What were guilds in the Middle Ages? Flow-shop system

association of one or more related professions to protect their interests and ensure that members of the workshop have a monopoly on the sale and production of handicraft products. In Russia, the guild system was introduced in 1722 and abolished in 1917.

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SHOP

associations based on the professions of artisans who were small economically independent producers in feudal cities. society. In the history science duration At that time, the term Ts. was used only in relation to Western history. and Center. Europe, where C. achieved its greatest development, as well as to the history of the Polish-Lithuanian state and post-Petrine Russia (see below - C. in Russia). However, in modern ist. science (especially in Soviet) the term "C." often distributed to mountain organizations. artisans of all feuds. countries (including countries of Asia and North Africa). Workshops in Western countries. Europe (German Zunft, Amt, Gilde, Handwerk, Zeche, Einung; French corps de metier, corporation; English Guild, Craftguild; Italian arte, corporazione) arose at the early stage of the formation of the Middle Ages. cities - in France, England, Germany in the 11th-12th centuries. (in Italy, perhaps even earlier); full development in most Western countries. They reached Europe in the 13th-14th centuries. At this time, in most cities (but not all), artisans of the main specialties united in the center (the center of blacksmiths, gunsmiths, weavers, fullers, bakers, butchers, carpenters, tanners, etc.); Moreover, membership in the Center did not automatically apply to all persons in a given specialty, but was acquired on an individual basis. In C. there was a certain social hierarchy: master, journeyman, student. The craftsmen independently ran their own business - they worked in their workshop, were the owners of tools, raw materials and manufactured goods; only the masters were full members of the C. Workers, who were hired by the master (apprentices), and the apprentices were not full members of the C. To become a master, it was necessary to serve a certain period of apprenticeship (in different cities and C. it ranged from 2-3 to 7 or more years) and work as an apprentice for some time. The apprentices were dependent on the masters and exploited by them. The emergence of trade, due to the common interests of artisans as small producers, was an expression of a characteristic characteristic of all societies. feudal structure society (and especially clearly expressed in the Western European version of feudalism) corporatism. Conquered by the inhabitants of Western Europe. cities of liberty and self-government facilitated both the unification of artisans in the C. and their activities. Basic C.'s functions are economic. In most cases, the C. fought for the establishment of the so-called. guild coercion (German: Zunftzwang), i.e. recognition of their members' monopoly right to the production and sale of this type of craft. products within the city or its surroundings, which was mainly caused by. the narrowness of the market characteristic of a feudal economy. society, limited demand for crafts. products. The C. also regulated the production and marketing of crafts. products in order to create more favorable conditions for households. activities of the members of the Central Committee and to eliminate competition in their environment. The guild regulations determined the time and working conditions of masters and apprentices, and the quality of raw materials from which crafts were to be made. products, production technology. process, quality, volume of finished products (for example, width, density, coloring, finishing of woolen fabrics), place and conditions for the purchase of raw materials and sales of finished goods, terms and conditions of apprenticeship, number of apprentices and machines that one could have in one’s workshop every master and other Ts. sought to protect artisans from exploitation by lords, merchants, and moneylenders. Despite the equalizing tendencies of workshop regulation, small-scale commodity production opened up certain opportunities for property. bundles. In large mountains. centers, especially in industries associated with the production of a large number of crafts. products for export (Florence, Ghent, Bruges), this stratification reached significant proportions already in the 13-14th centuries. Within the C. more and less wealthy masters stood out. There was also a stratification between the centers that united artisans of various specialties: some centers actually turned into organizations of entrepreneurs who distributed work to artisans from other centers (a particularly striking example is the C. Lana and Kalimala in Florence). Like other Middle Ages. corporations, C. extended their influence to all aspects of the lives of their members: they monitored the adherence of artisans certain rules behavior, organized mutual assistance and joint celebrations, and were cells of the mountains. militias had their own “saint” patrons and performed jointly in religions. processions, etc. Each C. had its own emblem with the image of tools, a workshop seal, and a cash register. Ts. usually sought the right to decide their own internal affairs. affairs under the general supervision of the mountains. authorities (sometimes they also had their own court). The governing bodies in the Central Committee were meetings of full members of the Central Council; there were elected officials - elders and jurors. Often, elders were appointed by the lord of a city or other mountains. authorities, however, even in these cases, members of the Central Committee actively participated in the management of the Central Committee - they gathered at general meetings, approved shop regulations, etc. The Central Committee played a prominent role in the social struggle within the city. Defending the interests of broad layers of artisans, the Ts. led the fight against the mountains. patriciate and in a number of cities (usually where there was a highly developed craft, which was the predominant branch of the city economy), having overthrown the power of the patriciate, they seized control of the city into their own hands (Florence, Cologne, Ghent, etc.). However, the fruits of victory were usually enjoyed only by the most. rich and influential. C. The specific forms of C. - their organization, functions, etc. - were extremely diverse and changed in accordance with the characteristics of socio-economic. and political building individual countries; they also depended on economics. the character of the city (from the predominance of industry or trade in it), from the branch of industry in which the workshop arose. organization, etc. There were centers that did not have apprentices (for example, in Italy) and did not require apprenticeship (for example, certain Brussels centers). Great differences existed between the C. in the degree of their independence in relation to the mountains. authorities and to the state. In some cases, churches enjoyed broad autonomy and were governed by elected officials; in others, they were placed under the strict supervision of the state. organs or mountains authorities (as a rule, in centralized states the autonomy of the central government was narrower than in decentralized ones - for example, in France it was narrower than in Germany). There were significant differences in the prevalence of coloring in different countries or even in different districts and cities (for example, in Northern France, guild craft was more widespread and coloring reached greater development than in Southern France). C. at the initial stage of development played a progressive role. They strengthened the economy. and the legal status of artisans; Ts.'s instructions on compliance with certain rules of production technology, on the training of students, on the requirements for the qualifications of craftsmen, contributed to the development of technology and the improvement of professional skills. craftsmanship. The existence and widespread distribution of color in their most developed forms was one of the main conditions for rapid economic development. rise of Western countries Europe in the 12th-15th centuries. However, in the 16th-18th centuries, under the conditions of the genesis of capitalism, prices became a brake on the path of economics. development: supporting and protecting small crafts. production, they hindered the development of new capitalist. forms of farming. Leading role in technical and economical development moved to new forms of production - domestic capitalist. industry and manufacturing. During this period there was a decline and disintegration of the guild system. The organization of the centers and their functions changed significantly. The social line between masters and apprentices became more sharply defined. In conditions of competition with more advanced forms of industry, guild foremen sought to maintain their position by turning into a closed privileged class and made it increasingly difficult for apprentices to become members of the C., requiring them to pay large fees to join. contributions, fulfillment of special complex work(the so-called masterpiece), etc., - a process of “closing” or “closing” the C took place. The exploitation of apprentices intensified. All this led to an intensification of the struggle between masters and apprentices, to the transformation of unions of apprentices into organizations of struggle against masters (see Companions). Journeymen and apprentices were effectively turned into hired workers, with very little chance of ever rising to the position of master. C. in means. degrees lost the rights of self-government and were subject to constant and petty control and fiscal exploitation by the state. With the establishment of developed capitalist relations, which entailed the recognition of the principle of free capitalism. entrepreneurship and competition, shop system was destroyed even in those branches of industry where small crafts were still preserved. production In France, crafts were abolished in 1791, during the Great French Revolution; in Germany, all restrictions on the freedom of crafts. activities on the part of the central government were abolished by a number of laws throughout the 19th century. (finally in 1868). History of Western-European A huge literature is devoted to C. In the 19th - first decades of the 20th centuries. a large place in it was occupied by the problem of the origin of color. Agreeing in the recognition that the formation of color was associated with the development of the Middle Ages. cities and mountains crafts, historians disagreed about which legal institutions and organizations served as the starting point for the development of C., and therefore various theories of their origin developed: from Rome. collegiums, from associations of patrimonial artisans (a type of patrimonial theory - K.V. Nich, R. Eberstadt, etc.), the theory of the organization of C. mountains. authorities in order to control the craft (F. Keutgen), the theory is independent. the formation of the city as a result of the free association of artisans under the influence of the new needs of the mountains. life (G. Belov and others) (the latter theory has received wide recognition in modern historical science). Mn. historians and economists of the 19th century. (for example, K. Schoenberg) idealized the capitals of the first period of their development (before the 16th century), believing that at that time such phenomena as sharp property were alien to them. stratification among masters, cruel exploitation of apprentices, a spirit of crude exclusivity, manifested in the desire to make it difficult to admit new members to the Church, etc.; in their opinion, all these phenomena are revealed only at the next stage of development of the workshop. building, marking its decline (in the 16th-18th centuries). Historians of another school, currently the dominant one, point out that in a milder form these phenomena (in particular, the desire to make it difficult to admit new members, the requirement to complete a masterpiece, entrance fees, etc.) were characteristic of the Church already in the 13th-15th centuries. that the egalitarian tendencies of the guild statutes of this time only partially reflected the real history. reality. Organization of Urban Craftsmen in Asian Countries and North Africa. Economical position of the mountains artisans of China, Japan, India, states in Central Asia, Iran, Arab countries , Ottoman Empire, etc., in the Middle Ages and at the beginning of modern times was in many ways similar to economics. position of the mountains feudal artisans Europe: in most cases, they were also economically independent small producers, worked for a limited market, lived in a social reality that gave rise to corporate isolation of departments. social groups, etc. The result was the emergence in these countries of special sectoral mountain organizations. artisans. However, they have not reached the same level of development as Western Europe. Ts., did not have the same rights of self-government as the latter, and played a much smaller role in the history of their countries. About the organizations of the mountains. artisans of Asian and Northern countries. Africa, see articles by Dza, Esnaf, Khan. Lit.: Marx K., Capital, Marx K. and Engels F., Works, 2nd ed., vol. 23, 25 (parts 1-2) (see index); Kulisher I.M., History of economics. everyday life Western Europe, M.-L., 1931; Gratsiansky N.P., Parisian craft workshops in the XIII-XIV centuries, Kazan, 1911; Stoklitskaya-Tereshkovich V.V., Essays on the social history of a German city in the XIV-XV centuries, M.-L., 1936; her, The problem of the diversity of the medieval guild in the West and in Rus', in the collection: Middle Ages, v. 3, M., 1951; Rutenburg V.I., Essay on the history of early capitalism in Italy..., M.-L., 1951; Polyansky F. Ya., Essays on socio-economic. shop floor policies in Western cities. Europe XIII-XV centuries, M., 1952; Stam S.M., Economic. and social development of the early city (Toulouse XI-XIII centuries), Saratov, 1969; Svanidze A. A., Craft and artisans of medieval Sweden, M., 1967; Below G. Von, Die Motive der Zunfbildung im deutschen Mittelalter, "HZ", 1912; Lipson E., The economic history of England, v. 1, 8 ed., L., 1945; Valsecchi F., Comune e corporazion? nel medio evo italiano, Milano, 1949; Pirenne H., Les villes et les institutions urbaines. 2 ?d., t. 1-2, P., 1939; Coornaert E., Les corporations en France avant 1789, P., 1941; Martin Saint L?on E., Histoire des corporations de m?tiers. Depuis leurs origines Jusqu´b leur suppression en 1791, 4?d., P., 1941; Wernet W., Kurzgefa?te Geschichte des Handwerks in Deutschland, 5 Aufl., V., 1969; The Cambridge economic history of Europe, v. 2-3, Camb., 1952-63 (bib.). Yu. A. Korkhov. Moscow. Workshops in Russia. The question of the existence of a guild organization of artisans in the Middle Ages. Rus' is controversial. Back in 1852, V.N. Leshkov put forward the opinion of the existence of crafts. corporations in Rus', but it did not receive support in literature at that time. In Sov. literary thesis about the corporate nature of the mountains. crafts in ancient and middle ages. Rus' was put forward by M. N. Tikhomirov and B. A. Rybakov, who pointed out the specialization of artisans, their joint settlements in settlements and hundreds, the specialization of trade in the ranks by type of product, the presence of patronal churches, corporate feasts-fraternities and certain others. indirect signs indicating the presence of some organizations among artisans in cities Kievan Rus, Novgorod and Pskov in the 14th-15th centuries. Although “we do not have direct indications from sources of the existence in Russian cities ... of craft corporations with formalized charters,” but “the general situation in the development of urban crafts (degree of differentiation, technical equipment, participation of artisans in city self-government, fierce class struggle) allows us to compare the largest Russian cities of the 14th-15th centuries. with the cities of Western Europe, which at this stage are characterized by the development of craft corporations" (Rybakov B. A., Craft ancient Rus', 1948, p. 775-76). V.V. Stoklitskaya-Tereshkovich noted that “it is wrong to imagine the workshop organization of all countries, cities and industries according to the type of the German workshop organization, the most studied and well-known... Of great importance is... the nature of state power and structure, in particular degree of state centralization. centralized states shop autonomy, like general rule, narrower than in decentralized ones" ("The problem of the diversity of the medieval workshop in the West and in Rus'", see the collection "Middle Ages", v. 3, 1951, p. 102). A. M. Sakharov, who studied the northern - eastern Russian cities of the 14th-15th centuries, came to the conclusion that “... some elements of guild organization should have taken place wherever feudalism reigned. Therefore, it is possible to assume the presence of these elements in Russian cities,” but at the same time, “... in Russia in the 14th-15th centuries. in the specific historical situation of intense struggle with the Tatar-Mongol invaders and the continuous strengthening of centralizing grand-ducal power, conditions were not created for the existence of guilds in their developed and complete forms" ("Cities of North-Eastern Rus' of the XIV-XV centuries", 1959, p. 143 With the formation of a single Russian state throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. feudal rule was strengthened. state over the city and remained for a long time. specific gravity of feud. possessions. Under these conditions, corporate organizations of artisans in the form of settlements and hundreds had an extremely limited scope of their development; gradations of skill among palace artisans were established by the state. power, and their privileged position artificially separated them from the mass of the mountains. artisans. Elements of the guild structure of crafts in the Middle Ages. Rus. state-ve were brutally regulated by the state. power and subordinated to the interests of the feud. state The serf spirit. relations penetrated deeply into the mountains. life, including influencing the organization of mountains. crafts. Comparisons of certain foreign Russian travelers craft associations with color are based on purely external similarities of certain elements of crafts. organizations and do not reflect the actual nature of these associations (P. I. Lyashchenko). In 1722, Peter I established a guild structure of crafts in Russia in order to more fully use guild organizations to satisfy state needs as compulsory service. The center accepted free people, as well as serfs released by their owners to earn money. The period of apprenticeship was set at 7 years, while holding the rank of journeyman - at least two years. Both entry into the workshop and assignment of the title of master required the completion of a certain qualifying task. In 1785, the creation of “apprentice boards” was prescribed, in which persons elected by the apprentices were elected to participate in decisions regarding matters concerning the apprentices, but in practice this had no significance. The position of apprentices and apprentices in serfdom. and capitalistic Russia was powerless. Under capitalism, the guild form of organization of crafts opened up scope for the arbitrariness of the master masters and the unlimited exploitation of journeymen and apprentices. The guild organization was abolished with the victory of Vel. Oct. socialist revolution. Lit.: Peshkov V.N., Essay on ancient Russian laws on craft and factory industry, "Moskvityanin", 1852, No. 23; Tikhomirov M. N., Old Russian cities, 2 ed., M., 1956; Lyashchenko P.I., History of the National Economy of the USSR, 3rd ed., vol. 1, M., 1952; Rybakov B. A., Craft of Ancient Rus', M., 1948; Pajitnov K. A., The problem of craft workshops in the legislation of Russian absolutism, M., 1952; Sakharov A. M., Cities of North-Eastern Rus' XIV-XV centuries, M., 1959; PSZ, vol. 6 (No. 3708), vol. 7 (No. 4624), St. Petersburg, 1830. A. M. Sakharov. Moscow.

Introduction

1.2Functions of workshops

1.3 Shop regulation

Chapter 2. Master, student, journeyman

2.1 The struggle between masters and apprentices

2.2 The struggle between the guilds and the patricians

2.3 Decomposition of the guild system

Conclusion

List of sources and literature

Introduction

As a result of the separation of crafts from agriculture and the development of exchange, as a result of the flight of peasants in Western Europe in the 10th – 13th centuries. the new cities grew rapidly, feudal type. They were centers of crafts and trade, differing in the composition and main occupations of the population, its social structure and political organization.

The production basis of the medieval city was crafts and trades. In the south of Europe, especially in Italy, and partly in southern France, crafts developed almost exclusively in cities: their early development, the density of the network, and powerful trade connections made craft activities in the countryside impractical. In all other regions, even in the presence of developed urban crafts, rural ones were also preserved - domestic peasant and professional village and domain. However, urban crafts occupied leading positions everywhere. Dozens and even hundreds of artisans worked in cities at the same time. Only in the cities was the highest division of craft labor achieved for its time: up to 300 (in Paris) and at least 10-15 (in a small town) specialties. Only in the city were there conditions for improving skills and exchanging production experience.

Unlike the peasant, the urban artisan was almost exclusively a commodity producer. In his personal and industrial life he was much more independent than a peasant or even a rural artisan. In medieval Europe there were many cities and craft settlements, where craftsmen worked for a free, wide and often international market for their time. Some were famous for the production of certain types of cloth (Italy, Flanders, England), silk (Byzantium, Italy, Southern France), blades (Germany, Spain). But the artisan was socially close to the peasant. An isolated direct producer, he ran his own individual economy, based on personal labor and almost without the use of hired labor. Therefore, its production was small and simple. In addition, in most cities and crafts, the lowest form of marketability continued to dominate, when labor looks like the sale of services by order or hire. And only production aimed at the free market, when exchange becomes a necessary element of labor, constituted the most accurate and promising expression of the marketability of handicraft production. Finally, a feature of urban industry, as of all medieval life, was its feudal-corporate organization, which corresponded to the feudal structure of land ownership and social system. With its help, non-economic coercion was carried out. It was expressed in the regulation of labor and the entire life of city workers, which came from the state, city authorities and various local communities; neighbors on the street, residents of the same church parish, people of similar social status. The most advanced and widespread form of such intra-city associations were workshops, guilds, brotherhoods of artisans and traders, which performed important economic, social, political and socio-cultural functions.

Craft guilds in Western Europe appeared almost simultaneously with the cities themselves: in Italy already in the 10th century, in France, England and Germany from the 11th – early 12th centuries, although the final formalization of the guild system with the help of charters and statutes occurred, as a rule, later .

The workshops played important role in the development of commodity production in Europe, in the formation of a new social group - wage workers, from whom the proletariat was subsequently formed.

Therefore, the study of the problem of the emergence of guilds as an organization of crafts in medieval Europe is relevant.

The purpose of this work is to identify the main features of the guild organization of crafts in medieval Europe.

1) reveal the main reasons for the emergence of workshops, their functions, features of workshop regulation;

2) to identify the features of the relationship between masters and students and journeymen in medieval guilds, between guilds and the patriciate.

The political and socio-economic history of medieval cities in Western Europe has been the topic of many studies, which also reflect the problems of the emergence of guilds as a form of organization of crafts in a medieval city. Issues of the emergence and development of medieval cities of Western Europe, the development and organization of crafts in them are presented in the works of such recognized medievalists as A. A. Svanidze, S. M. Stam, Stoklitskaya - Tereshkovich V.V., D.E. Kharitonovich, A.L. Yastrebitskaya and others.

Of the newest studies, the most generalizing one is the collection of works of domestic urbanists, “The City in the Medieval Civilization of Western Europe.” The publication covers the period from the emergence of medieval cities to the end of the 15th century and covers various aspects.

Problems of the emergence and development of crafts in individual cities medieval Europe works are dedicated to: the outstanding scientist of the early twentieth century N.P. Gratsiansky (Parisian craft workshops), L.A. Kotelnikova, V.I. Rutenberg (in the cities of Italy), G.M. Tushina (in the cities of France), A. L. Rogachevsky (in the cities of Germany), etc.

In addition to research, various sources were used in the work.

The rise of cities and the development of crafts required legal regulation of relations both between different workshops and within workshops. Shop procedures were recorded in special regulations, statutes, and charters; obligations between masters and students, journeymen were secured by contracts.

In this work, excerpts from the “Book of Customs” were used - the regulations of the craft guilds of London, the guild regulations of silk weavers, and the contract for hiring an apprentice concluded in Cologne in 1404.

In the archives of the cities, various documents have been preserved telling about the struggle of masters with apprentices, about the struggle of guilds with the patriciate.

The work uses excerpts from documents stored in the archives of Strasbourg: “A call for a strike addressed by the apprentice furriers of Wilstätt to the apprentice furriers of Strasbourg”, “Messages from the Constance City Council”.

The vicissitudes of the struggle between masters and apprentices, guilds and patricians were reflected in the chronicles. We used excerpts from the Kölhoff Chronicle and the Augsburg Chronicle.

Chapter 1. Workshop as a form of organization of craft in a medieval city

1.1 Reasons for the emergence of workshops

Medieval guilds are “associations of urban artisans of one or more specialties.”

The emergence of guilds was determined by the level of productive forces achieved at that time and the entire feudal-class structure of society.

The initial model for the organization of urban crafts was partly the structure of the rural community-marks and estate workshops-magisteriums.

The unit of the workshop was its full member - the foreman who owned the workshop. Each of the guild foremen was a direct worker and at the same time the owner of the means of production. He worked in his workshop with several assistants - students and journeymen - with his tools and raw materials. As a rule, the craft was passed down through generations: after all, many generations of artisans worked using the same tools and techniques as their great-grandfathers. New specialties that emerged were assigned to separate workshops.

The production team of the workshop was small: due to the low level of division of labor, the product did not change hands, but was made entirely in the workshop. But in “the traditional, class-based, corporate society of the Middle Ages, the constitution of any activity most successfully occurred through the collective. Therefore, in most urban crafts in Western Europe, the heads of production teams sought to unite into guilds.”

The workshops were divided by profession, and the dividing criteria were based not on the nature of production, but on the products produced, distinguished by function. For example, technologically identically produced household knives and combat daggers were made by members of different workshops: cutlers and gunsmiths, respectively.

The main reasons for the formation of guilds were the following: urban artisans, as independent, fragmented, small commodity producers, needed a certain unification to protect their production and income from feudal lords, from the competition of “outsiders” - unorganized artisans or immigrants from the village constantly arriving in cities, from artisans of other cities , and from neighbors - masters. Such competition was dangerous in the conditions of the then very narrow market and insignificant demand.

The reasons for the emergence of workshops are thus closely related to their functions.

1.2 Functions of the guild organization of crafts

One of the main functions of the workshops was the establishment of a monopoly on this type of craft. In Germany it was called Zunftzwang - guild coercion. In most cities, belonging to a workshop was prerequisite for practicing a craft. Another main function of the guilds was to establish control over the production and sale of handicrafts. In many cities, dozens, and in the largest - even hundreds of workshops gradually appeared.

A guild artisan was usually assisted in his work by his family, one or two apprentices and several apprentices. But only the master, the owner of the workshop, was a member of the workshop. And one of important functions there was regulation of relations between masters and apprentices. The master, journeyman and apprentice stood at different levels of the guild hierarchy. Preliminary completion of the two lower levels was mandatory for anyone who wished to become a member of the guild. Initially, each student could eventually become an apprentice, and the apprentice could become a master.

The content of the article

GUILDS AND WORKSHOPS(German Gilde, middle high Zeche - association), in a broad sense - various types corporations and associations (merchant, professional, public, religious) created to protect the interests of their members. Guilds already existed in early period history of Mesopotamia and Egypt. In China, guilds dominated for a long time economic life. Corporations of merchants and artisans engaged in a single activity were widespread in ancient Greece, as well as in the Hellenistic empires that existed in southwest Asia and Egypt. During the Roman Empire, associations known as collegia spread throughout the Mediterranean. Guilds covered all crafts, the most powerful uniting shipbuilders and ferrymen in coastal cities. In the era of the late Roman Empire, guilds became the object of state regulation. Membership became compulsory, since the law required sons to continue the work of their fathers. In ancient times, all guilds pursued both social and economic goals. They functioned as relief agencies and funeral societies. There were special initiation ceremonies and other rituals of a religious nature.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the system of collegia, under state supervision, was maintained in the Byzantine Empire. It has been suggested (however, very controversial) that some Roman collegia continued to exist in a number of Italian cities throughout the Middle Ages. The question of the origin of merchant guilds, which appeared in the 11th century, as well as craft guilds dating back to a later time, still remains the subject of scientific debate. Various historians have seen their roots either in the Roman collegia, or in such early German institutions as law enforcement “deanery guilds” or drinking communities, or in the “economic microcosm of the manor” or in the charitable societies that arose in parishes.

Social and religious functions.

Social and religious motives played a large role in the activities of merchant guilds and craft guilds, although economic interests always remained in the foreground. Even where a guild did not grow out of a religious brotherhood, in the course of time it assumed such functions, or its members formed an associated society or brotherhood for this purpose. From the contributions of the guild members, a general fund was created, the proceeds from which were used to help the sick and needy, widows and orphans, as well as to arrange a decent burial for the members. Often, magnificent and elaborate religious ceremonies were organized in honor of the patron saint of this craft. The brothers were taught to live in love and mutual assistance, and the good name of the association was supported by strict rules and penalties for violators. The guilds played an important role in citywide festivities; their members took part in processions through the streets in traditional costumes intended for special occasions. Many guilds were responsible for staging mysteries (for example, on the feast of Corpus Christi), in which biblical stories or scenes from human history were reproduced - from creation to the Last Judgment.

Merchant guilds.

In Northern Europe, merchant guilds formed half a century earlier than craft guilds. They owe their origin to the revival of trade and the growth of cities in the 11th century. For the purpose of self-defense and in general commercial interests, merchants united in caravans along trade routes. Unions of this kind, initially created for a while, gradually acquired the character of permanent ones - either in the cities where the caravans were heading, or upon returning to their hometown. By the 12th century. merchant guilds virtually completely monopolized trade in cities, which is primarily characteristic of Italy, France and Flanders.

Guild members and city authorities.

At first, membership in the merchant guilds was voluntary, but over time independent merchants were unable to compete with the guilds, and the resulting monopoly was accepted by feudal nobles and kings, as well as other cities. Since the guild now included all the wealthy merchants, it was able to exert significant influence on city government. The merchant guild was primarily commercial organization, which had quasi-legal rights over its members, and also had characteristic social and religious functions.

Unions of merchant guilds.

Sometimes, in order to establish control over their common foreign market, merchant guilds united into broad unions, which in Northern Europe received the name “Hansa” (from German Hanse - union, partnership). This type of association included the League of Flanders Towns, which was mainly engaged in the purchase of wool in England. The famous Hanseatic League (or Hansa), which united North German cities in the 14th–16th centuries, gained even greater influence. He controlled all trade in the Baltic and North Seas and had monopoly privileges in other places. The powerful Italian merchant guilds (in particular, the Venetian ones), engaged in foreign trade operations, resembled trading companies, which arose at a later time in England and Northern Europe. Cargo transportation was strictly regulated by the state, and members of the guild were directly involved in trade.

If we leave out of sight the large cities involved in the vast foreign trade grain, wool and other goods, where capitalist relations arose early, most cities Northern Europe were small in size and focused only on the domestic market. Residents of surrounding villages and hamlets brought agricultural products and raw materials to the city for sale, paid a fee for a place in the market, and with the proceeds they purchased city-produced products. Local authorities allowed merchants from other cities to sell in bulk only what the city needed, as well as to buy and export surplus city products. For this, merchants were obliged to pay duties if they did not have the corresponding benefits issued to them by their hometowns.

Trading rules.

It was important to eliminate competition between its own members and not allow more capable and energetic merchants to force weaker traders out of the market. Therefore, very strict measures were taken against price reductions and all kinds of unfair methods of competition, such as buying or holding goods, monopolizing goods, reselling at higher prices. high prices etc. However, despite fines and other punishments, including imprisonment, the guilds were never able to eradicate these prohibited methods of enrichment. A rule was then introduced that everyone who belonged to the guild must receive a share of any deal made by a guild member. In some cities, this applied only to those guild members who were in the city at the time the transaction was made. By regulating prices and ensuring that all members had roughly equal opportunities, the guilds prevented the emergence of a middleman class.

Craft shops.

At first, artisans were allowed into merchant guilds, although they were located below merchants in the social hierarchy. The guilds of small towns fully satisfied the interests of both, especially since there were no clear boundaries between the merchant and the artisan. But in large cities, the development of trade and industry led to an increase in the number of workers and to the specialization of artisans, who began to unite by craft and create their own merchant-type corporations, called guilds. The process of creating workshops was facilitated by the fact that people engaged in one type of activity tended to settle in one city block or on one street, where they kept workshops and immediately sold their products.

Origin of workshops.

The origins of the guilds can be found in the religious brotherhoods that arose in Northern Europe from the end of the 11th century. Such brotherhoods were formed from parishioners of one church to perform funeral rites and celebrate the day of the local patron saint. It is quite natural that during meetings, members of the brotherhood also discussed issues of a commercial nature, and from here an association could easily arise, the main function of which was to supervise the production of products in this industry.

Specialization and rights.

Merchant guilds, which, as a rule, stood at the head of city government, were usually interested in the self-government of the guilds. At the same time, the merchants sought to maintain their power over the artisans. However, over time, the workshops acquired independence. A king or another ruler could grant one or another workshop monopoly privileges. Almost all workshops enjoyed such privileges. By the 13th century. they developed in all cities of Northern Europe and England, reaching the peak of their development over the next two centuries. As production became more specialized, new ones were spun off from old workshops. For example, in the textile industry, workshops of carders, fullers, dyers, spinners and weavers arose.

Relations with city authorities.

In some countries, especially Germany, municipal authorities retained the right to regulate the activities of workshops and appoint their managers. In other countries, primarily in France and the Netherlands, where cities began to develop earlier and reached greater maturity, the guilds sought complete independence in every possible way; they even tried to join merchant guilds in order to control city government. In many cities such rights were granted to them, and some cities, such as Liege and Ghent, found themselves entirely at the mercy of the guilds. However, the fierce rivalry of the guilds led to anarchy, which lasted in Ghent until 1540, and ended in Liege a century and a half later (in 1684), when, through the efforts of the local bishop, the guilds were deprived of all political influence.

Workshop tasks.

The purpose of the workshops was to ensure a monopoly in the production and marketing of products. But a monopoly was possible only as long as the products were intended for the local market, and everything was much more complicated when it came to other cities or artisans of a given city who were not members of the workshop. In the interests of their own members and consumers, the workshops needed to exercise control over prices, wages, working conditions and product quality. To this end, workshops prohibited night work, since poor lighting and lack of proper supervision could lead to careless or dishonest work, and also because after-hours work gave an advantage to some workshops over others. Guild workers were required to work in rooms facing the street, in full view of everyone; work on Sundays and holidays was prohibited.

Regulation.

The production process, from primary processing of raw materials to receipt final product, was strictly regulated: all details were specified, standards were set for everything, and the volume of production was limited. In order to maintain equality and uniformity, innovations of any kind were prohibited (except those that would benefit all members) - whether they concerned tools, raw materials or technology. Everyone had the opportunity to rise to a certain level of well-being, but not higher than that. This attitude corresponded to the medieval concept of social order, according to which everyone had to be satisfied with their position in the social hierarchy. This attitude was also supported by the concept of a “fair price” and religious dogmas. Enormous efforts were made to keep this established rigid economic structure intact. Anyone who violated the rules faced severe punishment - a fine, imprisonment, and even a ban on practicing the craft. Abundance in itself various kinds rules and restrictions indicates the cunning techniques some artisans resorted to in order to go beyond the regulations.

Composition of workshops.

The guilds included masters who owned workshops and shops, journeymen (hired workers) and apprentices. In the affairs of the guild, apprentices had limited voting rights; apprentices had no voting rights at all. During the heyday of the guilds, craftsmen attached great importance training a shift, so a capable and hardworking student could count on eventually becoming a master.

Education.

Anyone could become an apprentice to master a certain craft. But according to established rules, only those who had passed the apprenticeship stage were accepted into the workshop. Even the son of a master, who had the right to inherit his father's business, was obliged to go through the apprenticeship stage, learning the craft from his father or another master. Later, the master’s son began to take advantage of joining the workshop. The apprentice lived and worked with the master under the terms of a contract signed by the boy's parents or guardians. Usually the student was obliged to be hardworking and devoted, to obey the master unquestioningly, to keep his goods and the secrets of the craft, and to respect his interests in everything. He also promised not to marry until he completed his studies, not to become a regular at taverns and other entertainment establishments, and not to commit unseemly acts that could tarnish the master’s reputation. For his part, the master obliged to teach the boy a craft, providing him with food, housing, clothing and pocket money, and also to guide his morality, resorting to punishment if necessary. Sometimes the student's parents paid the master for these services. If it happened that a teenager went on the run, he was returned to the workshop and severely punished. On the other hand, the master himself was subject to punishment for abuse of power or neglect of his duties.

Requirements for the student.

Both the guilds and the city authorities were interested in ensuring that students, who were often characterized by riotousness and other vices, would eventually become masters and respectable citizens, and therefore jointly established rules for admitting students. Attention was paid to factors of various kinds - moral character, age, length of study, number of students per master, etc. Typically, students became students between the ages of 14 and 19, and the duration of training varied greatly from place to place and from era to era. In England and some other countries, a young man was usually apprenticed for 7 years. Later, workshops began to deliberately delay training periods in order to limit the number of applicants for the position of a master. For the same reasons, masters were prohibited from holding more a certain number students. This was also done so that, due to the cheap labor of teenagers, some masters would not gain an advantage over others.

Acceptance of candidates.

A worthy candidate did not encounter any special obstacles when joining the workshop. This was considered a craftsman aged 23–24, who had completed a full course of training and was ready to open his own workshop and make contributions to the workshop treasury. Later, the applicant was required to create something outstanding (the so-called “masterpiece”, French “work of a master”). If the applicant was trained in another city, he had to find guarantors in the workshop where he was going to join. An apprentice who married the daughter of his mentor often became a full partner of his father-in-law, and sometimes with his help he started his own business. Without such advantages, the apprentice, in order to accumulate the capital necessary to set up his own workshop, had to work for hire, wandering around cities and villages in search of better earnings. As production developed, more and more initial capital was required, and the journeyman stage became inevitable and, over time, mandatory. In England, to become a master, it was necessary to work as an apprentice for 2–3 years.

Journeymen.

From the 14th century workshops began to avoid an overabundance of competing craftsmen in a limited market. And since the apprentices were not able to save any significant amount from their meager wages, many of them never reached the rank of masters. At the same time, the most enterprising masters began to do without the long-term cultivation of students, preferring to hire apprentices who were entrusted with special operations that did not require extensive training. As a result, a class of permanent wage workers arose and, at the same time, a hereditary industrial aristocracy based on the ownership of property resulting from the investment of significant capital in production. The latter shows many similarities with the hereditary aristocracy that had already emerged among the ancient merchant guilds. This layer of artisan-capitalists first asserted itself in the export industries, and then, as trade developed, stood out in all areas of production.

Journeymen's unions.

The exclusion of apprentices from the number of full members and their loss of any influence on the affairs of the guilds led to the fact that from the 14th century. they began to create their own independent associations. This process took place especially actively in continental Europe, where associations of apprentices acquired even greater importance than the “yeoman unions” in England. The forms of worker organization varied, but all of these associations fought for increased wages and limited exploitation, all opposed to the developing capitalist economy. Many unions developed a sophisticated system of secret rituals, similar to those practiced by free masons, which sometimes brought persecution from the church on them. The apprentices' unions resorted to various forms struggle - they organized strikes, street riots and lockouts. In particular, they protested against the hiring of foreigners and untrained workers. In response, the masters, using their influence on the city authorities, officially banned unions of apprentices and unleashed persecution. This was the case in many cities in Flanders and Italy. The authorities tried to prevent apprentices on permanent job, took outside work, opened their own workshops and had apprentices. Friction arose especially often in those industries where many hired workers were employed. At some stage, the workers could prevail, but more often the forces opposing them - the union of employers, members of the workshops and city authorities, who had political and economic power - won.

The decline of the guild system.

During late Middle Ages the workshops became more and more closed, membership in some became hereditary, they tenaciously clung to their privileges, although the growth of capitalist production in other cities had already reduced their importance. They remained viable only on the scale of the local market, and only where they enjoyed the support of the authorities.

Development of capitalist production.

By the beginning of the 16th century. the workshop system no longer met the needs of capitalist production, oriented towards a wide market. Those workshops that produced products for export from imported raw materials were in an advantageous position. They took control of local small producers. For example, in textile production in Florence and Flanders, capitalists supplied wool or yarn to artisans and then bought the fabrics produced from them. Small producers, who did not have access to sources of raw materials and markets, were effectively reduced to the position of hired workers working for wealthy merchants.

The struggle of the workshops.

In the second half of the 14th century. A wave of urban revolutions swept across many areas of Europe. In Florence, the lower guilds of manufacturers, who at that moment were supported by masses of unorganized workers, rebelled against the merchant guilds that held power in the city. In some cases, these uprisings brought to power tyrants (in the ancient sense of the word), who took on the role of champions of the people's cause, such as the Florentine Medici. In the Flemish cities, the citizen uprisings of 1323–1328 brought to power the Counts of Flanders and eventually the French king.

Transition to home work.

The system of restrictions and ongoing conflicts with producers forced capitalists to look for new ways to free themselves from this dependence. At the end of the 15th century. Flemish textile traders stopped buying yarn and fabric in cities that were constantly shaken by unrest and turned their attention to small towns and villages, where they had not heard of workshops and costs were lower. Having received raw materials and a self-spinning wheel, the peasants and their families worked at home, their work was paid by the piece. The home-based system was quite suitable for the textile production already familiar to peasants, which was not as difficult to master as other crafts. Soon, the system of home work began to be applied to other branches of production, as a result of which many ancient industrial cities began to lose their importance, so that only the majestic buildings of the guild meetings now reminded of their former greatness.

The disappearance of guilds and workshops.

In one form or another, guilds existed until the 19th century. Even the richest merchants engaged in the export trade saw benefit in their preservation. At the end of the 15th century. English textile exporters had to unite to gain a foothold on the continent, where they encountered strong opposition from the Hanseatic League. But over time, the guild system became unnecessary. The guilds continued to exist for several centuries, although they constantly lost their economic importance. For some time they tried to maintain a monopoly in the cities, but their claims to exclusivity conflicted with the new economic conditions. In France, the guilds were disbanded in 1791, during the French Revolution. In Prussia and other German states they gradually disappeared during the first half of the 19th century; in England, the remnants of the workshops were liquidated by acts of 1814 and 1835.

Literature:

Gratsiansky N.P. Parisian craft shops at 13–14 centuries. Kazan, 1911
Rutenburg V.I. Essay on the history of early capitalism in Italy. M. – L., 1951
Stoklitskaya-Tereshkovich V.V. The problem of the diversity of the medieval guild in the West and in Rus'. – In the book: Middle Ages, vol. 3. M., 1951
Polyansky F.Ya. Essays on the socio-economic policy of workshops in Western European cities 13–15th century. M., 1952
Levitsky Y.A. Cities and urban crafts in England at 10–12th century. M. – L., 1960



Milk production and herd reproduction, defined. procedure for keeping and feeding cows at livestock farms. farms and milk production complexes. Basic elements of P.-c. p.: shop organization of production. process, individual and group feeding and milking complex zoovet. events, operational technology and dispatch service. P.-c. With. provides for the division of the entire herd of cows depending on physiol. condition and lactation period at 3 or 4 technol. groups distributed among workshops, in which the maintenance, feeding and servicing of women is organized using technology appropriate to each group. The workshops are located in the department. buildings or in their isolated areas. parts. With a 4-shop system, a trail is organized. workshops: preparing cows for calving (average length of stay 50 days); calving (25 days); milking and insemination of cows (100 days); milk production (160-180 days); with a 3-shop system, the last 2 workshops are combined into one.

Organization of labor on farms under P.-ts. With. - brigade-unit with widespread use of collective (brigade) contracting. Behind the link or department. The machine milking operator assigns the women for the entire period of their stay on the farm over time. transfer to other workshops for periods of preparation for calving (dead wood) and calving.

The purpose of the workshop for preparing cows for calving is to provide cows with rest after lactation and normal fetal development, to prepare cows for successful calving and normal reproduction. functions and the new lactation period. It is equipped with dry cows coming from the milk production workshop after their launch (60 days before calving). They are usually kept loose, in groups of 25-50 animals. The room is equipped with a group den for rest at the rate of 5 m 2 per cow or individual boxes sq. m. 2.1-2.5 m2 and feeding areas with feeders. Provides access to walking and feeding yards. In summer, dry cows must be grazed on pastures. Feeding of females is organized taking into account their fatness, age, planned productivity and ensuring 50-60 kg of live weight gain during the period of keeping in the workshop. 10-15 days before the expected calving after san. processing, veterinary After inspection and weighing, the cows are transferred to the calving area, where they are kept in stalls on a leash. During calving and a day after it, the cow (with a newborn calf) is in the stall pl. 7.5-9.0 m2, after which the cow is transferred to a stall on a tether in the postpartum section, and the calf is transferred to one of the sections of the 4-6-section dispensary. In the calving workshop, they strictly monitor compliance with feeding standards, cow management regime and compliance with all veterinary duties. requirements. 15 days after calving, healthy cows are transferred to the milking and insemination workshop, where milking of new-calf cows is carried out, the quality of first-calf cows is checked, and the cows are inseminated in a timely manner. Particular attention is paid to feeding women during milk shortages. For this purpose, an additional 2-3 feed units are planned for each head. per day Rations are adjusted based on the results of control milkings - once a decade. The women are fed and milked at least 3 times a day. After insemination and establishment of pregnancy, the cows are transferred to the milk production workshop, the purpose of which is to maintain the high productivity of dairy cows during lactation, prevent udder diseases, ensure the normal course of pregnancy, and start each cow no later than 60 days before the expected calving. Feeding and milking in the workshop is 2-3 times. Keeping cows in milking and insemination workshops, milk production, tethered and free-stall, mechanical milking, in stalls (in a milk pipeline) or in milking parlors.

When transferring livestock farms on P.-ts. With. specialists conduct clinical inspection of the entire livestock, based on the results of which a general and special plan is drawn up. calls. activities taking into account actual facts. condition and specific requirements of each workshop. For operational management of technology. In the process of milk production, a technological dispatch service is organized from farm specialists, which keeps records of productivity and physiology. condition of women, controls the quality of technical implementation. operations dept. operators, monitors timeliness. transferring women from workshop to workshop, maintains a file cabinet in the accepted form.

Vsyakikh A.S., Milk production on an industrial basis, M., 1984; Atanasova A., Kosev K., Simov N., Flow-shop system in animal husbandry, trans. from Bulgarian, M., 1984.

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The production basis of the medieval city was crafts. Feudalism is characterized by small-scale production both in the countryside and in the city. A craftsman, like a peasant, was a small producer who had his own tools of production, independently ran his own private farm based on personal labor, and had as his goal not making a profit, but obtaining a means of subsistence. “An existence befitting his position is not exchange value as such, not enrichment as such...” (K. Marx, The Process of Production of Capital in the book “Marx and Engels Archive”, vol. II (VII), p. 111 .) was the goal of the artisan’s labor.
A characteristic feature of medieval craft in Europe was its guild organization - the unification of artisans of a certain profession within a given city into special unions - guilds. Guilds appeared almost simultaneously with the emergence of cities. In Italy they were found already from the 10th century, in France, England, Germany and the Czech Republic - from the 11th-12th centuries, although the final registration of guilds (receiving special charters from kings, recording guild charters, etc.) usually took place , Later. Craft corporations also existed in Russian cities (for example, in Novgorod).

The guilds arose as organizations of peasants who fled to the city, who needed unification to fight against the robber nobility and protection from competition. Among the reasons that determined the need for the formation of guilds, Marx and Engels also noted the need of artisans for common market premises for the sale of goods and the need to protect the common property of artisans for a certain specialty or profession. The association of artisans into special corporations (guilds) was determined by the entire system of feudal relations that dominated in the Middle Ages, the entire feudal-class structure of society (See K. Marx and F. Engels, German Ideology, Works, vol. 3, ed. 2 , pp. 23 and 50-51.).

The model for the guild organization, as well as for the organization of city self-government, was the communal system (See F. Engels, Mark; in the book “The Peasant War in Germany,” M. 1953, p. 121.). The artisans united in workshops were the direct producers. Each of them worked in his own workshop with his own tools and his own raw materials. He grew together with these means of production, in Marx’s words, “like a snail with a shell” (K. Marx, Capital, vol. I, Gospolitizdat, 1955, p. 366.). Tradition and routine were characteristic of medieval crafts, as well as of peasant farming.

There was almost no division of labor within the craft workshop. The division of labor was carried out in the form of specialization between individual workshops, which, with the development of production, led to an increase in the number of craft professions and, consequently, the number of new workshops. Although this did not change the nature of the medieval craft, it did lead to certain technical progress, improvement of labor skills, specialization of working tools, etc. The craftsman was usually helped in his work by his family. One or two apprentices and one or more apprentices worked with him. But only the master, the owner of the craft workshop, was a full member of the guild. The master, journeyman and apprentice stood at different levels of a kind of guild hierarchy. Preliminary completion of the two lower levels was mandatory for anyone who wanted to join the workshop and become a member of it. In the first period of the development of guilds, each student could become an apprentice in a few years, and an apprentice could become a master.

In most cities, belonging to a guild was a prerequisite for practicing a craft. This eliminated the possibility of competition from artisans who were not part of the workshop, which was dangerous for small producers in the conditions of a very narrow market at that time and relatively insignificant demand. The craftsmen who were part of the workshop were interested in ensuring that the products of the members of this workshop were ensured unhindered sales. In accordance with this, the workshop strictly regulated production and, through specially elected officials, ensured that each master - a member of the workshop - produced products of a certain quality. The workshop prescribed, for example, what width and color the fabric should be, how many threads should be in the warp, what tool and material should be used, etc.

Being a corporation (association) of small commodity producers, the workshop zealously ensured that the production of all its members did not exceed a certain size, so that no one entered into competition with other members of the workshop by producing more products. To this end, the guild regulations strictly limited the number of apprentices and apprentices that one master could have, prohibited work at night and during holidays, limited the number of machines on which an artisan could work, and regulated stocks of raw materials.

The craft and its organization in the medieval city were feudal in nature. “...The feudal structure of land ownership corresponded in cities to corporate property (Corporate property was the monopoly of a workshop for a certain specialty or profession), the feudal organization of crafts" (K. Marx and F. Engels, German Ideology, Works, vol. 3, ed. 2, p. 23). Such an organization of crafts was a necessary form of development of commodity production in a medieval city, because at that time it created favorable conditions for the development of productive forces. It protected artisans from excessive exploitation by feudal lords, ensured the existence of small producers in the extremely narrow market of that time, and contributed to the development of technology and the improvement of craft skills. During the heyday of the feudal mode of production, the guild system was in full accordance with the stage of development of the productive forces that was achieved at that time.

The guild organization covered all aspects of the life of a medieval artisan. The workshop was a military organization that participated in the protection of the city (guard service) and acted as a separate combat unit of the city militia in the event of war. The workshop had its own “saint,” whose day it celebrated, its own churches or chapels, being a kind of religious organization. The workshop was also an organization of mutual assistance for artisans, which provided assistance to its needy members and their families in the event of illness or death of a member of the workshop through the entrance fee to the workshop, fines and other payments.