Topic on biology human anatomy. Human anatomy and physiology

Biography Napoleon was born in Ajaccio on the island of Corsica, which for a long time was under the control of the Republic of Genoa. In 1755, Corsica overthrew the Genoese domination and from that time actually existed as an independent state under the leadership of the local landowner Paolo Pascale, whose secretary was Napoleon's father. In 1768, the Republic of Genoa sold its rights to Corsica to the French King Louis XV. In May 1769, at the Battle of Pontenuovo, French troops defeated the Corsican rebels, and Paolo emigrated to England. Napoleon was born 3 months after these events. Paolo until the 1790s remained his idol.

The beginning of a military career Released in 1785 from the Paris military school to the army with the rank of lieutenant, Bonaparte for 10 years went through the entire hierarchy of chinoproizvodstvo in the army of France at that time. In 1788, being a lieutenant, he tried to enter the Russian service, but was refused by Lieutenant General Zaborovsky, who led the recruitment of volunteers to participate in the war with Turkey. Literally a month before Napoleon's request for admission to the Russian army, a decree was issued on the acceptance of foreigners for service with a lower rank, to which Napoleon did not agree. In the heat of the moment, he ran out from Zaborovsky, shouting that he would offer his services to the King of Prussia: "The King of Prussia will give me the rank of captain."

Rise to power The crisis of power in Paris reached its climax by 1799, when Bonaparte was with troops in Egypt. The corrupt Directory was unable to secure the gains of the revolution. In Italy, the Russian-Austrian troops under the command of Field Marshal A.V. Suvorov liquidated all the acquisitions of Napoleon, and even there was a threat of their invasion of France. Under these conditions, the popular general, who returned from Egypt, with the help of Joseph Fouche, relying on the army loyal to him, dispersed the representative bodies and the Directory and proclaimed the regime of the consulate (November 9, 1799).

Domestic policy Having become a full-fledged dictator, Napoleon radically changed the state structure of the country. Napoleon's internal policy was to strengthen his personal power as a guarantee of preserving the results of the revolution: civil rights, land ownership rights of the peasants, as well as those who bought national property during the revolution, that is, the confiscated lands of emigrants and churches.

Mathematics For merits in mathematics, Napoleon was elected an academician of the French Academy of Sciences. Among other achievements, the following can be noted: The problem about equilateral triangles, which bears his name. He proposed a simple way to construct a square with a single ruler with two serifs. This decision was a significant step towards proving the possibility of using only a compass or only a ruler with two serifs to make any constructions that can be done with a compass and a sans-serif ruler.

Marriages and children 1st wife: (since March 9, 1796, Paris) Josephine de Beauharnais (), Empress of the French. They didn't have children. Divorced since December 16, 1809. 2nd wife: (since April 1, 1810, Saint-Cloud) Marie-Louise of Habsburg-Lorraine (), Archduchess of Austria, Empress of the French.
Death of Napoleon Napoleon's health steadily deteriorated. From 1819 he fell ill more and more frequently. Napoleon often complained of pain in his right side, his legs were swollen. His doctor Francois Antommarchi diagnosed him with hepatitis. Napoleon suspected that it was cancer, the disease from which his father died. In March 1821, Napoleon's condition deteriorated so much that he no longer doubted his imminent death. On April 13, 1821, Napoleon dictated his will. He could no longer move without outside help, the pains became sharp and excruciating. Napoleon Bonaparte died on Saturday, May 5, 1821, at 5:49 pm.

His life in brief d. – birth of Napoleon d. – birth of Napoleon d. – supported the French Revolution d. – supported the French Revolution d. – seizes power. Wins wars in Europe d. - seizes power. Wins wars in Europe d. - proclaims himself emperor d. - proclaims himself emperor d. - led an invasion of Russia that ended in defeat d. - led an invasion of Russia that ended in defeat d. - is defeated at Leipzig d. - is defeated at Leipzig d. – exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean d. – exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean d. – exile to St. Helena d. – exile to St. Helena d. – died d. – died.

Napoleon in his youth Born in a large family of poor Corsican lawyer Carl Buonaparte. At the age of 10, he was placed at the Autun College in France, then studied at the Brienne military school and at the Paris military school. From October 1785, he began to serve in the royal army with the rank of junior lieutenant of artillery. Born in a large family of a poor Corsican lawyer Carl Buonaparte. At the age of 10, he was placed at the Autun College in France, then studied at the Brienne military school and at the Paris military school. From October 1785, he began to serve in the royal army with the rank of junior lieutenant of artillery.

Napoleon Bonaparte - First Consul In 1799, Napoleon suddenly returned to France from Egypt and seized power in the country. Surrounded by bodyguards, he entered government offices and dissolved the Council of Five Hundred. He appointed three new leaders of the country called consuls. Napoleon himself was the first consul. In 1799, Napoleon suddenly returned to France from Egypt and seized power in the country. Surrounded by bodyguards, he entered government offices and dissolved the Council of Five Hundred. He appointed three new leaders of the country called consuls. Napoleon himself was the first consul.

Ascension to the throne He was the son of an Italian nobleman, outlawed for impudent behavior. Very young, Napoleon joined the French army and, thanks to his courage and intelligence, quickly made a brilliant career d. - Napoleon serves as a general d. - Napoleon serves as a general d. - Napoleon becomes the first consul of the city for life - Napoleon becomes the first consul of the city for life - Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor d. - Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor d. - Holy Roman Empire: Imperial crown given to Napoleon d. - Holy Roman Empire: Imperial crown given to Napoleon.

Napoleon is appointed commander-in-chief of the army in Italy. Prussia and Italy make peace with France, but Britain, Austria, Russia, Portugal, Naples and the Ottoman Empire unite to fight France. Napoleon is appointed commander-in-chief of the army in Italy. Prussia and Italy make peace with France, but Britain, Austria, Russia, Portugal, Naples and the Ottoman Empire unite to fight France. Napoleon captures Rome, Italy and invades Egypt. French troops advance north into Germany. Napoleon captures Rome, Italy and invades Egypt. French troops advance north into Germany. This standard belonged to one of the regiments of Napoleon's army. This standard belonged to one of the regiments of Napoleon's army. Napoleon becomes first consul. Napoleon becomes first consul.

Napoleonic Wars This cartoon depicts Napoleon with his legs spread wide across half the globe, while John Bull (representing Great Britain) is tiny by comparison and tries to fight him. In this cartoon, Napoleon is depicted with his legs spread wide across half the globe, while John Bull (representing Great Britain) is tiny in comparison with him trying to fight him.

British cartoon. Napoleon's arrogance became the subject of caricatures in countries hostile to him. This is the British version: "Napoleon Almighty or the Pinnacle of Insolence." Napoleon's arrogance became the subject of caricatures in countries hostile to him. This is the British version: "Napoleon Almighty or the Pinnacle of Insolence."

Briefly about the wars of Napoleon: 1805 - Napoleon wins 1805 - Napoleon defeats the Austro-Russian army in the battle of the Austro-Russian army in the battle of Austerlitz. Defeat at Austerlitz. Napoleon's defeat at Trafalgar. Napoleon at the Battle of Trafalgar. (Nelson's Victory) (Nelson's Victory) 1806 - Napoleon defeated Prussia at Jena d. - Napoleon defeated Prussia at Jena d. - Napoleon's invasion of Portugal. Russia suffered a second defeat at Friedland 1807 - Napoleon's invasion of Portugal. Russia suffered a second defeat at Friedland 1808 - Napoleon's invasion of Spain d. - Napoleon's invasion of Spain.

1812 - Napoleon invades Russia with a huge army and reaches Moscow d. - Napoleon invades Russia with a huge army and reaches Moscow d. - Napoleon is defeated at the battle of Leipzig d. - Napoleon is defeated at the battle of Leipzig.

Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. Napoleon's campaign in Egypt allowed French archaeologists to excavate the ancient Egyptian sphinx and the Great Pyramids. Artists became interested in the past of Egypt and began to copy ancient drawings. This plate was made for Napoleon in 1798. Napoleon's campaign in Egypt allowed French archaeologists to excavate the ancient Egyptian sphinx and the Great Pyramids. Artists became interested in the past of Egypt and began to copy ancient drawings. This plate was made for Napoleon in 1798.

Battle of Austerlitz. Napoleon first lured the enemy army into the valley, and then fired at it with cannons. The number of losses was daunting and the Austrians and Russians retreated in panic. Napoleon first lured the enemy army into the valley, and then fired at it with cannons. The number of losses was daunting and the Austrians and Russians retreated in panic. (1805) (1805)

Battle of Waterloo. The Battle of Waterloo took place in Belgium on June 18, 1815. The Duke of Wellington commanded the British Army. Both sides suffered huge losses. June 22 Napoleon signed the 2nd and last abdication. The Battle of Waterloo took place in Belgium on June 18, 1815. The Duke of Wellington commanded the British Army. Both sides suffered huge losses. June 22 Napoleon signed the 2nd and last abdication. This British medal was issued to commemorate the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. It was awarded to soldiers participating in this war. This British medal was issued to commemorate the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. It was awarded to soldiers participating in this war.

Trafalgar battle. On October 5, 1805, a naval battle took place between the English and Franco-Spanish fleets. The British fleet consisted of 27 ships and 4 frigates, opposed by 33 ships and 7 frigates. As a result, English The side lost up to 1700 people, and the French - up to 7 thousand people. On October 5, 1805, a naval battle took place between the English and Franco-Spanish fleets. The British fleet consisted of 27 ships and 4 frigates, opposed by 33 ships and 7 frigates. As a result, English The side lost up to 1700 people, and the French - up to 7 thousand people.

Leipzig battle. October 16 "Bohemian" army launched an offensive against the French. Only 84 thousand people worked in the main direction. under the command of M. B. Barclay - de - Tolly against 120 thousand people. at the enemy. October 16 "Bohemian" army launched an offensive against the French. Only 84 thousand people worked in the main direction. under the command of M. B. Barclay - de - Tolly against 120 thousand people. at the enemy.

The division of Napoleon's army. To successfully move huge armies, battles were carefully planned. One of Napoleon's favorite tactics was the division of the army. One part attacked the enemy, and the main forces went around and attacked the supply base and lines of communication. To successfully move huge armies, battles were carefully planned. One of Napoleon's favorite tactics was the division of the army. One part attacked the enemy, and the main forces went around and attacked the supply base and lines of communication.

Napoleon wanted to create a society based on the merit of the man himself, and not on his noble birth. To encourage various achievements, he founded in 1802 the Legion of Honor "for outstanding service for the benefit of the state" Napoleon wanted to create a society based on the merits of the person himself, and not on his noble origin. To encourage various achievements, he founded in 1802 the Legion of Honor "for outstanding service to the state"

Code of Napoleon The Civil Code of France, developed under the leadership and personal participation of Napoleon in 1804. Then it was introduced in the territories occupied by French troops. The Code included norms of civil, family, procedural, and partial labor law. The Civil Code of France, developed under the leadership and personal participation of Napoleon in 1804, was then introduced in the territories occupied by French troops. The Code included norms of civil, family, procedural, and partial labor law.

The Last Days of Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon surrendered to the British, who sent him into exile on Saint Helena. Here Napoleon was busy compiling his very tendentious memoirs. In 1821 he died of cancer, in 1840 the ashes of Napoleon were brought to Paris. Back in the 19th century, rumors were born about the possible poisoning of Napoleon, and discussions about this continue to this day. Napoleon surrendered to the British, who sent him into exile on Saint Helena. Here Napoleon was busy compiling his very tendentious memoirs. In 1821 he died of cancer, in 1840 the ashes of Napoleon were brought to Paris. Back in the 19th century, rumors were born about the possible poisoning of Napoleon, and discussions about this continue to this day.

Napoleon's delirium on about. St. Helena. As the historian A. J. P. Taylor noted, Napoleon, while in exile on Fr. Helena in the South Atlantic, often raved and convinced himself that it was he who had won the Battle of Worteloo. As the historian A. J. P. Taylor noted, Napoleon, while in exile on Fr. Helena in the South Atlantic, often raved and convinced himself that it was he who had won the Battle of Worteloo.

Significance of Napoleon in history This man in the same gray frock coat and cocked hat took a firm place in history, giving his name to an entire era. Napoleon's empire proved fragile. Napoleon's battles entered military textbooks. "Napoleonic law" underlies the civil norms of Western democracies. The restored Bourbon monarchy was unable to destroy the results of the Revolution secured by Napoleon.

Slides and text of this presentation

Napoleon I Bonaparte and his Empire

short biography

1799 He made a coup d'etat and became the first consul. in 1804 proclaimed emperor. Significantly expanded the territory of the empire, made most of the countries of Western and Central Europe dependent on France. 1814 Abdicated. 1815 He took the throne again. June 1815 After the defeat at Waterloo (June 1815) he was exiled to St. Helena.

Napoleon I Bonaparte (Italian: Napoleone Buonaparte, French: Napoléon Bonaparte) - Emperor of the French in 1804-1815, French commander and statesman who laid the foundations of the modern French state.

Dynasty: Bonapartes Father: Carlo Buonaparte Mother: Laetitia Ramolino Wife: 1) Josephine de Beauharnais 2) Marie-Louise of Austria Children: from the 2nd marriage son: Napoleon II Illegitimate sons: Charles Leon Denuel, Alexander Valevsky daughter: Josephine Napoleona de Montolon

Napoleon was born in Ajaccio on the island of Corsica, which for a long time was under the control of the Republic of Genoa. 1755 Corsica overthrew the Genoese rule and since that time actually existed as an independent state under the leadership of the local landowner Pasquale Paoli, whose secretary was Napoleon's father. 1768 The Republic of Genoa sold its rights to Corsica to the French King Louis XV. May 1769 At the Battle of Pontenuovo, the French troops defeated the Corsican rebels, and Paoli emigrated to England. Napoleon was born 3 months after these events. Paoli until the 1790s remained his idol.

Carlo Buonaparte managed to secure royal scholarships for his two eldest sons. Joseph was preparing to become a priest. Napoleon was destined for a military career. In December 1778, both boys were taken to a college in Autun, mainly for the purpose of learning French. In 1779, Napoleon entered the cadet school in Brienne. The name Napoleone Buonaparte began to be pronounced in the French manner - "Napoleon Bonaparte."

Napoleon assumed the role of head of the family. On February 14, 1785, Napoleon's father died. He began his professional career in Valence with the rank of lieutenant. In the same year, he completed his studies ahead of schedule. To help his mother, he took in his 11-year-old brother Louis to be raised. In June 1788 he was transferred to Oxonne. He lived in those days, as before, extremely poor, ate milk and bread twice a day. However, Napoleon tried not to show his depressing financial situation.

For merits in mathematics, Napoleon was elected an academician of the French Academy of Sciences. Among other achievements, the following can be noted: The problem about equilateral triangles, which bears his name. He proposed a simple way to construct a square with a single ruler with two serifs. This decision was a significant step towards proving the possibility of using only a compass or only a ruler with two serifs to make any constructions that can be done with a compass and a sans-serif ruler.

"Napoleon on the Arcole Bridge", Jean-Antoine Gros, 1801

Released in 1785 from the Paris Military School to the army with the rank of lieutenant, Bonaparte for 10 years went through the entire hierarchy of rank production in the army of France at that time.

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England, one after another, put together coalitions against France, trying to win Austria and Russia over to its side. She financed the conduct of military operations on the continent. As a result of the war, France included the territories of Belgium, Holland, northern Germany, and parts of Italy. In the rest of Italy, in the center of Europe, in Spain (1809), kingdoms dependent on Napoleon were created, ruled by members of his family. Territorially extremely curtailed Prussia and Austria were forced to conclude an alliance with France. This was also done by Russia (Tilsit Peace, 1807). Having won, Napoleon signed the decree on the continental blockade (1806). Thanks to his military successes, Napoleon somehow took over most of Europe, dividing the European thrones among all brothers and sisters.

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Napoleonic Empire, 1811: France shown in dark blue, dependent states in light blue

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Napoleon's internal policy was to strengthen his personal power as a guarantee of the preservation of the results of the revolution: civil rights, land ownership rights of peasants, as well as confiscated lands of emigrants and churches. All these conquests were to be ensured by the Civil Code (1804), which went down in history as the Napoleonic Code.
Napoleon carried out an administrative reform by establishing the institution of prefects of departments and subprefects of districts accountable to the government (1800). Mayors were appointed to towns and villages.
The state French Bank was established to store gold reserves and issue paper money (1800).
On March 28, 1803, paper money was liquidated: the franc, equal to a five-gram silver coin and divided into 100 centimes, became the monetary unit.
To centralize the tax collection system, the Directorate of Direct Taxation and the Directorate of Reduced Taxation (Indirect Taxes) were created. Having taken over a state with a deplorable financial condition, Napoleon introduced austerity in all areas. The normal functioning of the financial system was ensured by the creation of two opposing and at the same time cooperating ministries: finance and treasury.

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First Italian Campaign (1796-1797)
Egyptian campaign of Bonaparte (1798-1799)
Second Italian Campaign (1800)
First Austrian campaign (1805)
Prussian campaign (1806)
Polish campaign (1806-1807)
Spanish-Portuguese campaign (1807-1808)
Second Austrian campaign (1809)
Russian campaign (1812)
Saxon campaign (1813)
Battle of France (1814)
Belgian campaign (1815)

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Grand Army (fr. Grande Armée) - the name of the armed forces of the French Empire in 1805-1807 and 1812-1814.
This name does not apply to all the armed forces of the Napoleonic Empire in general. Napoleon's army was first named "La Grande Armée" in 1805 and disbanded by Imperial Decree in 1807. The Second Grand Army began to form in 1811, took part in the campaigns of 1812, 1813 and 1814, and was disbanded in 1814 by a decree of the Senate announcing the deposition of Napoleon.

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Examination of maps of Napoleon's military campaigns

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Napoleon's policy in the first years of his reign enjoyed the support of the population. The fact is that the revival in the economy caused an increase in wages, which was facilitated by constant recruitment into the army. Napoleon looked like the savior of the fatherland, wars caused a national upsurge, and victories - a sense of pride.

But gradually the people began to get tired of the war, which had lasted for about 20 years. Recruits for the army began to cause discontent. In addition, in 1810, the economic crisis broke out again.

The Russian campaign of 1812 was the beginning of the end of the Empire. The huge multi-tribal army of Napoleon did not carry the former revolutionary spirit, away from his homeland on the fields of Russia, it quickly melted and finally ceased to exist. As the Russian army moved west, the anti-Napoleonic coalition grew. Russian, Austrian, Prussian and Swedish troops opposed the hastily assembled new French army in the "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig (October 16-19, 1813). Napoleon was defeated and after the Allies entered Paris, he abdicated.

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August 7, 1815 on board the ship "Northumberland" the former emperor leaves Europe. Nine escort ships with 3,000 soldiers who would guard Napoleon at Saint Helena accompanied his ship. Napoleon's residence was the vast Longwood House. The house and the area adjacent to it were surrounded by a six-kilometer-long stone wall. Around the wall sentries were placed so that they could see each other. On the tops of the surrounding hills, sentinels were stationed, reporting with signal flags all the actions of Napoleon. The British did everything to make Bonaparte's escape from the island impossible. Napoleon is doomed to inactivity. His health is deteriorating, which Napoleon and his retinue blamed on the unhealthy climate of the island.

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Napoleon possessed a phenomenal memory and capacity for work, a sharp mind, a military and state genius, the gift of a diplomat, an artist, a charm that allowed him to easily win over people. This man in the same gray frock coat and cocked hat took a firm place in history, giving his name to an entire era. Napoleon's empire proved fragile. However, the tragic fate of the emperor deeply shocked his contemporaries, including artists, musicians, poets, and gave abundant food to romanticism, which flourished in European culture in subsequent decades. Napoleon's battles entered military textbooks. "Napoleonic law" underlies the civil norms of Western democracies. The restored Bourbon monarchy was unable to destroy the results of the Revolution secured by Napoleon.

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The origin of man The tool of labor and the art of primitive people Races of man The system of the body Body tissues Muscles and their functions Types of muscles Skeleton Cell Genes and chromosomes Sense organs Language and taste Touch smell Structure of the organs of vision How the eye sees The structure of the hearing organs Sense of balance Digestion Breathing Voice (voice formation) Heart Age Aging Man and woman Conception and pregnancy AIDS

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For many thousands of years, the ancestors of ancient people moved in the same way as monkeys - on four limbs About two and a half million years ago, a small group of humanoid creatures learned to walk upright, on two legs. They formed a special species, “Human erectus.” Thanks to the ability to walk on two legs, their hands turned out to be free: with the help of their hands, they subsequently pumped the manufacture and use of tools. Homo erectus

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Tool of labor and art of primitive people The first works of art appeared 30,000 years ago They were created by a "reasonable man" These were very realistic images of bison, deer and other animals. These are the so-called rock paintings: they were found on the rocks and stone walls of the caves TOOL OF WORK ART

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Races of man. THE CONCEPT "RACE" implies a set of people who are united by: a) a common physical type b) a common habitat (range). What is the difference or similarity in appearance? These are skin pigmentation, hair and eye color, the shape and stiffness of the scalp, the size and shape of the nose and lips, the shape of the eyes, etc. Based on these features and the corresponding territory, scientists have identified the following “big races” of people: Caucasoid (or Eurasian ), Australo-Negroid (or Equatorial) and Mongoloid (or Asian-American). . Caucasian race. In its representatives, skin color varies from very light to swarthy shades. In general, the brightest are the people of the north of Europe. However, it must be borne in mind that most Caucasians have dark hair and eyes. From this point of view, it is skin color that is considered a more important feature when combining Caucasians into a single group. Hair is often either soft and straight or wavy. Curly hair is found in the southern regions of the European part. The nose is usually medium or high bridge, narrow, straight or with a convex back. Beard, mustache, hairiness of the body are developed from a strong to moderate degree. Australo-Negroid race. Skin color - from very dark to yellow-brown shades. Dark hair and eyes. The shape of the hair is from very curly to broadly wavy (among the Aborigines of Australia). Nose with medium high or low bridge, wide and slightly protruding. Lips often with a very large mucous part. Jaws protrude forward. Mongoloid race. Skin color - from dark to light. The hair color is dark, in some variants very dark (blue-black). Hair tends to be coarse and straight, but there are groups in South Asia with a significant frequency of wavy hair. The nose is usually rather narrow, with a small or medium height of the bridge, protrudes slightly, but there are variants with a strongly protruding nose (Kets, North American Indians). Hair on the face is poorly developed, and on the body is almost completely absent.

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Body System There are 12 major systems in the human body. Each of them performs its own function The brain and nerves form the nervous system that controls many functions of the body Bones skeleton, cartilage and ligaments make up the skeletal system that supports the body Muscles that form the muscular system provide motor activity Digestive system digests food and absorbs nutrients Endocrine system with the help of hormones, it regulates many processes in the body. The circulatory system delivers the necessary substances to the cells and takes away unnecessary ones.

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Nervous tissue contains two types of cells: neurons, which provide the transmission of nerve impulses, and cells (glial), which form protection, nutrition and support for neurons. Various tissues combine to form organs, each of which performs a specific function in a living organism. Body tissues The tissues of our body are extremely diverse; There are four large groups of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous. Epithelial tissue is an integumentary tissue, it forms the outer layer of the skin (i.e. covers the body) and lines the internal organs. Epithelial tissue consists of layers of cells (one or more), which are very tightly adjacent to each other, even forming connections, so there is practically no intercellular substance. Such a dense arrangement of cells prevents the penetration of various pathogens and toxic substances into our body, thus performing a protective function. Connective tissue is extremely widespread in the body and varies greatly in structure and function. It consists of bones, tendons, cartilage, connective tissue also includes fatty tissue and blood. In the connective tissue, the cells do not adhere tightly to each other, on the contrary, most of it is the intercellular substance, which is produced by the cells of the tissue. Bone tissue has a very hard intercellular substance rich in calcium and phosphorus. Muscle tissue is divided into striated, which forms skeletal muscles, and smooth, which is part of the internal organs and blood vessels. Muscle tissue is made up of very thin fibers that can only be seen under a microscope. A skeletal muscle fiber can reach a length of up to 15 cm. Cardiac muscle tissue stands out separately, it is also striated, but has some differences in structure and functioning.

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Muscles and their functions The frontalis muscle wrinkles the skin on the forehead The orbicular muscle of the eye closes the eyes The orbicular muscle of the mouth compresses the lips The deltoid muscle moves the humerus in different directions The pectoralis major muscle presses the arm to the body and rotates it The biceps brachii muscle flexes the arm The external oblique muscle of the abdomen holds in place abdominal organs The quadriceps femoris extends the knee while walking The gastrocnemius raises the heel and flexes the knee The tibialis anterior extends the foot Any movement, from blinking to walking and running, is carried out with the help of muscles. Muscles are made up of cells that have the ability to contract. There are 3 types of muscles in the body: skeletal (striated) muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscle. Skeletal muscles are involved in running, smooth muscles work when digesting food, and the heartbeat depends on the contractions of the heart muscle. Skeletal muscles move the bones of the skeleton and, together with the skeleton, support the body. There are over 640 skeletal muscles in the human body. They cover the entire skeleton and determine the shape of the body. Skeletal muscles range in size from the powerful quadriceps femoris to the tiny stapedius muscle in the ear. Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones with the help of tendons, the fibers of which are woven into the muscle tissue at one end, and into the periosteum at the other. When muscles contract, the bones to which they are attached are set in motion.

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Muscle Types Skeletal muscle cells are long and thin. They are formed by many parallel threads - myofibrils. Myofibrils also consist of filaments, or myofilaments, 2 types of proteins - actin and myosin - that give skeletal muscles a transverse striation. Smooth muscles Smooth muscles play an important role in processes beyond our control, such as moving food through the digestive tract (peristalsis). Short spindle-shaped smooth muscle cells form plates. They contract slowly and rhythmically. Muscles of the heart A muscle of this type is not found anywhere except the heart. The heart muscle, or myocardium, makes up the bulk of the mass of the heart. Its branching cells with transverse striation form an intricate network. The heart muscle contracts automatically, without the participation of consciousness. This muscle, which pumps blood through the body, manages to contract more than 2 billion times on average during a person's life. Biceps Bend your arm at the elbow. Muscle biceps in action! In order for the arm to unbend, another muscle, the triceps, must work hard. It is located opposite the biceps, from below. Skeletal muscles

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Skeleton Gradually, scientists found out that bones are absolutely living formations. They have their own blood vessels, and the bone tissue itself is constantly rebuilt and updated. The skeleton does more than just support the body. Flexible joints allow bones to move as a result of muscle contraction and relaxation. Separate parts of the skeleton protect vital organs. For example, the bones of the skull protect the brain, while the chest protects the heart and lungs. The bones store a supply of calcium, without which the muscles and nerves cannot function normally. In the bone marrow, which fills the cavities of spongy bone tissue, various forms of blood cells develop. Cartilage covers the surfaces of articulating bones at the joints, and in some places - in the ears, nose, between the sternum and ribs - is part of the skeleton. Why does the human body not spread into a cake, like a jellyfish washed ashore? It helps to maintain the shape of the skeleton, consisting of individual bones. Many of the bones in your skeleton are movably connected by joints and ligaments. Thanks to the flexible joints of the bones, you can run and jump. There are about 200 individual bones in the adult human body. Young children have even more of them, because with age, some bones are firmly fused together! The skeleton is a flexible frame that serves as a support for the body, determines its shape, and protects internal organs from damage. Movable muscles are attached to it. For centuries, bones were viewed as non-living structures, intended to serve only as a mechanical support for active soft tissues.

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The cell is surrounded by a cell membrane Cytoplasm, which provides communication between organelles The nucleus is the control center of the cell Mitochondria provide the cell with energy In the ribosomes, energy metabolism occurs EPS transports substances Different types of cells perform different jobs, but they are all arranged in the same way. The cell membrane separates the contents of the cell from the external environment and carries out the exchange of substances between the cell and the environment. Organelles float in the liquid gelatinous cytoplasm. Each type of organelle is responsible for a specific function. The most important of the organelles is the nucleus, the control center of the cell. The nucleus contains the genetic material - DNA. DNA contains hereditary material. Organelles also include mitochondria, ribosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum. Cells Cells reproduce by dividing in one of two ways. Mitosis is the formation of genetically homogeneous cells in all tissues and organs. It ensures the growth of the body and the replacement of worn out cells with new ones. Meiosis produces sex cells. Cells, connecting with one another, form the walls of organs or the skin. Their sizes range from 0.01 mm for nerve cells (neurons) to 0.2 mm for eggs (female reproductive cells) - the largest cells in the human body. The human body consists of 220 billion cells, which are divided into 200 different groups. But two categories are clearly distinguished: 20 billion "immortal", mainly nerve cells (neurons), existing throughout human life; and 200 billion "mortals" who are constantly being replaced. Consequently, most of the cells of the human body are constantly being updated.

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DNA molecules store hereditary information. DNA molecules are coiled and packed into chromosomes. In a DNA molecule, 2 interconnected chains are twisted one around the other, forming a double helix. The chains are held together by the nitrogenous bases they contain. There are 4 types of bases, and their exact sequence in the DNA molecule serves as the genetic code that determines the structure and function of cells. There are about 100,000 genes in the human body. 1 gene is a segment of the DNA molecule. Since proteins regulate metabolism, it turns out that it is genes that control all chemical reactions in the body, determine the structure and functions of our body. All cells except sex cells contain 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. Chromosomes contain thousands of genes. Genes are passed from parents to offspring. The individual characteristics of different people are due precisely to different combinations of genes. Sex cells contain 23 chromosomes. During fertilization, a full set of 46 chromosomes is restored. 1 pair of chromosomes, namely the sex chromosomes, is different from the other 22 pairs. Men have XY chromosomes. Women have XX chromosomes. Genes and DNA chromosomes Each pair consists of 1 maternal and 1 paternal chromosomes. Paired chromosomes have the same set of genes, presented respectively in 2 variants - maternal and paternal. 2 variants of the same gene responsible for a particular trait form a pair. In a pair of genes, usually one dominates and suppresses the action of the other. For example, if the dominant gene for brown eyes is present on the maternal chromosome, and the gene for blue is present on the father's chromosome, the child's eyes will be brown. Centromere Molecule DNA DNA Chromatin CHROMOSES

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Tongue and taste Different areas of the tongue perceive different tastes, this is due to the diversity of receptors. The tip of the tongue is most sensitive to sweet, the lateral surfaces are most sensitive to sour and salty, and the receptors located on the back of the tongue perceive bitter taste. As a result of interaction with solutes, nerve impulses arise in taste cells, which are transmitted through several nerves to the central nervous system, in particular, to the taste zone of the cerebral cortex, where these impulses are analyzed. In addition to taste buds, there may be receptors in the oral mucosa that perceive temperature and pressure, which partly enhances taste sensations. TASTE is very important for our body; so, by the taste of food, we can determine whether it is of high quality. The organs of taste are the so-called taste buds. These are several receptor cells that are capable of producing a nerve impulse in response to the action of food. Taste buds are located in the outgrowths of the mucous membrane of the tongue - in the taste buds. Taste buds only respond to substances dissolved in water, so we cannot taste dry food until it is wetted with saliva. Most of the kidneys are located at the tip of the tongue, on its back and side surfaces.

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The sense of touch allows us to determine the shape and size of objects by touch, to feel the temperature; for example, if a person touches a hot object, he immediately reflexively withdraws his hand. Especially well developed in humans is skin sensitivity at the fingertips, since the hand is the main organ of human labor. Skin sensitivity is provided by the presence of various receptors in the skin and on the mucous membranes (for example, in the oral cavity). All of them have a very complex structure. There are pressure, heat and pain receptors. The most pressure receptors are on the palms, fingers and tongue. Thermal receptors are of two types - reacting to heat and cold, they play an important role in the regulation of body temperature. Pain receptors are simply free nerve endings found in large numbers in the skin and mucous membranes. These receptors respond to any violation of the integrity of the tissue, they are necessary to protect the body from danger. Touch

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Smell Smell allows us to perceive the richest world of smells and aromas. Perception occurs due to special olfactory receptors, which are located in the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity. Olfactory receptors are cells concentrated in large numbers in the upper nasal passage, they are able to respond only to substances that are in a gaseous state. The olfactory cells are extremely sensitive, they can pick up the smell in response to the interaction with just a few molecules of the substance. As a result of interaction with an odorous substance, nerve impulses arise in the receptor, which travel along the olfactory nerve to the olfactory zone of the cerebral cortex, where the smell is recognized. Thanks to the sense of smell, a whole world of smells and aromas is open to us. It is generally accepted that there are about seven types of olfactory receptors, each of which is able to detect only one type of molecule. These main odors are as follows: camphor (smell of camphor), musky (smell of musk), ethereal, floral, minty (smell of ether), acrid and putrid (smell of rot).

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The eye muscles are the fastest muscles in our body, thanks to them we can look from one object to another in a fraction of a second. The conjunctiva is a special mucous membrane that covers the front of the eye and the part located behind the eyelids, protecting the eye from infections and dust. It secretes a special liquid - a tear, which washes the eye. The eyeball is made up of membranes. The very surface of the eye is white and is called the sclera, on the front part it passes into a transparent cornea. Its cloudiness leads to blindness. The middle membrane is vascular, it performs a trophic (i.e., nutritional) function, as it is penetrated by a large number of blood vessels through which blood brings nutrients and oxygen. In front, the choroid passes into the iris, in the center of which there is a hole through which light penetrates. This is the pupil. The color of the iris is the color of the eyes; The pupil controls the amount of light entering the eye. Thanks to small muscles located in the cornea, the opening of the pupil either narrows in bright light or expands in the dark. The iris and cornea do not fit tightly to each other, between them is the so-called anterior chamber of the eye, filled with a clear liquid. Immediately behind the pupil is a transparent lens. It is surrounded by the ciliary muscle, which changes the curvature of the lens, allowing the lens to adjust to a farther or closer object (this is the so-called accommodation process). Behind the lens is the vitreous body. The vitreous body is a transparent gelatinous mass tightly connected to the retina. The vitreous body maintains intraocular pressure and the shape of the eye. The retina is the inner lining of the eye. It is here that light enters, passing through the pupil, lens and vitreous body. The retina contains visual receptors. Rods are receptors for twilight vision, they give a black and white image, they work in the dark. Cones can only perceive daylight, but they form a color image. There are three types of cones: some are sensitive to blue, others to red, and still others to yellow. The largest concentration of cones is located on the retina in the area of ​​the so-called yellow spot. It is located just opposite the pupil. This is the zone of the best vision. There is also a blind spot on the retina. There are no receptor cells in this area, and this is due to the fact that the optic nerve exits here. The structure of the organs of vision

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How the eye sees The cornea focuses the light from the object, and a clear but inverted image appears on the retina. Photoreceptors send nerve impulses to the brain. Processing signals, the brain flips the image again, so that we see everything correctly.

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The structure of the organs of hearing. HEARING allows a person to better navigate the world around him and communicate with other people, perceiving sounds of different heights and volumes. As you know, sound propagates in the form of sound waves having a frequency. Our ear is an extremely delicate instrument, it is able to perceive sounds with a frequency of vibrations from 20 hertz to 21 thousand hertz. Due to the fact that the auditory analyzer is a paired organ, we can always determine from which side the sound is heard and approximately how far away its source is. The human hearing organ has three parts - the outer, middle and inner ear. The outer ear consists of the auricle (we usually call it simply the ear) and the external auditory meatus, which goes inside the temporal bone of the skull. The auricle, due to its shape, allows you to better capture sounds and directs them to the external auditory meatus, located in the temporal bone. It is S-shaped and ends at the tympanic membrane, which separates the outer and middle ear. In the external auditory canal there are special glands that secrete a special substance - earwax, which performs a protective function, preventing dust and harmful microorganisms from passing through. Wax buildup must be removed regularly, otherwise it can accumulate and impair hearing. The eardrum is the boundary between the outer and inner ear. It is a cavity inside the temporal bone. The middle ear has three bones and two muscles. The bones, due to their shape, received the names: hammer, anvil and stirrup. The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane, from which it transmits vibrations through the anvil and stirrup to the membrane separating the middle and inner ear. In addition to transmitting sounds, the bones and muscles of the middle ear regulate the strength of the vibrations caused by the eardrum, thus protecting, for example, from strong sounds or, conversely, amplifying quiet sounds. The inner ear has a rather complex structure. It is a system of cavities and channels filled with liquid. This system is called the membranous labyrinth.

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Sense of balance Sense of balance is the so-called sixth sense of a person. Thanks to it, we are able to determine the position of our body relative to the earth and move in space. The sense of balance allows us to navigate even in the dark. For example, we sense whether we are moving down or going up. This important feeling is formed as a result of the work of the weight of the tibular analyzer. Anatomically, that is, in terms of location, it is very close to the auditory analyzer. The vestibular analyzer, like the inner ear, is located in the membranous labyrinth, in the thickness of the temporal bone of the skull.

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For the normal functioning of any living organism, it needs a source of energy. And such a source is food that the body receives from the external environment and processes in a certain way in the digestive system. The digestive system begins in the mouth. In the oral region there are teeth located in two rows and fixed in the upper and lower jaws. The tooth consists of three parts: the root, which is located in the depression of the jaw bone, the neck, located in the gum, and the crown, which protrudes above the gum. The substance that makes up a tooth is called dentin. Saliva is secreted by three pairs of special salivary glands. This process occurs reflexively. Even from the sight or smell of food, saliva begins to flow into the mouth. In addition to the enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates, saliva contains a special substance called lysozyme, which kills harmful microorganisms if they enter the body with food. Thanks to saliva, a food bolus is formed, which is swallowed, food enters the pharynx, then into the esophagus. In the stomach, food lingers for several hours. Under the action of gastric juice, which is secreted by the mucous membrane of the stomach wall, complex protein molecules are broken down into simpler ones. Gastric juice is a colorless, odorless liquid. Its main enzyme is pepsin, which breaks down protein molecules in an acidic environment. There are in the gastric juice and enzymes that break down fats. From the stomach, food enters the small intestine, more precisely, into its initial section - the duodenum. The ducts of the liver and pancreas flow into the duodenum. The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the duodenum during digestion. Bile itself does not break down nutrients, but facilitates the digestion of fats and creates the necessary environment for the action of enzymes that the pancreas produces. In the next part of the digestive tract - the small intestine - there is a splitting of those nutrients that did not have time to be digested before. In the small intestine, the breakdown products of proteins, fats and carbohydrates are absorbed. In the next section of the digestive system - the large intestine - there is an absorption of all the nutrients that have not had time to be absorbed in the small intestine. Symbiotic, i.e. friendly, bacteria live in the colon, they break down fiber that is not affected by digestive juices, protect the body from harmful microbes, and produce some important vitamins. Digestion

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All living things in nature breathe. Breathing is one of the main signs of life. Every organism, even every cell and tissue, every second needs energy, which is formed as a result of chemical reactions occurring in the body. All of these reactions require oxygen, which we obtain from atmospheric air through breathing. The respiratory organs include the nasal and oral cavities, nasopharynx, larynx (there are vocal cords in it), trachea, bronchi (two bronchi depart from the trachea, which then branch in the lungs, forming the so-called bronchial tree), lungs. In the nasal cavity, the inhaled air is warmed and purified, which does not happen when breathing through the mouth, so it is advisable to breathe through the nose, especially in cold weather. There are also special olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity, which allow us to capture and distinguish odors. In the next section of the respiratory tract - the nasopharynx, the respiratory tract intersects with the digestive tract. Food does not enter the larynx due to the fact that during swallowing the larynx is covered by a special formation called the epiglottis. The larynx is made up of cartilage, the largest of which is the thyroid. The larynx contains two pairs of vocal cords, which play an important role in the formation of the voice. After the larynx, the inhaled air enters the trachea - a breathing tube 10-12 cm long. The trachea in the chest is divided into two bronchi, which, having entered the lungs, begin to branch many times and end with alveoli, or pulmonary vesicles. Breath

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Voice (voice formation) VOICE ARISES in a special vocal apparatus, which is located in the larynx and is a very sensitive organ. It consists of two small folds, a kind of films of muscle, covered with a mucous membrane. These folds are called vocal cords. They are located behind the thyroid cartilage, which can be felt on the front of the neck under the skin. This cartilage in everyday life is called the Adam's apple, or Adam's apple. There is a narrow glottis between the vocal cords. All this space is sometimes called a resonator chamber, in which the sound is modeled, i.e., it can be modified. The evolutionary process created such a resonator chamber only in humans, it is absent in primates, therefore, for example, monkeys have primitive sounds. When talking, the voice apparatus makes sounds consisting of 4 - 5 tones, "and when singing, the breadth of the sound range reaches two octaves, that is, 16 tones. Each person's voice has its own individual shades, and you can recognize people by them without seeing them in front of you. The vocal cords are a very thin "instrument", and therefore they are so tender and vulnerable. Their condition is greatly affected by smoking, which leads to hoarseness and coarsening of the voice. Colds of the upper respiratory tract can sometimes even cause a temporary loss of voice. also try to talk less loudly or shout, this can make the voice "sit down" or hoarse.If this happens rarely, then this is not very scary, but regularly raising your voice can cause serious consequences.

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Heart The first organ that begins to work in a newly born organism is the heart. Since then, it has been running non-stop. By right, the heart is considered the most hardworking organ of our body. The HEART plays the role of a pump in our body, pumping blood through the system of blood vessels. Its main mass consists of cardiac muscles. The heart is located in the chest between the left and right lungs (closer to the left side) and has two atria (left and right) and two ventricles (left and right). The heart weighs an average of about 300 g, and its size is approximately the size of a clenched fist.

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A person throughout his life goes through several stages of development, each of which has its own characteristics, due to a certain physiological, mental, spiritual state. These life periods are called ages. Under the full life cycle of an individual (or age period) is understood the period of time starting from the moment of development of a person in the womb and ending with his death. This entire period of time is, as it were, divided into several stages in the development of a person, which we commonly call infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth, mature years, old age. There are chronological age (passport, calendar) - this is the period from birth to a certain date, event, period, and biological (anatomical and physiological), which characterizes the state of the body. Not in all cases, in a particular person, the chronological and biological ages coincide. The degree of coincidence depends on heredity, the adaptive capabilities of the organism, the influence of the environment, social and other factors. Finally, the individual characteristics of a given person also play an important role. Although each age (childhood, adolescence, etc.) has its own specific biochemical, physiological, anatomical, psychological characteristics, these “average” signs can manifest themselves differently in different people. This is most characteristic of puberty. Age

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Aging Aging is a natural physiological process, and it is inevitable for every person, but the timing of the onset and the course of the process itself depend on many factors that are studied by the special science of gerontology (from the Greek geroptos - old man, old man). SENIOR PERIOD is considered the period of life of people aged 75 to 90 years. Persons over 90 years old belong to the group of centenarians. At the same time, it is very difficult to determine the beginning of aging and its duration in each individual, because the mental and physiological processes accompanying aging do not always coincide with the chronological (passport) age. Women, due to the influence of certain sex hormones (estrogens, etc.) and greater body resistance, age more slowly and live longer than men, on average by 6-10 years. According to statistics, there is usually only one man for every three or four women around the age of 100. It is believed that aging is primarily associated with a gradual limitation of the functionality of the main systems of the human body, primarily the nervous and circulatory systems, which reduces its resistance to various adverse influences. In particular, degeneration of nerve cells occurs, their regulatory and trophic (nutritional) influence weakens, and the likelihood of such diseases as atherosclerosis, hypertension, vascular lesions of the brain, diabetes mellitus, and lung damage increases.

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Man and woman From a natural-biological point of view, a man and a woman are individuals that make up the human community (population). They differ in gender and features of the anatomical and physiological structure and psyche. The division into males and females is one of the fundamental natural differences that exists in almost all animals. In this sense, the species Homo sapiens (reasonable man) is no exception. It is in the interaction of male and female individuals that one of the main principles of preserving life is realized - the reproduction of their own kind. The commonality and differences between a man and a woman, their purpose, the essence of relationships cannot be explained only by natural biological factors. Questions "What is a man?" and "What is a woman?" worried people since ancient times. In the HUMAN COMMUNITY in the relations of the sexes there is one essential feature that distinguishes man from animals - the male-man everywhere helps to get food for the woman and children. If we take the closest animals to us - primates, we will see that the male does not provide food for the female, she feeds herself. The male may fight to protect her or possess her. In all known human communities, the future man learned from childhood the main law of being - in order to become a full member of society, he will have to provide food for his family - his wife and children. Of course, both the female and male world are unique in their own way. At the same time, they are united by fundamental universal values ​​- love, friendship, family, children.

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In ancient times, everything that was connected with conception, pregnancy, childbirth, seemed to be something mysterious, incomprehensible. Modern medicine has penetrated the mysteries of human birth, but despite the enormous progress of many sciences, including molecular biology, it still remains a mystery how a fertilized egg turns into a thinking being. In ALL MAMMALS, including humans, for the appearance of offspring, the male germ cell - the spermatozoon - must get inside the body of the future matter there to connect with the mature female germ cell - the egg. The fusion of these cells is called fertilization. In the mother's body, fertilization occurs and the very first stage of the formation of a new organism takes place. Fertilization together with the beginning of this development is called conception. Conception can occur if the female body has reached puberty (starting at 13-14 years old, sometimes from 10 to 16 years old) and before (usually after 45 years). With some diseases of the internal organs, women are unable to conceive. Usually, conception occurs in the fallopian tube, and occasionally on the eve of the vagina with an intact hymen. A fertilized egg divides several times, and almost identical daughter cells, blastomeres, are formed. The embryo of the developmental stage - morula - consists of 8 - 12 blastomeres. Usually, three days after ovulation and fertilization, the morula moves from the fallopian tube into the uterine cavity and grows into its wall. This process is called implantation. After that, we can say that conception has occurred. It was then that many of its own most important genes begin to work in the cells of the embryo. This is how pregnancy begins - the development of the child's body in the mother's body. Conception and pregnancy

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AIDS Among modern diseases to which a person is exposed, AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is considered the most dangerous and insidious. It is a severe infectious disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) for short. AIDS is considered by many as one of the global problems of our time, on the solution of which the fate of all mankind depends. The AIDS VIRUS infects the immune (protective) system of a person. This in itself cannot cause death, but a person can become a victim of a number of other diseases, such as various types of cancer, meningitis, encephalitis and others, which will lead to his death. in infected patients, HIV is found in blood, saliva, tears, breast milk, urine, and possibly other body fluids. The ways of transmission of the infection have been established: sexual, parenteral - through the transfusion of infected blood and its preparations, as well as through unsterilized medical instruments; perinatal - from mother to child before, during or after childbirth. When breastfeeding, infection is possible as the mother of the child, but vice versa. The probability of giving birth to an infected child in an HIV-infected woman is about 30%, and when treated with drugs available in the arsenal of modern medicine, it decreases to 8%. Infected individuals are contagious from the start. A few weeks (about 6 on average) after infection, the patient develops an acute illness (fever rises, pain in the joints and muscles appears, etc.). The insidiousness of the disease is manifested in the fact that its symptoms disappear completely after one or two weeks, sometimes even for 10 or more years. During this period, the virus carrier, considering himself practically healthy, leads a normal life and is therefore especially dangerous as a potential source of the spread of the disease. In different patients, the manifestations of the disease are of varying intensity. Although there are still no cures for AIDS, there are medications that slow down its progression. Outside the body, the virus is not stable and is not transmitted by household means - by coughing and sneezing, through drinking water, by shaking hands, touching and hugging, by sharing pools or public baths, by telephone or toilet. HIV is not transmitted through insect bites. In modern Russia, the bulk of those infected are drug addicts who share non-sterile syringes. In our country, there is still insufficient demand for foreign experience related to drug safety measures: in view of the fact that many drug addicts cannot completely give up drugs, they are offered to inject drugs not parenterally (through syringes), but orally (through the mouth), as a last resort - use only sterile syringes. In the Netherlands, since 1985, there has been a practice of free exchange of used syringes for sterile ones.

1. The origin of man 2. The tool of labor and the art of primitive people 3. Human races 4. The body system 5. Body tissues 6. Muscles and their functions 7. Types of muscles 8. Skeleton 9. Cell 10. Genes and chromosomes 11. Sensory organs 12 .Language and taste 13.Touch 14.smell 15.The structure of the organs of vision 16.As the eye sees 17.The structure of the organs of hearing 18.Sense of balance 19.Digestion 20.Breathing 21.Voice (voice formation) 22.Heart 23.Age 24.Aging 25. Man and woman 26. Conception and pregnancy 27. AIDS

For many thousands of years, the ancestors of ancient people moved in the same way as monkeys - on four limbs About two and a half million years ago, a small group of humanoid creatures learned to walk upright, on two legs. They formed a special species, “Human erectus.” Thanks to the ability to walk on two legs, their hands turned out to be free: with the help of their hands, they subsequently pumped the manufacture and use of tools. Homo erectus

Tool of Labor and the Art of Primitive People Primitive people knew how to make tools from stone. They also used other natural materials, wood and animal bones, as tools. The main tools of a skilled man were sharpened stones for cutting meat and skins, knives and needles from fragments of horns and bones, jaws of ruminants that were used as saws, etc. Most of the tools were made of flint, as it is easily processed. The first works of art appeared years ago. They were created by Homo sapiens. These were very realistic images of bison, deer and other animals. These are the so-called rock paintings: they were found on the rocks and stone walls of the caves TOOL OF WORK ART

Races of man. THE CONCEPT "RACE" implies a set of people who are united by: a) a common physical type b) a common habitat (range). What is the difference or similarity in appearance? These are skin pigmentation, hair and eye color, the shape and stiffness of the scalp, the size and shape of the nose and lips, the shape of the eyes, etc. Based on these signs and the corresponding territory, scientists have identified the following “big races” of people: Caucasoid (or Eurasian) , Australo-Negroid (or Equatorial) and Mongoloid (or Asian-American) .. Caucasoid race. In its representatives, skin color varies from very light to swarthy shades. In general, the brightest are the people of the north of Europe. However, it must be borne in mind that most Caucasians have dark hair and eyes. From this point of view, it is skin color that is considered a more important feature when combining Caucasians into a single group. Hair is often either soft and straight or wavy. Curly hair is found in the southern regions of the European part. The nose is usually medium or high bridge, narrow, straight or with a convex back. Beard, mustache, hairiness of the body are developed from a strong to moderate degree. Australo-Negroid race. Skin color - from very dark to yellow-brown shades. Dark hair and eyes. The shape of the hair is from very curly to broadly wavy (among the Aborigines of Australia). Nose with medium high or low bridge, wide and slightly protruding. Lips often with a very large mucous part. Jaws protrude forward. Mongoloid race. Skin color - from dark to light. The hair color is dark, in some variants very dark (blue-black). Hair tends to be coarse and straight, but there are groups in South Asia with a significant frequency of wavy hair. The nose is usually rather narrow, with a small or medium height of the bridge, protrudes slightly, but there are variants with a strongly protruding nose (Kets, North American Indians). Hair on the face is poorly developed, and on the body is almost completely absent.

Body System There are 12 major systems in the human body. Each of them performs its own function The brain and nerves form the nervous system that controls many functions of the body Bones skeleton, cartilage and ligaments make up the skeletal system that supports the body Muscles that form the muscular system provide motor activity Digestive system digests food and absorbs nutrients Endocrine system with the help of hormones, it regulates many processes in the body. The circulatory system delivers the necessary substances to the cells and takes away unnecessary ones.

Nervous tissue contains two types of cells: neurons, which provide the transmission of nerve impulses, and cells (glial), which form protection, nutrition and support for neurons. Various tissues combine to form organs, each of which performs a specific function in a living organism. Body tissues The tissues of our body are extremely diverse; There are four large groups of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous. Epithelial tissue is an integumentary tissue, it forms the outer layer of the skin (i.e. covers the body) and lines the internal organs. Epithelial tissue consists of layers of cells (one or more), which are very tightly adjacent to each other, even forming connections, so there is practically no intercellular substance. Such a dense arrangement of cells prevents the penetration of various pathogens and toxic substances into our body, thus performing a protective function. Connective tissue is extremely widespread in the body and varies greatly in structure and function. It consists of bones, tendons, cartilage, connective tissue also includes fatty tissue and blood. In the connective tissue, the cells do not adhere tightly to each other, on the contrary, most of it is the intercellular substance, which is produced by the cells of the tissue. Bone tissue has a very hard intercellular substance rich in calcium and phosphorus. Muscle tissue is divided into striated, which forms skeletal muscles, and smooth, which is part of the internal organs and blood vessels. Muscle tissue is made up of very thin fibers that can only be seen under a microscope. A skeletal muscle fiber can reach a length of up to 15 cm. Cardiac muscle tissue is isolated separately, it is also striated, but has some differences in structure and functioning.

Muscles and their functions The frontalis muscle wrinkles the skin on the forehead The orbicular muscle of the eye closes the eyes The orbicular muscle of the mouth compresses the lips The deltoid muscle moves the humerus in different directions The pectoralis major muscle presses the arm to the body and rotates it The biceps brachii muscle flexes the arm The external oblique muscle of the abdomen holds in place abdominal organs The quadriceps femoris extends the knee while walking The gastrocnemius raises the heel and flexes the knee The tibialis anterior extends the foot Any movement, from blinking to walking and running, is carried out with the help of muscles. Muscles are made up of cells that have the ability to contract. There are 3 types of muscles in the body: skeletal (striated) muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscle. Skeletal muscles are involved in running, smooth muscles work when digesting food, and the heartbeat depends on the contractions of the heart muscle. Skeletal muscles move the bones of the skeleton and, together with the skeleton, support the body. There are over 640 skeletal muscles in the human body. They cover the entire skeleton and determine the shape of the body. Skeletal muscles range in size from the powerful quadriceps femoris to the tiny stapedius muscle in the ear. Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones with the help of tendons, the fibers of which are woven into the muscle tissue at one end, and into the periosteum at the other. When muscles contract, the bones to which they are attached are set in motion.

Muscle Types Skeletal muscle cells are long and thin. They are formed by many parallel threads - myofibrils. Myofibrils also consist of filaments, or myofilaments, 2 types of proteins - actin and myosin - that give skeletal muscles a transverse striation. Smooth muscles Smooth muscles play an important role in processes beyond our control, such as moving food through the digestive tract (peristalsis). Short spindle-shaped smooth muscle cells form plates. They contract slowly and rhythmically. Muscles of the heart A muscle of this type is not found anywhere except the heart. The heart muscle, or myocardium, makes up the bulk of the mass of the heart. Its branching cells with transverse striation form an intricate network. The heart muscle contracts automatically, without the participation of consciousness. This muscle, which pumps blood through the body, manages to contract more than 2 billion times on average during a person's life. Biceps Bend your arm at the elbow. Muscle biceps in action! In order for the arm to straighten, another triceps muscle must work. It is located opposite the biceps, from below. Skeletal muscles

Skeleton Gradually, scientists found out that bones are absolutely living formations. They have their own blood vessels, and the bone tissue itself is constantly rebuilt and updated. The skeleton does more than just support the body. Flexible joints allow bones to move as a result of muscle contraction and relaxation. Separate parts of the skeleton protect vital organs. For example, the bones of the skull protect the brain, while the chest protects the heart and lungs. The bones store a supply of calcium, without which the muscles and nerves cannot function normally. In the bone marrow, which fills the cavities of spongy bone tissue, various forms of blood cells develop. Cartilage covers the surfaces of articulating bones at the joints, and in some places in the ears, nose, between the sternum and ribs - is part of the skeleton. Why does the human body not spread into a cake, like a jellyfish washed ashore? It helps to maintain the shape of the skeleton, consisting of individual bones. Many of the bones in your skeleton are movably connected by joints and ligaments. Thanks to the flexible joints of the bones, you can run and jump. There are about 200 individual bones in the adult human body. Young children have even more of them, because with age, some bones are firmly fused together! The skeleton is a flexible frame that serves as a support for the body, determines its shape, and protects internal organs from damage. Movable muscles are attached to it. For centuries, bones were viewed as non-living structures, intended to serve only as a mechanical support for active soft tissues.

The cell is surrounded by a cell membrane Cytoplasm, which provides communication between organelles The nucleus is the control center of the cell Mitochondria provide the cell with energy In the ribosomes, energy metabolism occurs EPS transports substances Different types of cells perform different jobs, but they are all arranged in the same way. The cell membrane separates the contents of the cell from the external environment and carries out the exchange of substances between the cell and the environment. Organelles float in the liquid gelatinous cytoplasm. Each type of organelle is responsible for a specific function. The most important of the organelles is the nucleus, the control center of the cell. The nucleus contains the genetic material - DNA. DNA contains hereditary material. Organelles also include mitochondria, ribosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum. Cells Cells reproduce by dividing in one of two ways. Mitosis is the formation of genetically homogeneous cells in all tissues and organs. It ensures the growth of the body and the replacement of worn out cells with new ones. Meiosis produces sex cells. Cells, connecting with one another, form the walls of organs or the skin. Their sizes range from 0.01 mm for nerve cells (neurons) to 0.2 mm for eggs (female reproductive cells) - the largest cells in the human body. The human body consists of 220 billion cells, which are divided into 200 different groups. But two categories are clearly distinguished: 20 billion "immortal", mainly nerve cells (neurons), existing throughout human life; and 200 billion "mortals" who are constantly being replaced. Consequently, most of the cells of the human body are constantly being updated.

DNA molecules store hereditary information. DNA molecules are coiled and packed into chromosomes. In a DNA molecule, 2 interconnected chains are twisted one around the other, forming a double helix. The chains are held together by the nitrogenous bases they contain. There are 4 types of bases, and their exact sequence in the DNA molecule serves as the genetic code that determines the structure and function of cells. In the human body about the genes. 1 gene is a segment of the DNA molecule. Since proteins regulate metabolism, it turns out that it is genes that control all chemical reactions in the body, determine the structure and functions of our body. All cells except sex cells contain 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. Chromosomes contain thousands of genes. Genes are passed from parents to offspring. The individual characteristics of different people are due precisely to different combinations of genes. Sex cells contain 23 chromosomes. During fertilization, a full set of 46 chromosomes is restored. 1 pair of chromosomes, namely the sex chromosomes, is different from the other 22 pairs. Men have XY chromosomes. Women have XX chromosomes. Genes and DNA chromosomes Each pair consists of 1 maternal and 1 paternal chromosomes. Paired chromosomes have the same set of genes, presented respectively in 2 variants - maternal and paternal. 2 variants of the same gene responsible for a particular trait form a pair. In a pair of genes, usually one dominates and suppresses the action of the other. For example, if the dominant gene for brown eyes is present on the maternal chromosome, and the gene for blue is present on the father's chromosome, the child's eyes will be brown. Centromere Molecule DNA DNA Chromatin Deciphered the structure of DNA CHROMOSES Frans Crick James Watts

The nervous system constantly receives signals from the outside world with the help of special sensors. They are called sense organs. Light is perceived by the organs of vision of the eye. From them to the brain, the path is very short. The eyes are its outgrowths! The outer opening is covered with a transparent glass so that water and dirt do not get inside. The cornea is the outermost transparent membrane of the eye. It is made of cells that transmit light well. Therefore, the cornea must be constantly moistened, otherwise it will dry out and become cloudy. The role of lubrication in your eyes is performed by tears. The organs of taste are located on the tongue. They work in the same way as the rest of the senses. That is, they perceive the incoming information and turn it into electrical signals that run through the nerve cells to the brain. Groups of cells that can perceive certain signals are called receptors (from Latin recipere to receive). everything you see, hear, feel and perceive in your brain is just nerve signals! smells are perceived by the brain, also as a series of signals. They are supplied to the brain by the organs of smell. In the skin there are tactile receptors that perceive pressure, heat and cold. In response to signals from cold receptors, the lumen of the skin capillaries expands, the skin turns red, and the flow of hot blood through it increases. Thanks to this mechanism, the cheeks turn red in the cold. Sensory organs Eyes Tongue Receptors Receptors for charm organs Receptors for touch organs

Tongue and taste Different areas of the tongue perceive different tastes, this is due to the diversity of receptors. The tip of the tongue is most sensitive to sweet, the lateral surfaces are most sensitive to sour and salty, and the receptors located on the back of the tongue perceive bitter taste. As a result of interaction with solutes, nerve impulses arise in taste cells, which are transmitted through several nerves to the central nervous system, in particular, to the taste zone of the cerebral cortex, where these impulses are analyzed. In addition to taste buds, there may be receptors in the oral mucosa that perceive temperature and pressure, which partly enhances taste sensations. TASTE is very important for our body; so, by the taste of food, we can determine whether it is of high quality. The organs of taste are the so-called taste buds. These are several receptor cells that are capable of producing a nerve impulse in response to the action of food. Taste buds are located in the outgrowths of the mucous membrane of the tongue - in the taste buds. Taste buds only respond to substances dissolved in water, so we cannot taste dry food until it is wetted with saliva. Most of the kidneys are located at the tip of the tongue, on its back and side surfaces.

The sense of touch allows us to determine the shape and size of objects by touch, to feel the temperature; for example, if a person touches a hot object, he immediately reflexively withdraws his hand. Especially well developed in humans is skin sensitivity at the fingertips, since the hand is the main organ of human labor. Skin sensitivity is provided by the presence of various receptors in the skin and on the mucous membranes (for example, in the oral cavity). All of them have a very complex structure. There are pressure, heat and pain receptors. The most pressure receptors are on the palms, fingers and tongue. Thermal receptors are of two types - reacting to heat and cold, they play an important role in the regulation of body temperature. Pain receptors are simply free nerve endings found in large numbers in the skin and mucous membranes. These receptors respond to any violation of the integrity of the tissue, they are necessary to protect the body from danger. Touch

Smell Smell allows us to perceive the richest world of smells and aromas. Perception occurs due to special olfactory receptors, which are located in the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity. Olfactory receptors are cells concentrated in large numbers in the upper nasal passage, they are able to respond only to substances that are in a gaseous state. The olfactory cells are extremely sensitive, they can pick up the smell in response to the interaction with just a few molecules of the substance. As a result of interaction with an odorous substance, nerve impulses arise in the receptor, which travel along the olfactory nerve to the olfactory zone of the cerebral cortex, where the smell is recognized. Thanks to the sense of smell, a whole world of smells and aromas is open to us. It is generally accepted that there are about seven types of olfactory receptors, each of which is able to detect only one type of molecule. These basic odors are as follows: camphor (smell of camphor), musky (smell of musk), ethereal, floral, minty (smell of ether), acrid and putrid (smell of rot).

The eye muscles are the fastest muscles in our body, thanks to them we can look from one object to another in a fraction of a second. The conjunctiva is a special mucous membrane that covers the front of the eye and the part located behind the eyelids, protecting the eye from infections and dust. It secretes a special liquid - a tear, which washes the eye. The eyeball is made up of membranes. The very surface of the eye is white and is called the sclera, on the front part it passes into a transparent cornea. Its cloudiness leads to blindness. The middle membrane is vascular, it performs a trophic (i.e., nutritional) function, as it is penetrated by a large number of blood vessels through which blood brings nutrients and oxygen. In front, the choroid passes into the iris, in the center of which there is a hole through which light penetrates. This is the pupil. The color of the iris is the color of the eyes; The pupil controls the amount of light entering the eye. Thanks to small muscles located in the cornea, the opening of the pupil either narrows in bright light or expands in the dark. The iris and cornea do not fit tightly to each other, between them is the so-called anterior chamber of the eye, filled with a clear liquid. Immediately behind the pupil is a transparent lens. It is surrounded by the ciliary muscle, which changes the curvature of the lens, allowing the lens to adjust to a farther or closer object (this is the so-called accommodation process). Behind the lens is the vitreous body. The vitreous body is a transparent gelatinous mass tightly connected to the retina. The vitreous body maintains intraocular pressure and the shape of the eye. The retina is the inner lining of the eye. It is here that light enters, passing through the pupil, lens and vitreous body. The retina contains visual receptors. Rods are receptors for twilight vision, they give a black and white image, they work in the dark. Cones can only perceive daylight, but they form a color image. There are three types of cones: some are sensitive to blue, others to red, and still others to yellow. The largest concentration of cones is located on the retina in the area of ​​the so-called yellow spot. It is located just opposite the pupil. This is the zone of the best vision. There is also a blind spot on the retina. There are no receptor cells in this area, and this is due to the fact that the optic nerve exits here. The structure of the organs of vision

How the eye sees The lens The cornea The image on the retina The cornea focuses the light from the object, and a clear but inverted image appears on the retina. Photoreceptors send nerve impulses to the brain. Processing signals, the brain flips the image again, so that we see everything correctly.

The structure of the organs of hearing. HEARING allows a person to better navigate the world around him and communicate with other people, perceiving sounds of different heights and volumes. As you know, sound propagates in the form of sound waves having a frequency. Our ear is an extremely delicate instrument, it is able to perceive sounds with a frequency of oscillation from 20 hertz to 21 thousand hertz. Due to the fact that the auditory analyzer is a paired organ, we can always determine from which side the sound is heard and approximately how far away its source is. The human hearing organ has three sections - the outer, middle and inner ear. The outer ear consists of the auricle (we usually call it simply the ear) and the external auditory meatus, which goes inside the temporal bone of the skull. The auricle, due to its shape, allows you to better capture sounds and directs them to the external auditory meatus, located in the temporal bone. It is S-shaped and ends at the tympanic membrane, which separates the outer and middle ear. In the external auditory canal there are special glands that secrete a special substance - earwax, which performs a protective function, preventing dust and harmful microorganisms from passing through. Wax buildup must be removed regularly, otherwise it can accumulate and impair hearing. The eardrum is the boundary between the outer and inner ear. It is a cavity inside the temporal bone. The middle ear has three bones and two muscles. The bones, due to their shape, received the names: hammer, anvil and stirrup. The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane, from which it transmits vibrations through the anvil and stirrup to the membrane separating the middle and inner ear. In addition to transmitting sounds, the bones and muscles of the middle ear regulate the strength of the vibrations caused by the eardrum, thus protecting, for example, from strong sounds or, conversely, amplifying quiet sounds. The inner ear has a rather complex structure. It is a system of cavities and channels filled with liquid. This system is called the membranous labyrinth.

Sense of balance Sense of balance is the so-called sixth sense of a person. Thanks to him, we are able to determine the position of our body relative to the earth and move in space. The sense of balance allows us to navigate in the dark. For example, we sense whether we are moving down or going up. This important feeling is formed as a result of the work of the vestibular analyzer. Anatomically, that is, in terms of location, it is very close to the auditory analyzer. The vestibular analyzer, like the inner ear, is located in the membranous labyrinth, in the thickness of the temporal bone of the skull.

For the normal functioning of any living organism, it needs a source of energy. And such a source is food that the body receives from the external environment and processes in a certain way in the digestive system. The digestive system begins in the mouth. In the oral region there are teeth located in two rows and fixed in the upper and lower jaws. The tooth consists of three parts: the root, which is located in the depression of the jaw bone, the neck, located in the gum, and the crown, which protrudes above the gum. The substance that makes up a tooth is called dentin. Saliva is secreted by three pairs of special salivary glands. This process occurs reflexively. Even from the sight or smell of food, saliva begins to flow into the mouth. In addition to the enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates, saliva contains a special substance called lysozyme, which kills harmful microorganisms if they enter the body with food. Thanks to saliva, a food bolus is formed, which is swallowed, food enters the pharynx, then into the esophagus. In the stomach, food lingers for several hours. Under the action of gastric juice, which is secreted by the mucous membrane of the stomach wall, complex protein molecules are broken down into simpler ones. Gastric juice is a colorless, odorless liquid. Its main enzyme is pepsin, which breaks down protein molecules in an acidic environment. There are in the gastric juice and enzymes that break down fats. From the stomach, food enters the small intestine, more precisely, into its initial section - the duodenum. The ducts of the liver and pancreas flow into the duodenum. The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the duodenum during digestion. Bile itself does not break down nutrients, but facilitates the digestion of fats and creates the necessary environment for the action of enzymes that the pancreas produces. In the next part of the digestive tract - the small intestine - there is a splitting of those nutrients that did not have time to be digested before. In the small intestine, the breakdown products of proteins, fats and carbohydrates are absorbed. In the next section of the digestive system - the large intestine - there is an absorption of all the nutrients that have not had time to be absorbed in the small intestine. Symbiotic, i.e. friendly, bacteria live in the colon, they break down fiber that is not affected by digestive juices, protect the body from harmful microbes, and produce some important vitamins. Digestion

All living things in nature breathe. Breathing is one of the main signs of life. Every organism, even every cell and tissue, every second needs energy, which is formed as a result of chemical reactions occurring in the body. All of these reactions require oxygen, which we obtain from atmospheric air through breathing. The respiratory organs include the nasal and oral cavities, nasopharynx, larynx (there are vocal cords in it), trachea, bronchi (two bronchi depart from the trachea, which then branch in the lungs, forming the so-called bronchial tree), lungs. In the nasal cavity, the inhaled air is warmed and purified, which does not happen when breathing through the mouth, so it is advisable to breathe through the nose, especially in cold weather. There are also special olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity, which allow us to capture and distinguish odors. In the next section of the respiratory tract - the nasopharynx, the respiratory tract intersects with the digestive tract. Food does not enter the larynx due to the fact that during swallowing the larynx is covered by a special formation called the epiglottis. The larynx is made up of cartilage, the largest of which is the thyroid. The larynx contains two pairs of vocal cords, which play an important role in the formation of the voice. After the larynx, the inhaled air enters the trachea - a breathing tube cm long. The trachea in the chest is divided into two bronchi, which, having entered the lungs, begin to branch many times and end with alveoli, or pulmonary vesicles. Breath

Voice (voice formation) VOICE ARISES in a special vocal apparatus, which is located in the larynx and is a very sensitive organ. It consists of two small folds, a kind of films of muscle, covered with a mucous membrane. These folds are called vocal cords. They are located behind the thyroid cartilage, which can be felt on the front of the neck under the skin. This cartilage in everyday life is called the Adam's apple, or Adam's apple. There is a narrow glottis between the vocal cords. All this space is sometimes called a resonator chamber, in which the sound is modeled, i.e., it can be modified. The evolutionary process created such a resonator chamber only in humans, it is absent in primates, therefore, for example, monkeys have primitive sounds. When talking, the voice apparatus makes sounds consisting of tones, "and when singing, the breadth of the sound range reaches two octaves, that is, 16 tones. Each person's voice has its own individual shades, and you can recognize people by them without seeing them in front of you. The vocal cords are a very delicate "instrument", and that is why they are so delicate and vulnerable. Their condition is greatly affected by smoking, which leads to hoarseness and coarsening of the voice. Colds of the upper respiratory tract can sometimes even cause temporary loss of voice. We must also try to reduce speaking or yelling loudly can cause the voice to "sit down" or hoarse.If this happens rarely, then this is not very scary, but raising the voice regularly can cause serious consequences.

Heart The first organ that begins to work in a newly born organism is the heart. Since then, it has been running non-stop. By right, the heart is considered the most hardworking organ of our body. The HEART plays the role of a pump in our body, pumping blood through the system of blood vessels. Its main mass consists of cardiac muscles. The heart is located in the chest between the left and right lungs (closer to the left side) and has two atria (left and right) and two ventricles (left and right). The heart weighs an average of about 300 g, and its size is approximately the size of a clenched fist.

A person throughout his life goes through several stages of development, each of which has its own characteristics, due to a certain physiological, mental, spiritual state. These life periods are called ages. Under the full life cycle of an individual (or age period) is understood the period of time starting from the moment of development of a person in the womb and ending with his death. This entire period of time is, as it were, divided into several stages in the development of a person, which we commonly call infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth, mature years, old age. There are chronological age (passport, calendar) - this is the period from birth to a certain date, event, period, and biological (anatomical and physiological), which characterizes the state of the body. Not in all cases, in a particular person, the chronological and biological ages coincide. The degree of coincidence depends on heredity, the adaptive capabilities of the organism, the influence of the environment, social and other factors. Finally, the individual characteristics of a given person also play an important role. Although each age (childhood, adolescence, etc.) has its own specific biochemical, physiological, anatomical, psychological characteristics, these “average” signs can manifest themselves differently in different people. This is most characteristic of puberty. Age

Aging Aging is a natural physiological process, and it is inevitable for every person, but the timing of the onset and the course of the process itself depend on many factors that are studied by the special science of gerontology (from the Greek geroptos - old man, old man). SENIOR PERIOD is considered the period of life of people aged 75 to 90 years. Persons over 90 years old belong to the group of centenarians. At the same time, it is very difficult to determine the beginning of aging and its duration in each individual, because the mental and physiological processes accompanying aging do not always coincide with the chronological (passport) age. Women, due to the influence of certain sex hormones (estrogens, etc.) and greater body resistance, age more slowly and live longer than men, on average by 6-10 years. According to statistics, there is usually only one man for every three or four women around the age of 100. It is believed that aging is primarily associated with a gradual limitation of the functionality of the main systems of the human body, primarily the nervous and circulatory systems, which reduces its resistance to various adverse influences. In particular, degeneration of nerve cells occurs, their regulatory and trophic (nutritional) influence weakens, and the likelihood of such diseases as atherosclerosis, hypertension, vascular lesions of the brain, diabetes mellitus, and lung damage increases.

Man and woman From a natural-biological point of view, a man and a woman are individuals that make up the human community (population). They differ in gender characteristics and features of the anatomical and physiological structure and psyche. The division into males and females is one of the fundamental natural differences that exists in almost all animals. In this sense, the species Homo sapiens (reasonable man) is no exception. It is in the interaction of male and female individuals that one of the main principles of preserving life is realized - the reproduction of their own kind. The commonality and differences between a man and a woman, their purpose, the essence of relationships cannot be explained only by natural biological factors. Questions "What is a man?" and "What is a woman?" worried people since ancient times. In the HUMAN COMMUNITY in the relations of the sexes there is one essential feature that distinguishes man from animals - the male-man everywhere helps to get food for the woman and children. If we take the closest animals to us - primates, we will see that the male does not provide food for the female, she feeds herself. The male may fight to protect her or possess her. In all known human communities, the future man learned from childhood the main law of being - in order to become a full member of society, he will have to provide food for his family - his wife and children. Of course, both the female and male world are unique in their own way. At the same time, they are united by fundamental universal values ​​- love, friendship, family, children.

In ancient times, everything that was connected with conception, pregnancy, childbirth, seemed to be something mysterious, incomprehensible. Modern medicine has penetrated the mysteries of human birth, but despite the enormous progress of many sciences, including molecular biology, it still remains a mystery how a fertilized egg turns into a thinking being. In ALL MAMMALS, including humans, for the appearance of offspring, the male germ cell - the spermatozoon - must get inside the body of the future matter there to connect with the mature female germ cell - the egg. The fusion of these cells is called fertilization. In the mother's body, fertilization occurs and the very first stage of the formation of a new organism takes place. Fertilization together with the beginning of this development is called conception. Conception can occur if the female body has reached puberty (starting from years, sometimes from 10 to 16 years) and before (usually after 45 years). With some diseases of the internal organs, women are unable to conceive. Usually, conception occurs in the fallopian tube, and occasionally on the eve of the vagina with an intact hymen. A fertilized egg divides several times, and almost identical daughter cells, blastomeres, are formed. The embryo of the developmental stage - morula - consists of blastomeres. Usually, three days after ovulation and fertilization, the morula moves from the fallopian tube into the uterine cavity and grows into its wall. This process is called implantation. After that, we can say that conception has occurred. It was then that many of its own most important genes begin to work in the cells of the embryo. This is how pregnancy begins - the development of the child's body in the mother's body. Conception and pregnancy

AIDS Among the modern diseases to which a person is exposed, AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is considered the most dangerous and insidious. It is a severe infectious disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) for short. AIDS is considered by many as one of the global problems of our time, on the solution of which the fate of all mankind depends. The AIDS VIRUS infects the immune (protective) system of a person. This in itself cannot cause death, but a person can become a victim of a number of other diseases, such as various types of cancer, meningitis, encephalitis and others, which will lead to his death. in infected patients, HIV is found in blood, saliva, tears, breast milk, urine, and possibly other body fluids. The ways of transmission of the infection have been established: sexual, parenteral - through the transfusion of infected blood and its preparations, as well as through unsterilized medical instruments; perinatal - from mother to child before, during or after childbirth. When breastfeeding, infection is possible as the mother of the child, but vice versa. The probability of giving birth to an infected child in an HIV-infected woman is about 30%, and when treated with drugs available in the arsenal of modern medicine, it decreases to 8%. Infected individuals are contagious from the start. A few weeks (on average, about 6) after infection, the patient develops an acute illness (fever rises, pain in the joints and muscles appears, etc.). The insidiousness of the disease is manifested in the fact that its symptoms disappear completely after one or two weeks, sometimes even for 10 or more years. During this period, the virus carrier, considering himself practically healthy, leads a normal life and is therefore especially dangerous as a potential source of the spread of the disease. In different patients, the manifestations of the disease are of varying intensity. Although there are still no cures for AIDS, there are medications that slow down its progression. Outside the body, the virus is not stable and is not transmitted by household means - by coughing and sneezing, through drinking water, by shaking hands, touching and hugging, by sharing pools or public baths, by telephone or toilet. HIV is not transmitted through insect bites. In modern Russia, the bulk of those infected are drug addicts who share non-sterile syringes. In our country, there is still insufficient demand for foreign experience related to drug safety measures: in view of the fact that many drug addicts cannot completely give up drugs, they are offered to inject drugs not parenterally (through syringes), but orally (through the mouth), as a last resort - use only sterile syringes. In the Netherlands, since 1985, there has been a practice of free exchange of used syringes for sterile ones.