacement of 4- and 8-pounder guns with 6-pounder ones (by drilling out the 4-pounder ones) was caused by the experience of the war. Thus, 8-pound guns turned out to be insufficiently mobile for horse artillery and required a large convoy, which lengthened the marching columns. And the 4-pounder guns were too weak and could not operate at long ranges. The 6-pound caliber was used by opponents - Austria and Prussia. By increasing their caliber a little, it was possible to prevent the enemy from using their shells, and at the same time it was possible to use the enemy’s shells. The experience of using 6-pounder guns captured by the French from the Austrians gave good results regarding reality and mobility. 6-pounder guns were introduced into the French artillery and were used in the Napoleonic Wars.

The howitzers of the Gribeauval system were too short and light, quickly wore out the carriages and had poor accuracy. Their ammunition required a large number of boxes. The 24-pound howitzers were longer and heavier, fired larger charges, and were more accurate. And also, these howitzers did not damage their carriages. The same caliber as the 24-pounder guns made it possible to use the same shells as howitzers if the bombs were accepted for long guns, but in practice this turned out to be impossible at that time.

The 10-inch mortar occupied a middle position between the 12- and 8-inch mortars and could replace both of them. Mountain artillery is especially necessary when crossing mountainous terrain, for example, when crossing the Alps.

Straight carriage frames were cheaper and easier to manufacture. Front boxes were already accepted by everyone in all the armies of the world by that time. Changing the design of the charging boxes increased their maneuverability and ease of delivery of ammunition to the guns. Finally, Villantrois howitzers performed well in practice - during the bombardment of Cadiz, and began good remedy for coastal defense from long distances.

But constant wars, the inability to conduct long-term and serious tests of new systems, as well as a number of other difficulties that arose in the process of using new projects in combat conditions, did not make it possible to accept the “Year XI System” in its entirety. Only 6-pounder guns, 24-pounder howitzers and a few Villantrois howitzers were accepted. The 6- and 8-inch field howitzers were slightly lengthened, following the Prussian model. The remaining guns remained in service. So the result, instead of simplification, was an even greater variety of material.

Drawing of a French howitzer

In addition to cannons, the French army also had howitzers. Moreover, they were not intended for mounted fire, as in the twentieth century, but exclusively for flat fire as reinforcement weapons.

In 1812, the Grand Army was armed with three types of howitzers: the 6-inch Gribeauval system, the 6-inch “extended” howitzer and the 24-pound howitzer of the “XI year” model. Their caliber was approximately the same - about 152 mm, and all howitzers had cylindrical chambers. The 6-inch Gribeauval howitzer of 162 mm caliber had a length of 4.75 calibers. Its barrel weight was 330–355 kg, and the carriage weighed 590 kg.

"Long" howitzers were introduced in 1795, modeled on Prussian howitzers. The length of the howitzer was 6.5 calibers. There were relatively few such howitzers in the Great Army.

The 24-pound howitzer of the “Year XI System” had a caliber of 160 mm, a barrel length of 6.75 calibers, a barrel weight of about 350 kg, and a carriage weight of 573 kg.

French howitzers were transported by four horses.

During the French Revolution, one-pound guns of the Rosten system were also used. They were intended for “light troops”, had a collapsible carriage and could be transported on packs. To the trunk of a carriage with wheels large diameter shafts were attached. The gun was transported by one horse. Its caliber is about two inches, the weight of the barrel is 4.2 pounds (68.8 kg).

Gribeauval left the siege and fortress weapons of de Volliers unchanged, removing only decorations (by turning) and small chambers that did not reach the goal and made it difficult to penetrate. A short 8-inch howitzer was introduced into the siege artillery.

During experimental shooting, Gribeauval found out that the Aviary 12-inch mortars would withstand a maximum of 100 more shots, after which they would become unusable; almost a third of the bombs fired from them would break. Therefore, he proposed a relatively weighted 10-inch mortar and bombs for it with thickened walls. With a charge of 7 pounds (2.87 kg), it threw bombs up to 1,000 fathoms (2,134 m), as did the 12-inch mortar. The mortar is sedentary, with a cylindrical chamber and a retractable seed rod. Cast iron machine. The Aviary 12-inch mortars were left in service until their bombs were completely used up, but from now on their weight was supposed to be increased by 8 pounds (131 kg).

In addition, Gribeauval adopted Homeric mortars of 12, 10 and 8 inches in caliber. A feature of these mortars, proposed in 1785, were large conical chambers, which gave a lower loading density and a more favorable gas effect. The chambers merged with a cylindrical channel. The mortars used triangular lugs that connected the trunnions to the body of the mortar (the muzzle). The 12-inch Homer mortar fired a bomb at a range of up to 1200 fathoms (2561 m).

In addition to the mortars, there were also 15-inch stone throwers, but descriptions of them could not be found.

In field carriages with slightly shortened and lightweight frames, the diameter of the wheels was increased, and iron axles and cast iron bushings in the hubs were adopted. To reduce the increased rollback, the beds were curved in the middle accordingly. Strong shackles and ankle straps slightly increased the weight of the carriage. To more evenly distribute the load on both axles during large movements, traveling sockets were adopted. Between the frames diverging towards the trunk there was an inserted fire monitor box for ammunition with a gable roof and hinges on the sides for inserting levers when carrying. The lifting mechanism consisted of a board rotating on a horizontal bolt (under axles), resting with its notch on the head of a screw screwed into the uterus rotating on axles. To make it easier for the servants to move the carriage, there were hooks in the frontal part at the ends of the axles and at the trunk, which were hooked onto special straps with leather loops. For the same purpose, transverse levers were inserted into special brackets on the frames. To move the carriage, 8–11 people were required for 4-pound guns and 11–15 for 12-pound guns. For horizontal aiming, two rules were used, pushed into the clips on the sides of the pivot funnel.

When retreating and transporting through ditches and rivers, a long rope was attached to the ring near the trunk - the so-called “draw”, by which the limber was pulled. In this case, the gun could continue firing.

The howitzer carriage had a wooden axle and a wedge lifting mechanism with a horizontal screw. There were no traveling nests. Knowing from experience that howitzer carriages cannot withstand firing at elevation angles greater than +20°, Gribeauval limited this angle to +18° (and –5°).

Siege carriages had a device similar to howitzer carriages, and differed little from Aviary carriages. Siege carriages did not have traveling nests, since the guns were transported separately from the carriages on special four-wheeled drays (to transfer the guns, the drogs were removed from the limbers, like the carriages).

For fortress guns, special carriages were adopted, the frames of which, consisting of several beams cut into each other, connected by bolts, had 2 wheels on the front axle and one solid, durable one - between the frames - on the rear. The front wheels rolled when rolling back along the side longitudinal bars of a special turntable; the rear wheel - along the central grooved beam of the platform, which could rotate around the front pivot. The lifting mechanism is wedge, without screw. The height of the trunnions is about 5 feet (1.52 m), instead of the previous 3?. For coastal guns, similar machines were adopted on four wheels, rolling along the beams of a wooden rotating frame (in front there was a pin; in the back there was one solid solid wheel, moving along an arced iron strip fixed on the base).

The field limbers consisted of a fork-shaped frame connected to a drawbar, a slab with a pivot above the axle, and a crossbar or slug that supported the trunk of the gun carriage. There was no box.

The siege limbers had thick wooden shafts, tightly fixed to the axle, and did not have a slug. The charging box consisted of a long box with a gable roof, mounted on a wooden frame, with its cutouts superimposed on the rear axle with high wheels and the field front axle with a slug. Wooden partitions formed nests for shells.

A field forge on four wheels with a fur, an open forge and two boxes for accessories was added to the number of carts. Triquebals and jacks were used for moving and transporting guns.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the Prussian general Scharngorst assessed Gribeauval’s artillery as follows: “French artillery, which was the first in Europe in the previous period, became again the most advanced in 1774; It is true that the basic ideas of its design and organization were borrowed from the Prussian artillery, but they were implemented in such a way that the French guns are still not inferior to any others... everything that was borrowed received the highest possible degree of perfection. The French artillery corps took the most outstanding part in the development of artillery science and technology... when in other states artillery was a craft, in France it has already become a science... French material and French institutions now serve as examples for all other artillery.”

The main disadvantage of the French field artillery was the impossibility of landing servants on limbers and charging boxes, which allowed only walking.

The French army also paid great attention to horse artillery.

Initially, horse companies (six 4-pound cannons and one 6-inch howitzer) were attached to foot artillery regiments. However, by order of the War Ministry of February 7, 1794, a new branch of artillery was officially created, receiving special organization. The companies were organized into regiments of horse artillery. Each regiment had 6 companies and a depot.

On April 15, 1806, a horse artillery regiment of the Imperial Guard was formed, consisting of 6 companies.

French cannons and howitzers had the date of manufacture and the name of the maker stamped on the torel belt. Guns cast before 1793 bore the monograms of King Louis XIV. The crown of the French kings has eight line flowers above the hoop. Arcs rise from them, which also converge under the blossoming lily.

The cannons, cast in 1793–1803, depict the monogram of the Republic, consisting of two intertwined letters RF—Republic of France, topped with an inscription. Some cannons bear the monogram of the National Assembly - “AN”, as well as the image of the “all-seeing eye” and the inscription.

The cannons cast under Napoleon I are decorated with his initials - the letter “N” in a laurel wreath under the crown. In the crown above the hoop are eagles with wings raised high.

The cannons of the Kingdom of Italy (Northern Italy, Piedmont and a number of duchies) depict the iron crown of the Lombard kings with the motto “God gave it to me. Woe to anyone who touches her." The guns of the Italian Kingdom differed little from the French ones, fortunately, since May 1805, Napoleon I was the Italian king. And this good king sent his troops to Russia to help the French Emperor Napoleon I.

2. French Allied Artillery

A complete description of the guns of the allied countries that participated in the campaign against Russia in 1812 is a hefty volume. So I will have to limit myself to the most common systems.

Table 12

Prussian artillery

Weapon data	12-pounder gun	6-pounder gun	3-pound cannon	10 lb howitzer	7-lb howitzer
Caliber, inch/mm	4,68/448,9	3,71/94,2	3,0/76,3	6,7/170,2	5,84/148,3
Barrel length, club	18,0	18	20	6,3	6,4
Barrel weight, pud/kg	55/901	30/491,4	14/229,2	36/589,7	25/409,5
Carriage weight, pud/kg	49/802,6	37/606	?	49/802,6	41/671,6
Front weight, pud/kg	26/425,9	28/458,6	?	26/425,9	28/458,6
	130/2129	95/1556	?	111/1818	104/1704
	55/901	55/901	?	55/901	55/901
Gun crew, people	13	9	?	15	12
	95	195	?	48	85
	8	6	?	8	6
	6	6	?	6	6

The attentive reader has already noticed the discrepancy between the names of the Prussian howitzers - 10-pounder and 7-pounder - with the weight of their shells and caliber in inches. This is not a typo. The fact is that in Prussia, howitzer calibers were measured by the weight of a stone (!), and not a cast iron core.

Prussian 24-lb howitzer

The Prussian cannons, cast in Breslau in 1780–1801, depict the Prussian coat of arms - a single-headed eagle with a sword in one paw and “peruns” in the other. The eagle is crowned. Above the inscription: “For glory and homeland!”

The breech bears the monogram of King Frederick with the motto: "The King's Last Argument."

Table 13

Data from Austrian guns

Weapon data	12-pound battery gun	12-pound light gun	6-pounder gun	3-pound cannon	7-lb howitzer
Caliber, inch/mm	4,66/118,4	4,66/118,4	3,72/94,5	2,99/75,9	5,87/149,1
Barrel length, club	25,0	16,0	16,0	16	6,1
Barrel weight, pud/kg	80/1310	48/786,2	23,5/385	14,7/240,8	16,8/275,2
Carriage weight, pud/kg	40/655,2	30/491,4	29,5/483,2	19,5/319,4	29/475
Front weight, pud/kg	20/327,6	20/327,6	17/278,5	17/278,5	17/278,5
Weight of the gun with the limber, pud/kg	140/2293	98/1605	70/1147	51,2/838,6	62,8/1028
Weight of charging box without ammunition, pd/kg	27/442,3	27/442,3	27/442,3	27/442,3	27/442,3
Gun crew, people	12	12	11	8	11
Number of shells carried in one charging box	90	90	176	144	90
Number of horses in a cannon harness	8	6	4	2	4
Number of horses in a charging box harness	4	4	4	2	4

It is worth noting here that the calibers of a number of Austrian cannons are expressed in the small Nuremberg scale and therefore, with the same name, are smaller than in the artillery of other countries. For example, a 12-pound Austrian is equivalent to an 8-pound French, and a 6-pound is equivalent to a 4-pound.

Since the Austrian Empire included many territories, Austrian guns were distinguished by a wide variety of coats of arms and monograms. Thus, on the cannons with the coats of arms of Bohemia, Burgundy and Lombardy, images of eagles with the order chain of the “Golden Fleece” are minted. Cannons from the time of Empress Maria Theresa adorn the coat of arms of the Duchy of Tuscany, which includes the coats of arms of Austria, Parma, Hungary, Bohemia, and Jerusalem.

The artillery of the Great Army also included English cannons. Moreover, they were not trophies of the “villain Bonaparte.” The fact is that Napoleon annexed Hanover - the personal possession of the British kings.

Accordingly, the Hanoverian cannons feature the monogram English king George VII with the chain of the Order of the Garter and the inscription: “Shame on him who thinks ill of it.”

Saxon 20-lb howitzer

The Great Army also included Dutch cannons, cast in The Hague in 1797. They depict the coats of arms of Flanders with the inscription “Watch, trusting in God.”

The cannons, cast in 1788, bear the coat of arms of Zealand - the “swimming lion”. On the shield under the ducal crown is the inscription: “I fight and fight out.”

The Polish cannons depict the coats of arms of King Stanislaw Augustus, Prince Sapieha, Prince Potocki, surrounded by a chain of the Order of the White Eagle with the inscription “For faith, law and flock.”

On the cannons with the coat of arms of Prince Sapieha there is a mantle, in the oval there is an arrow, around there are laurels intertwined with an order ribbon, and the title of Prince Nestor-Kazimir Sapieha: the chief chief of artillery of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The cannons are engraved with the motto “For Faith, Tsar and Law” and the inscription: “A citizen sacrificed me to the Fatherland.”

The cannons with the coat of arms of Count Potocki also depict a mantle, and on them there is an oval shield with a seven-pointed cross and the coat of arms of Pilyava. The laurels are intertwined with the mite of the Order of Stanislaus. On the oval is the inscription: “Count Theodor Potocki of the Crown Artillery, Major General.” On top are a helmet and a count's crown, and above it are ostrich feathers with the same cross as in the coat of arms. Above the coat of arms is the motto “For war, but not at all for civil” and the year “1767”.

Table 14

Artillery data from Napoleon's allies

Type of gun	Caliber, inch/mm	Channel length, club	Length without wings, mm	Barrel weight, kg	Projectile weight, kg	Charge weight, kg
Neapolitan
6-pounder gun	3,7/94	16	1448	352	3,2	1,02
howitzer	6/152	5,3	1016	295	6	0,6
Westphalian
6-pounder gun	3,7/94	16	1626	376	3,34	0,836
Bavarian
6-pounder gun	3,7/94	18	1626	410	3,34	0,836
howitzer	6/152	5	1016	295	6,5	0,72
Saxon
4-pounder gun	3,25/83	16	1321	278	1,7	0,72
6-pounder gun	3,7/94	18	1626	376	3,33	0,83
howitzer	6/152	5	1016	295	6,5	0,72
Polish
6-pounder gun	3,7/94	18	1524	393	3,2	1,02
3-pound cannon	3176	18	1245	229	1,2	0,6

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