Soils and vegetation of the Russian plain. Environmental problems of the Russian Plain

Soils, vegetation and animal world

The soil-vegetation cover and fauna of the Russian Plain show a clearly defined zonation. There is a change here natural areas from tundras to deserts. Each zone is characterized by certain types of soil, peculiar vegetation and associated fauna.

Soils. In the northern part of the plain, within the tundra zone, tundra coarse humus gley soils are most common, in the upper horizon of which there is an accumulation of weakly decomposed mosses and strong gleying. The degree of gleying decreases with depth. Found in well-drained areas tundra gleyic soils with a lower degree of gleying. Where the drain is atmospheric precipitation difficult, forming tundra peaty and peat-gley soils.

Under the forests of the Russian Plain, soils of the podzolic type are common. In the north it is gley-podzolic soils V

combined with bog-podzolic peat- and peat-gley; in the middle taiga - typical podzolic soils varying degrees podzolization, and to the south - sod-podzolic, developed not only in the southern taiga, but also in the zone of mixed and deciduous forests. Under broad-leaved, mainly oak forests, i.e. mainly in the forest-steppe zone are formed, gray forest soils.

Chernozems are common under the steppe vegetation. In more humid conditions developed leached and podzolized chernozems, which, as dryness increases, are replaced by chernozems typical, ordinary and southern. In the southeast the plains are represented chestnut And brown desert-steppe soils. It was here that they became most widespread in Russia. Chestnut, light chestnut and brown soils are often solonetzic. Among these soils in dry steppes, semi-deserts and deserts of the Caspian region, salt licks And salt marshes.

Vegetation The Russian Plain differs from the vegetation cover of other large regions our country has a number of very significant features. Only common here mixed coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests, semi-deserts and deserts with their grass-wormwood, wormwood and wormwood-saltweed vegetation. Only on the Russian Plain, spruce dominates in the sparse forests of the forest-tundra, and in the forest-steppe the main forest-forming species is oak. The taiga of the plain is distinguished by amazing monotony: in all subzones it is dominated by spruce forests , which on a sandy substrate give way pine forests . In the eastern part of the plain, the role of Siberian conifers in the taiga is increasing. The steppe here occupies the largest area in Russia, and the tundra is a relatively small area and is represented mainly by southern shrub tundras of dwarf birch and willows.

In the animal world Western and eastern species of animals are found on the East European Plain. Tundra, forest, steppe and, to a lesser extent, desert animals are common here. Forest animals are the most widely represented. Western species of animals gravitate towards mixed and deciduous forests ( pine marten, black polecat, hazel and garden dormouse, etc.). The western border of the range of some eastern animal species (chipmunk, weasel weasel, Ob lemming, etc.) passes through the taiga and tundra of the Russian Plain. From the Asian steppes, the saiga antelope, which is now found only in the semi-deserts and deserts of the Caspian region, the marmot and the reddish ground squirrel entered the plain. Semi-deserts and deserts are inhabited

Topic: East European Plain: climate, waters, flora and fauna.

The purpose of the lesson:create an image of the East European Plain.

Tasks:

Educational: create conditions for the formation of an idea of ​​the climatic conditions of the largest territory of Kazakhstan - the East European Plain; introduce students to the rivers and lakes of the plain. Highlight the relationship between the components of the animal and flora, show their uniqueness.

Developmental: develop speech activity, the ability to independently obtain knowledge from various sources of geographic information. Continue developing the ability to work with contour maps.

Educational: cultivate patriotism and love of nature.

Equipment: wall map physical map Kazakhstan, textbook for 8th grade av. A. Beysenova, atlas for 8th grade, contour map, collection of minerals.

Methods: verbal, partially search, updating cartographic knowledge and skills.

Lesson type: combined.

During the classes

Teacher activities

Student activity

1. Organizational moment. Greeting, getting students into the mood for joint activities, checking each student’s readiness for the lesson.

2.Updating knowledge and skills.

1. Tell us about geographical location East European Plain.*

2. Using a collection of minerals, show and tell what minerals the plain is rich in.*

3. Describe the relief of the East European Plain.

4. Describe the relief and geological structure heights of General Syrt and the Pre-Ural plateau.

5.Tell me why Caspian lowland Is it flat in nature?

6. Test With. 78(task 1-3)

3.Learning new material

3. 1Today in class we continue to study the topic “East European Plain”. And let's talk about climatic conditions, rivers and lakes, we will get acquainted with the flora and fauna of the plain.

Cold winter,

t*Since Jan. N -15*, S -8* Hot summer,

t* Syu.22-24*S

Dry

continent

linen

spring frosts

hot winds

O. in the north 350mm, in the south 140mm Siberian anticyclone

Using climate map atlas, characterize the seasonal distribution of climatic elements. How does the climate change from north to south?***

3.2 Rivers and lakes.

Characteristics of rivers.

River name

Nutrition

Peculiarities

Zhaiyk (Ural)

Oyyl (Wil)

Zhem(Emba)

Draw a conclusion? What basins do the rivers of this region belong to?

3.3.Lake. In the south of the plain there is the largest closed lake on the globe - the Caspian Sea. What do you know about him?

3.4 Flora and fauna of the East European Plain.

To better understand the environmental problems of the Russian Plain, it is necessary to consider in detail what natural resources this geographic area has and what makes it remarkable.

Features of the Russian Plain

First of all, we will answer the question of where the Russian Plain is located. The East European Plain is located on the Eurasian continent and ranks second in area in the world after the Amazon Plain. The second name of the East European Plain is Russian. This is due to the fact that a significant part of it is occupied by the Russian state. It is in this territory that most of the country's population is concentrated and the largest cities are located.

The length of the plain from north to south is almost 2.5 thousand km, and from east to west - about 3 thousand km. Almost the entire territory of the Russian Plain has a flat topography with a slight slope - no more than 5 degrees. This is mainly due to the fact that the plain almost completely coincides with the East European Platform. It is not felt here and, as a result, there are no destructive natural phenomena(earthquakes).

The average height of the plain is about 200 m above sea level. Maximum height it reaches 479 m on the Bugulma-Belebeevskaya Upland. The Russian Plain can be conditionally divided into three stripes: northern, central and southern. On its territory there are a number of hills: the Central Russian Plain, the Smolensk-Moscow Upland - and lowlands: the Polesie, Oka-Don Plain, etc.

The Russian Plain is rich in resources. There are all types of minerals here: ore, non-metallic, combustible. Extraction occupies a special place iron ores, oil and gas.

1. Ore

Kursk iron ore Deposits: Lebedinskoye, Mikhailovskoye, Stoilenskoye, Yakovlevskoye. The ore of these developed deposits has a high iron content - 41.5%.

2. Nonmetallic

• Bauxite. Deposits: Vislovskoe. The alumina content in the rock reaches 70%.
• Chalk, marl, fine-grained sand. Deposits: Volskoye, Tashlinskoye, Dyatkovskoye, etc.
• Brown coal. Swimming pools: Donetsk, Podmoskovny, Pechora.
• Diamonds. Deposits of the Arkhangelsk region.

3. Flammable

• Oil and gas. Oil and gas bearing areas: Timan-Pechora and Volga-Ural.
• Oil shale. Deposits: Kashpirovskoye, Obseshyrtskoye.

Minerals of the Russian Plain are mined different ways, which has negative impact on environment. Contamination of soil, water and atmosphere occurs.

The influence of human activity on the nature of the East European Plain

Ecological problems The Russian Plain is largely associated with human activity: the development of mineral deposits, the construction of cities, roads, emissions large enterprises, their use of huge volumes of water, the reserves of which do not have time to be replenished, and are also polluted.

Below we will consider all of the Russian Plain. The table will show what problems exist and where they are located. Presented possible ways struggle.

Climate of the Russian Plain

The climate of the East European Plain is temperate continental. Continentality increases as you move inland. average temperature the plains at the very cold month(January) is -8 degrees in the west and -12 degrees in the east. In the warmest month (July), the average temperature in the northwest is +18 degrees, in the southeast +21 degrees.

The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the warm season - approximately 60-70% of the annual amount. There is more precipitation over the highlands than over the lowlands. The annual precipitation in the western part is 800 mm per year, in the eastern part - 600 mm.

On the Russian Plain there are several natural zones: steppes and semi-deserts, forest-steppes, taiga, tundra (when moving from south to north).

The forest resources of the plain are represented mainly by coniferous species - pine and spruce. Previously, forests were actively cut down and used in the wood processing industry. Currently, forests have recreational, water-regulating and water-protection significance.

Flora and fauna of the East European Plain

Due to small climatic differences, pronounced soil and plant zonation can be observed on the territory of the Russian Plain. Northern soddy-podzolic soils to the south are replaced by more fertile chernozems, which affects the nature of vegetation.

Flora and fauna have suffered significantly due to human activities. Many plant species have disappeared. Of the fauna, the greatest damage was caused fur animals, which have always been a desirable object of hunting. The mink, muskrat, raccoon dog, and beaver are endangered. Such large ungulates as the tarpan have been exterminated forever, and the saiga and bison have almost disappeared.

To preserve certain species of animals and plants, nature reserves were created: Oksky, Galichya Gora, Central Chernozemny named after. V.V. Alekhina, Forest on Vorskla, etc.

Rivers and seas of the East European Plain

Where the Russian Plain is located, there are many rivers and lakes. The main rivers playing main role V economic activity people are the Volga, Oka and Don.

Volga is the most big river Europe. The Volga-Kama hydro-industrial complex is located on it, which includes a dam, a hydroelectric power station and a reservoir. The length of the Volga is 3631 km. Many of its tributaries are used by the economy for irrigation.

Don also plays a significant role in industrial activity. Its length is 1870 km. The Volga-Don shipping canal and the Tsimlyansk reservoir are especially important.

Besides these large rivers the following rivers flow on the plain: Khoper, Voronezh, Bityug, Northern Onega, Kem and others.

In addition to rivers, the Russian Plain includes the Barents, White, Black, and Caspian.

Along the bottom Baltic Sea The Nord Stream gas pipeline passes through. This affects ecological situation hydrological object. During the construction of the gas pipeline, water became clogged and many species of fish decreased in number.

In the Baltic, Barents, and Caspian Seas, some minerals are extracted, which, in turn, has an adverse effect on the waters. Some industrial waste leaks into the seas.

In the Barents and Black Seas, several types of fish are caught on an industrial scale: cod, herring, flounder, haddock, halibut, catfish, anchovy, pike perch, mackerel, etc.

Fishing, mainly sturgeon, is carried out in the Caspian Sea. On the seashore due to favorable conditions natural conditions There are many sanatoriums and tourist centers. There are shipping routes along the Black Sea. Petroleum products are exported from Russian ports.

Groundwater of the Russian Plain

Except surface waters, people use underground ones, which is due to not rational use has an unfavorable effect on soils - subsidence forms, etc. On the plain there are three large artesian basin: Caspian, Central Russian and Eastern Russian. They serve as a source of water supply for a vast area.

The Russian Plain is one of the largest plains on the planet. It is located in the eastern part of Europe, which is why its second name is the East European Plain. Since most of it is located on the territory of the Russian Federation, it is also called the Russian Plain. Its length from north to south is more than 2.5 thousand kilometers.

Relief of the Russian Plain

This plain is dominated by gently sloping terrain. There is a lot here natural resources Russia. Hilly areas on the Russian Plain arose as a result of faults. The height of some hills reaches 1000 meters.

The height of the Russian Plain is approximately 170 meters above sea level, but there are some areas that are 30 meters below sea level. As a result of the passage of the glacier, many lakes and valleys arose in this area, and some tectonic depressions expanded.

Rivers

The rivers flowing along the East European Plain belong to the basins of two oceans: the Arctic and the Atlantic, while others flow into the Caspian Sea and are not connected with the world ocean. The most long river- The Volga flows through this plain.

Natural areas

On the Russian Plain there are all types of natural zones as in Russia. There are no earthquakes or volcanic eruptions in this area. Tremors are quite possible, but they do not cause harm.

The most dangerous phenomena nature on the East European Plain - tornadoes and floods. The main environmental problem is soil and atmosphere pollution due to industrial waste. There are many industrial enterprises in this area.

Flora and fauna of the Russian Plain

On the Russian Plain there are three main groups of animals: arctic, forest and steppe. Forest animals are more common. Eastern species - lemmings (tundra); chipmunk (taiga); marmots and gophers (steppes); saiga antelope (Caspian deserts and semi-deserts). Western species - pine marten, mink, forest cat, wild boar, garden dormouse, forest dormouse, hazel dormouse, black polecat (mixed and broad-leaved forests).

The fauna of the East European Plain is greater than that of any other part of Russia. Due to hunting and changes in the habitat of animals, many fur-bearing animals suffered for their valuable fur, and ungulates for their meat. River beaver and squirrel were trade items among the Eastern Slavs.

Almost until the 19th century, the wild forest horse, the tarpan, lived in mixed and deciduous forests. Bison are protected in the Belovezhskaya Pushcha Nature Reserve. Voronezh Nature Reserve began to successfully breed beavers. IN steppe reserve Askania-Nova is home to a variety of animals from Africa, Asia and Australia.

IN Voronezh regions An elk appeared and the previously destroyed wild boar was restored. The Astrakhan Nature Reserve was created in the Volga delta to protect waterfowl. Despite bad influence people, the fauna of the Russian Plain is still great.

The soil-vegetation cover and fauna of the Russian Plain show a clearly defined zonation. Here there is a change in natural zones from tundra to deserts. Each zone is characterized by certain types of soil, peculiar vegetation and associated fauna.

Soils. In the northern part of the plain, within the tundra zone, tundra coarse humus gley soils are most common, in the upper horizon of which there is an accumulation of weakly decomposed mosses and strong gleying. The degree of gleying decreases with depth. In well-drained areas, tundra gleyic soils with a lower degree of gleyization are found. Where the flow of atmospheric precipitation is difficult, tundra peat- and peat-gley soils are formed.

Under the forests of the Russian Plain, soils of the podzolic type are common. In the north, these are gley-podzolic soils combined with bog-podzolic peat and peaty-gley soils; in the middle taiga there are typical podzolic soils of varying degrees of podzolization, and to the south there are soddy-podzolic soils, developed not only in the southern taiga, but also in the zone of mixed and deciduous forests. Under broad-leaved, predominantly oak forests, i.e., mainly in the forest-steppe zone, gray forest soils are formed.

Chernozems are common under the steppe vegetation. In more humid conditions, leached and podzolized chernozems are developed, which, as dryness increases, are replaced by typical, ordinary and southern chernozems. In the southeast of the plain there are chestnut and brown desert-steppe soils. It was here that they became most widespread in Russia. Chestnut, light chestnut and brown soils are often solonetzic. Among these soils in dry steppes, semi-deserts and deserts of the Caspian region, solonetzes and solonchaks are common.

The vegetation of the Russian Plain differs from the vegetation cover of other large regions of our country in a number of very significant features. Only here are mixed coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests, semi-deserts and deserts with their grass-wormwood, wormwood and wormwood-saltweed vegetation widespread. Only on the Russian Plain, spruce dominates in the sparse forests of the forest-tundra, and in the forest-steppe the main forest-forming species is oak. The taiga of the plain is distinguished by its amazing monotony: all subzones are dominated by spruce forests, which give way to pine forests on a sandy substrate. In the eastern part of the plain, the role of Siberian conifers in the taiga is increasing. The steppe here occupies the largest area in Russia, and the tundra is a relatively small area and is represented mainly by southern shrub tundras of dwarf birch and willows.

In the fauna of the East European Plain there are western and eastern species of animals. Tundra, forest, steppe and, to a lesser extent, desert animals are common here. Forest animals are the most widely represented. Western species of animals gravitate towards mixed and broad-leaved forests (pine marten, black polecat, hazel and garden dormouse, etc.). The western border of the range of some eastern animal species (chipmunk, weasel weasel, Ob lemming, etc.) passes through the taiga and tundra of the Russian Plain. From the Asian steppes, the saiga antelope, which is now found only in the semi-deserts and deserts of the Caspian region, the marmot and the reddish ground squirrel entered the plain. Semi-deserts and deserts are inhabited by inhabitants of the Central Asian subregion of the Palaearctic (jerboas, gerbils, a number of snakes, etc.).

The following natural zones are clearly defined on the East European Plain: tundra and forest-tundra, taiga, zone of mixed and broad-leaved forests, forest-steppe, steppe, semi-desert and desert.

In general, the tundra and forest-tundra zones - humid, moderately cold - occupy the coast Barents Sea on a moraine-marine plain in the subarctic climate zone

European tundra and forest-tundra are warmer and wetter than Asian ones. Frequent winter cyclones originating on the Barents Sea branch of the Arctic front associated with the trough of the Icelandic low bring quite warm temperatures from the Atlantic and the non-freezing part of the Barents Sea. sea ​​air. This is reflected in the distribution of winter temperatures (the average January temperature on the Kanin Peninsula is -10°C, and on the Yugorsky Peninsula -20°C), annual precipitation (about 600 mm in the west of the tundra, and 500 mm in the east), and the highest perennial temperatures permafrost (from 0 to -3°C).

In the European tundra, only two subzones are expressed: typical, moss-lichen, and southern, or shrub. Typical tundra is especially widely represented in the area from the Timan Ridge to the Urals. The southern subzone is characterized by a predominance of shrub (dwarf birch and willow) and shrub communities in the vegetation cover in combination with moss, sphagnum and lichen-sphagnum bogs.

Along the southern edge of the tundra there is a transition zone of forest-tundra. The forests here are open woodlands consisting of Siberian spruce 5-8 m high, joined by birch and Sukachev larch. Low-lying areas are occupied by swamps or dense thickets of bushes - small willows and birch dwarf. Lots of crowberries, blueberries, blueberries, herbs, lichens. In the north of the forest-tundra, open spaces are common, which are characterized by single scattered oppressed crooked trees. Tall forests penetrate deep into the territory only along river valleys due to the warming influence of river waters and protection from strong winds. In the south of the forest-tundra, in open birch forests, bird cherry appears with the latest flowering on the plain (June 30) and mountain ash (blooms around July 5).

Mossy tundras contain large reserves of green fodder and serve as a valuable food source for reindeer husbandry.

The fauna of the tundra is monotonous and characterized by a poverty of forms. Typical mammals are the domestic reindeer and the polar wolf. Rodents are represented by pieds - the Ob lemming. The arctic fox is widespread everywhere. It enters the forest-tundra and even the northern taiga. Ermine and mountain hare are often found in river valleys. A common animal in the forest-tundra is the wolverine, but in the summer it goes into the tundra to the shores of the Barents Sea.

The taiga zone extends south of the forest-tundra. Its southern border runs along the line St. Petersburg - Novgorod - Yaroslavl - Nizhny Novgorod- Kazan. In the southwest, the taiga merges with the zone of mixed and broad-leaved forests, and in the southeast - with the forest-steppe zone.

The taiga of the Russian Plain differs from the Siberian one in its geographical location and history of development of the territory, and they determined the modern appearance of its nature. The European taiga receives more cages than the West Siberian taiga. Their annual quantity on the plains is more than 600 mm, and on the hills - up to 800 mm. The entire zone of excess moisture, since precipitation exceeds evaporation by 200 mm. There are many lakes in the Onega and Volga basins, and the eastern part of the taiga is poor in lakes, but rich in swamps.

Podzolic soils are developed on moraine and fluvioglacial deposits of the taiga. The flat topography of the northern part of the forest zone, as well as the water-resistant properties of the soils, contribute to severe swampiness and the development of bog-podzolic peaty and peaty-gley soils east of the Northern Dvina. Typical podzolic soils are characteristic of the middle part of the taiga. The podzol formation process is weakened in the north, where low temperatures and waterlogging prevent the formation of podzol, as well as in the south due to a decrease in moisture content.

The European taiga is characterized by dark coniferous spruce forests: only here are Norway spruce (common spruce) and Siberian spruce found together. Norway spruce moves east only to the Urals, while Siberian spruce enters the Kola Peninsula and eastern Karelia. Siberian fir, Sukachev larch and Siberian cedar crossed the Urals to the west. Along river valleys and outwash there are many pine forests. A secondary role in forests belongs to deciduous trees: birch, aspen, alder. Lots of sphagnum bogs. Dry and floodplain meadows are widespread in the zone.

Typical animals for the taiga are reindeer, wolverine, lynx, wolf, squirrel, and white hare. The Siberian weasel and the Siberian rodent, the chipmunk, came to the northeast of the taiga, which settled west to the Northern Dvina and White Sea. Mink, otter, and water shrew live along the river banks. There are many birds in the taiga. Capercaillie and hazel grouse are found everywhere, and white partridge is found in moss swamps.

The European taiga is divided into three subzones: northern, middle and southern. The northern taiga is characterized by excessive moisture. In its western part the winters are snowy and moderately cold, and in the eastern part the winters are cold and quite snowy. The forests here are low-growing and sparse of spruce and pine (green moss, long moss, sphagnum and lichen).

The middle taiga is characterized by excessive moisture, moderately cold and cold snowy winters. Here, blueberry spruce forests predominate (from European and Siberian spruce).

The southern taiga is also quite humid, but has significant differences in winter temperatures (the average January temperature in the west is -6°C, in the east -13°C), the depth of soil freezing in the west is 30 cm, in the east 60 cm or more.

Here the highest snow cover height on the Russian Plain is observed - 70-90 cm. Summer is cool, with cloudy, often rainy weather. The average temperature in July is 14-16°C; annual precipitation is 600-800 mm, gradually increasing to the east, approaching the Urals. The rivers of the province are full of water. The large thickness of the snow cover determines their high floods, which occur in May. There are many lakes in the lowlands. They are often found among swamps.

The Pechora province lies in the northern taiga subzone, only its extreme south falls into the middle taiga. The vegetation cover is dominated by sparse spruce and pine forests. Siberian conifers are common in the tree stand: cedar, fir, larch. Forests are usually swampy. Gleyic-podzolic soils develop under them. Only in the valley areas and on the slopes of the hills do non-marsh spruce forests grow. In the northern part, primary birch forests are quite widespread and are also largely swampy. There are a lot of swamps in the province. Hilly ones predominate, and in the southern part - sphagnum ridge-hollows. Floodplain meadows with high grass stand are developed along the rivers. The taiga is home to European and Siberian animal species.

The province is rich in oil and gas deposits. The population of the taiga is engaged in fur farming.

The zone of mixed and deciduous forests is located in the western part of the plain between the taiga and forest-steppe and extends from the western borders of Russia to the confluence of the Oka and the Volga. The territory of the zone is open to the Atlantic Ocean and its impact on the climate is decisive.

The zone is characterized by a mild, moderately warm climate. The relief exhibits a combination of hills (200 m or more) and lowlands. The strata plains are overlain by moraine, lacustrine-alluvial, fluvioglacial and loess rocks. Within the zone, under conditions of a moderately humid and moderately warm Atlantic-continental climate, soddy-podzolic and gray forest soils will form.

The climate of the zone is favorable for the growth of conifers tree species along with broadleaf trees. Depending on the relief conditions and the degree of moisture, meadows and swamps are also formed. European coniferous-deciduous forests are heterogeneous. Among the broad-leaved species in the zone, linden, ash, elm, and oak are common. As you move east, due to the increasing continentality of the climate, the southern border of the zone shifts significantly to the north, the role of spruce and fir increases, while the role of broad-leaved species decreases. The most widespread of the broad-leaved species in the zone is linden, which forms mixed forests second tier.

Typical animals of the zone are wild boar, elk, bison, black or forest polecat, badger, etc. In recent decades, the number of wild boar has increased significantly, river beaver and moose.

The zone of coniferous-deciduous forests has long been densely populated and developed, so its nature has been greatly changed by human activity. For example, forests occupy only 30% of the zone's territory; the most convenient areas are plowed or used for pastures;

The forest-steppe zone, moderately humid and moderately warm, is located in the south of the Atlantic-continental climate region temperate zone East European Plain. Its southern border runs approximately south of Voronezh, Saratov, rises along the Volga valley to the north and runs along the Samara valley. The European forest-steppe is characterized by the main natural features of the entire zone, but at the same time it differs in its natural appearance from the forest-steppe of the West Siberian Plain, since it has differences in geographical location and the history of the formation of the territory. The forest-steppe extends from southwest to northeast, i.e. it occupies the southernmost position in the west of the plain. This determined its bioclimatic features: its western part, up to the Voronezh meridian, has a semi-humid climate and richer vegetation, while the eastern part is semi-arid with depleted vegetation cover.

Winter in the east is colder and snowier, the average temperature is -12°...-16°С. Summer in the European forest-steppe can be moderately warm with sufficient moisture. Then the vegetation and soils receive a lot of moisture, groundwater are replenished with a sufficient amount of moisture, their level rises and becomes accessible to plant roots in many places, and the flow of spring waters in ravines, gullies and river valleys increases. In such a summer, steppe, forest and cultivated vegetation develops luxuriantly (abundantly). Summer can be hot with droughts and dry winds. This type of weather has a detrimental effect on the development of natural and cultivated vegetation. An important bioclimatic zero band of the ratio of precipitation and evaporation passes through the forest-steppe zone: to the north of it there is 100-200 mm more precipitation than evaporation, and to the south there is 100-200 mm less evaporation.

The East European forest-steppe formed on highlands and lowlands in the regional region of the Dnieper glaciation, covered with loess-like loams. The relief is characterized by erosional dissection, which creates a certain diversity of soil cover. The soils of watershed elevated areas under oak groves are characterized by significant podzolization. Along high river terraces with loess-like covers, tongues of degraded and leached chernozems extend to the north. The most typical for the northern part of the zone are gray forest soils, slightly podzolized, developed on loess-like loams. Leached and podzolized chernozems are typical for the southern strip of forest-steppe. Gray forest soils are developed in small areas along watersheds. Of the intrazonal soils, common in depressions - steppe saucers, malt is characteristic.

The natural vegetation of the forest-steppe has hardly been preserved. The forests here are found in small islands. The forest-steppe of the Russian Plain is oak, which distinguishes it from the more eastern regions of Russia.

Steppe areas in the forest-steppe, once covered primarily with forbs (V.V. Alekhin called them northern colorful forbs), have been plowed. Small patches of virgin steppes remain along ravines and incremental slopes that are inconvenient for plowing, as well as in nature reserves.

The fauna of the zone consists of inhabitants of forests and steppes. There are no species of our own here. Due to the intense plowing of the zone, the animal world is now dominated by animals of open spaces and human companions.

Semi-desert and desert zones within Russia are located in the southwestern part of the Caspian Lowland and on the Turan Plain. They adjoin the coast of the Caspian Sea, adjacent to the semi-deserts and deserts of Kazakhstan in the east and Eastern Ciscaucasia in the southwest.

The climate of semi-deserts and deserts is moderately dry and very warm with an annual precipitation of 300-400 mm. Evaporation exceeds precipitation by 400-700 mm. Winters are quite cold, with negative temperatures prevailing. The average January temperature in the southwest is 7°C, and in the northeast it is 1°C. In winter, a snow cover is formed, the height of which reaches 10-15 cm. The snow lies for 60-80 days. In the extreme south of the Caspian lowland, stable snow cover does not form every year. Usually it forms 15-30 days after the transition of the average daily temperature after 0°C. This contributes to seasonal freezing of the soil to a depth of 80 cm (about the same amount as in the middle taiga).

Semi-desert and desert are characterized by an abundance of salt lakes, salt marshes and solonetzes. Therefore, light chestnut solonetzic soils are developed there, the absorption complex of which contains sodium. The thickness of humus horizons is 30-40 cm, and the humus content is only 1.3%. In the north of the semi-desert zone, vegetation of the wormwood-grass type is developed with the dominance of feather grass (tyrsa) and Lessing, as well as Tauric wormwood and Lerch. To the south, the number of cereals decreases, wormwood begins to predominate and the number of saltworts increases. The low-growing grass cover consists of white and black wormwood, fescue, thin-legged grass, xerophytic feather grass, and isen shrub (Kochia prostrata). In spring, tulips, buttercups, and rhubarb appear. White wormwood grows on slightly saline loams. Clayey, more saline soils are covered with black wormwood. On the salt licks, in addition to black wormwood, biyurgun and kermek saltworts and tamarix shrubs grow.

For the fauna of semi-deserts and deserts, ground squirrels and many jerboas are common, of which the small one, the ground hare, and the woolly-footed hare are typical. There are numerous gerbils - combed, southern, or midday, inhabiting mainly sands. Common species include ermine, weasel, steppe ferret, badger, wolf, common fox and small corsac fox, and many reptiles.

URAL

Ural Mountain country stretches from north to south for more than 2000 km from 69°30" N to 50° 12" N. It crosses five natural zones Northern Eurasia- tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, forest-steppe and steppe. The width of the mountain belt is less than 50 km in the north, and over 150 km in the south. Together with the foothill plains that are part of the country, its width varies from 50-60 km in the northern part of the region to 400 km in the southern part.

The Urals have long been considered the border between two parts of the world - Europe and Asia. The border is drawn along the axial part of the mountains, and in the southeast along the Ural River.