Mixed forest soil. Soils of mixed coniferous-deciduous forests of the Ryazan region

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Soils of mixed and broad-leaved forests .
In mixed forests of the temperate zone, podzolic soils (see. Taiga soils) acquire humus soil horizons. First of all, this is due to the fact that many herbaceous plants grow here, the remains of which are mixed by soil-dwelling animals (worms, moles, etc.) with the mineral substances of the soil. Such soils with a humus horizon, a horizon of iron and clay particles washing out, as well as a brown wash-in horizon are called sod-podzolic .
In the subzone of mixed forests, there are also waterlogged soils of swampy meadows with humus and gley soil horizons - they are called sod-gley soils... These soil types are very widespread, especially in the European part of Russia.

V broadleaf forests In the temperate zone, gray forest soils and brown forest soils, or brown soils, are formed.
Gray forest soils represent a transition between sod-podzolic soils of mixed forests and chernozems of forest-steppe and steppe. They form in warmer and drier climates and under more abundant vegetation than sod-podzolic soils. There are more plant residues and soil animals mixing them, therefore the humus horizon in them is deeper and darker. However, due to the stable snow cover, every spring, when the snow melts, the soil experiences a kind of impact - it is actively washed out, therefore, horizons of washout and washout are formed in it.
Brown forest soils- these are soils that are warmer, but not less humid climate than the one in which sod-podzolic soils are formed. Distributed in Zap. and Center. Europe, northeast. the coast of the United States, in the very south of the Russian Far East, and in Japan. Since these regions do not have a period of hot, dry summers and stable snow cover in winter, brown forest soils are moistened almost evenly throughout the year.
Under such conditions, organic residues decompose gradually, forming

Mixed forests are a natural area where a mixture of coniferous and deciduous trees grows (in the presence of an admixture of more than 5% of plants of a different type). All life forms of vegetation occupy their ecological niches, forming a unique balance. A thicket with a diverse composition of trees is resistant to environmental influences, has a mosaic structure and diverse flora and fauna. If a favorable combination of coniferous and deciduous species has formed in the stand, such variegated forest is more productive than a homogeneous one.

Characteristics and features of the natural zone of mixed forests.

See the geographic location of the mixed forest zone on a map of natural zones.

Distinguish between coniferous-small-leaved and coniferous-deciduous forests. The first, growing in the taiga regions of Eurasia, are not durable. They precede the change of small-leaved groves to indigenous coniferous forests or broad-leaved oak forests. Coniferous-broad-leaved thickets are considered a sustainable natural formation. Such ecosystems develop cyclically, with a temporary predominance of conifers or a number of deciduous species. Depending on the climate, terrain, soil and hydrological regime, the composition of trees differs. Spruce, pine, fir, oak, beech, linden, maple, ash, aspen, birch and other species in various combinations are often found.

Mixed forests are formed in the temperate climatic zone ( moderately continental climate ) with a clear change of seasons of the year - a relatively hot summer and cold winter... The average annual rainfall here usually reaches 600-700 mm. In case of insufficient evaporation, excessive humidity and swampiness of the area are observed.

Coniferous-deciduous forests grow in North America (in most of Canada, in the north of the USA), in the western part of South America, Eurasia (Europe, Russia, Central Asia), Great Britain, in the north of Japan. This natural area in southbound it is replaced by forest-steppe or broad-leaved forest, and to the north it becomes coniferous.

Under mixed forests with a predominant share of deciduous species, gray and brown forest soils... They are characterized by a higher humus content than in podzolic taiga varieties. If conifers are the main ones, then sod-podzolic soils of low fertility, with high acidity and excessive moisture prevail.

In Russia, the exact number of mixed forests is not kept. On average, they account for up to half of the total area of ​​the country's forest fund. They grow throughout Western Europe, reaching Eastern, where they border on the taiga along a conventional line from St. Petersburg to Nizhny Novgorod... Further to the east, they stretch in a narrow strip to the Urals.

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A mixed forest is an area where deciduous and coniferous trees... If the admixture of wood species is more than 5% of the total flora, we can already speak of a mixed type of forest.

The mixed forest forms a zone of coniferous-deciduous forests, and this is already a whole natural zone, characteristic of forests in the temperate zone. There are also coniferous-small-leaved forests, which are formed in the taiga as a result of the restoration of previously cut pines or spruces, which begin to displace different types birch and aspen.

Main characteristic

(Typical mixed forest)

Mixed forests almost always coexist with broadleaf forests in the south. In the northern hemisphere, they also border the taiga.

There are the following varieties of mixed forests in the temperate zone:

• coniferous-broadleaf;
• secondary small-leaved with the addition of conifers and broad-leaved species;
• mixed, which is a combination of deciduous and evergreen species.

The subtropical mixed fox is distinguished by a combination of laurel and conifers. Any mixed forest is distinguished by a pronounced layering, as well as the presence of areas without forest: the so-called opolye and woodlands.

Location of zones

Mixed forests as a combination of coniferous and broad-leaved species are found in the East European and West Siberian plains, as well as in the Carpathians, the Caucasus and the Far East.

In general, both mixed and deciduous forests occupy a not so large share of the forest territory of the Russian Federation as coniferous taiga. The fact is that such ecosystems do not take root in Siberia. They are traditional only for the European and Far Eastern regions and at the same time grow in dashed lines. Pure mixed forests are found south of the taiga, as well as beyond the Urals to the Amur region.

Climate

Mixed forest plantations are characterized by cold, but not very long winters and hot summers. Climatic conditions are such that precipitation does not exceed 700 mm per year. At the same time, the moisture coefficient is increased, but it can change during the summer. In our country, mixed forests stand on sod-podzolic soil, and in the west - on brown forest soil. As a rule, winter temperatures do not drop below -10˚C.

Broad-leaved forest plantations are characterized by a humid and moderately humid climate, where rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year. The temperatures are quite high, and even in January it is never colder than -8˚C. High humidity and abundant heat stimulate the work of bacteria and fungal organisms, due to which the leaves decompose quickly and the soil retains maximum fertility.

Features of the plant world

Features of biochemical and biological processes determine the densification of species diversity as we move to broad-leaved species. European mixed forests are distinguished by the obligatory presence of pine, spruce, maple, oak, linden, ash, elm, and among shrubs the leading ones are viburnum, hazel, and honeysuckle. Ferns are very common as herbs. The Caucasian mixed forests contain large volumes of beech and fir, and the Far Eastern ones contain birch, walnut, hornbeam, and larch. The same forests are distinguished by a variety of vines.

Fauna

The mixed forests are inhabited by those animals and birds, which are generally considered to be typical for forest conditions. These are moose, foxes, wolves, bears, wild boars, hedgehogs, hares, badgers. If we talk about individual deciduous forests, then here the species diversity of birds, rodents and ungulates is especially striking. Roe deer, fallow deer, deer, beavers, muskrats and nutria are found in such forests.

Economic activity

The temperate natural zone, including mixed forests, has long been developed by local residents and densely populated. An impressive part of the forest plantations was cut down several centuries ago, due to which the composition of the forest has changed and the proportion of small-leaved species has increased. In the place of many forests, agricultural territories and settlements appeared.

Broad-leaved forests can generally be considered rare forest ecosystems. After the 17th century, they were cut down on a large scale, largely because timber was required for the sailing fleet. Also, deciduous forests were actively cut down for arable land and meadows. Oak plantations have suffered especially badly from such human activities, and it will never be possible to restore them.

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Mixed forests

Mixed forests are a natural zone of a temperate climatic zone. The mixed forest usually borders the broad-leaved forest zone in the south. It is characteristic of the Northern Hemisphere and is found in the east of North America: the north of the USA - the south of Canada, as well as in Eurasia. Here mixed forests stretch from the borders of Eastern Europe: Poland and Belarus to Western Siberia... Their northern border with the taiga roughly passes through St. Petersburg, Yaroslavl and Yekaterinburg. Mixed forest is much more adaptable to cold climates than broadleaf forest. Here, the vegetation already withstands cold winters with average temperatures below -16 ° C and even frosts as low as -30 ° C. Summers are quite warm here with average values ​​from +16 to + 24 ° C. Annual precipitation is within 500 mm and decreases in the interior of the continent.

The vegetation of mixed forests, in addition to broad-leaved species: oak, maple, linden, poplar, is represented by small-leaved and coniferous trees, the percentage of which increases towards the north of the natural zone. Birch, alder, willow, mountain ash, spruce, and pine are widespread here. Most of the trees are deciduous, adapting to the cold temperate winters. At the same time, conifers, with the exception of larch, remain green. all year round... The soils of mixed forests in the south are gray forest, in the north - sod-podzolic, not highly fertile, however, suitable for growing plants. Animal world forest is represented by mammals. Elks, foxes, wolves, bears, wild boars, beavers, otters, and lynx live here. Of the smaller ones: weasel, ferret, squirrel. Skunks, possums, and deer are also found in North America.

The mixed forest has been developed by man, its huge areas have been reduced and now they are arable lands and meadows. There are not many large tracts left now, mostly they are crossed by transport arteries, cut down and occupied by settlements.

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Mixed forests of Russia. Plants and animals of mixed forest. Mixed forest soils

Broad-leaved and mixed forests make up a significantly smaller percentage of the forest zone in Russia than coniferous taiga... In Siberia, they are completely absent. Broad-leaved and mixed forests are typical for the European part and the Far East region of the Russian Federation. They are formed by deciduous and coniferous trees. They have not only a mixed composition of forest stands, but also differ in the diversity of the animal world, resistance to negative impacts environment, mosaic structure.

Types and layering of mixed forests

There are coniferous-small-leaved and mixed-deciduous forests. The former grow mainly in continental regions. Mixed forests have a clearly visible layering (change in the composition of the flora, depending on the height). The uppermost tier is tall spruce, pine, oak. Birches, maples, elms, lindens, wild pears and apple trees, a younger oak tree and others grow somewhat lower. Further there are lower trees: mountain ash, viburnum, etc. The next layer is formed by shrubs: viburnum, hazel, hawthorn, rose hips, raspberries and many others. Next are the shrubs. Grasses, lichens and mosses grow at the very bottom.

Intermediate and primary forms of coniferous-small-leaved forest

An interesting feature is that mixed-small-leaved massifs are considered only an intermediate stage in the formation of a coniferous forest. However, they are also indigenous: massifs of stone birch (Kamchatka), birch groves in the forest-steppe, aspen bushes and swampy alder forests (south of the European part of the Russian Federation). Small-leaved forests are very light. This contributes to the lush growth of the grass cover and its diversity. Coniferous-mixed forest of broad-leaved type, on the contrary, belongs to stable natural formations. It is distributed in the transition zone between the taiga and broad-leaved types. Coniferous-deciduous forests grow on the plains and in the lowest mountainous belt with moderate and humid climatic conditions.

Mixed and deciduous forest zone

Coniferous-deciduous forests grow in warmer regions of the temperate zone. They are distinguished by the variety and richness of the grass cover. They grow in discontinuous stripes from the European part of the Russian Federation to Of the Far East... Their landscapes are friendly to humans. To the south of the taiga there is a zone of mixed forests. They are distributed over the entire area of ​​the East European Plain, as well as beyond the Urals (up to the Amur region). They do not form a continuous zone.

The approximate border of the European section of deciduous and mixed forests in the north lies at 57 ° N. sh. Above it, the oak (one of the key trees) almost completely disappears. The southern one almost touches the northern border of the forest-steppe, where the spruce completely disappears. This zone is a triangle-shaped area, two peaks of which are located in Russia (Yekaterinburg, St. Petersburg), and the third in Ukraine (Kiev). That is, as the distance from the main zone to the north, broad-leaved and mixed forests gradually leave the watersheds. They prefer warmer and protected from icy winds river valleys with carbonate outcrops. Along them, forests of broad-leaved and mixed types gradually reach the taiga in small tracts.

The East European Plain mainly has a low and flat relief, only occasionally there are hills. Here are the sources, basins and watersheds of the largest Russian rivers: Dnieper, Volga, Western Dvina. On their floodplains, meadows are interspersed with forests and arable lands. In some regions, the lowlands, due to the close location of groundwater, as well as limited runoff, are extremely swampy in places. There are also areas with sandy soils, on which pine forests grow. Berry bushes and grasses grow in swamps and clearings. This area is the most suitable for coniferous-deciduous forests.

Human influence

Broad-leaved and mixed forests are subject to various influences from people for a long time. Therefore, many massifs have changed a lot: the native vegetation is either completely destroyed, or partially or completely replaced by secondary rocks. Now the remains of broad-leaved forests, which survived under severe anthropogenic pressure, have a different structure of flora changes. Some species, having lost their place in indigenous communities, grow in anthropogenically disturbed habitats or have occupied intrazonal positions.

Climate

The climate of the mixed forests is rather mild. It is characterized by relatively warm winters (on average from 0 to -16 ° C) and long summers (16-24 ° C) in comparison with the taiga zone. Average annual precipitation is 500-1000 mm. It generally exceeds evaporation, which is a feature of the pronounced flushing water regime... Mixed forests have such characteristic feature, as a high level of development of the grass cover. Their biomass averages 2-3 thousand c / ha. The litter level also exceeds the biomass of the taiga, however, due to the higher activity of microorganisms, the destruction of organic matter is much faster. Therefore, mixed forests are thinner and have a higher level of litter decomposition than taiga conifers.

Mixed forest soils

Mixed forest soils are diverse. The cover has a rather variegated structure. On the territory of the East European Plain, the most common type is sod-podzolic soil. It is a southern variety of classic podzolic soils and is formed only in the presence of loamy soil-forming rocks. Sod-podzolic soil has the same profile structure and a similar structure. It differs from podzolic in less massive litter (up to 5 cm), as well as more significant thickness of all horizons. And these are not the only differences. Sod-podzolic soils have a more pronounced humus horizon A1, which is located under the litter. Appearance it differs from a similar layer of podzolic soils. The upper part contains the rhizomes of the grass cover and forms a sod. The horizon can be colored in various shades of gray and has a loose structure. The thickness of the layer is 5-20 cm, the proportion of humus is up to 4%. The upper part of the profile of these soils is acidic. As it deepens, it becomes even smaller.

Soils of mixed-deciduous forests

Gray forest soils of mixed-deciduous forests are formed in the inland regions. In Russia, they are distributed from the European part to Transbaikalia. Sediments penetrate into such soils to a great depth. However, groundwater horizons are often very deep. Therefore, soil wetting to their level is typical only in highly humidified areas.

Mixed forest soils are better suited for farming than taiga substrates. In the southern regions of the European part of the Russian Federation, arable land makes up 45% of the area. Closer to the north and to the taiga, the share of arable land is gradually decreasing. Agriculture in these regions is difficult due to strong leaching, waterlogging and boulders. For getting good harvests a lot of fertilizer is required.

General characteristics of fauna and flora

The plants and animals of the mixed forest are very diverse. In terms of the species richness of flora and fauna, they are comparable only to the tropical jungle and are home to many predators and herbivores. Here on tall trees Squirrels and other animals live on, birds make nests on the crowns, hares and foxes make holes at the roots, and beavers live near rivers. Species diversity mixed zone very large. Both the inhabitants of the taiga and deciduous forests, and the inhabitants of the forest-steppes feel comfortable here. Some are awake all year round, while others hibernate for the winter. Plants and animals of the mixed forest have a symbiotic relationship. Many herbivores feed on a variety of berries, of which there are a lot in mixed forests.

Mixed forest trees

Mixed-small-leaved forests are about 90% composed of coniferous and small-leaved trees. There are not many broadleaf varieties. Along with coniferous trees, aspen, birch, alder, willow, poplar grow in them. Bereznyakov is the largest in the massifs of this type. As a rule, they are secondary - that is, they grow in forest fires, in clearings and clearings, old unused arable land. In open habitats, such forests are well renewed and grow rapidly in the first years. The expansion of their areas is facilitated by human economic activity.

Coniferous-deciduous forests mainly consist of spruces, lindens, pines, oaks, elms, elms, maples, and in the southwestern regions of the Russian Federation - beech, ash and hornbeam. The same trees, but of local varieties, grow in the Far East region, along with grapes, Manchurian nuts and lianas. In many respects, the composition and structure of the stand of coniferous-broad-leaved forests depends on climatic conditions, relief and soil-hydrological regime of a particular region. Oak, spruce, maple, fir and other species prevail in the North Caucasus. But the most diverse in composition are the Far Eastern forests of the coniferous-deciduous type. They are formed by cedar pine, white fir, Ayyan spruce, several varieties of maple, Manchurian ash, Mongolian oak, Amur linden and the aforementioned local types of vegetation.

Species diversity of the animal world

Among the large herbivores, moose, bison, wild boars, roe deer and sika deer live in mixed forests (the species was introduced and adapted). Rodents are present forest proteins, martens, ermines, beavers, chipmunks, otters, mice, badgers, minks, black ferrets. Mixed forests abound large quantity species of birds. Many of them are listed below, but not all: oriole, nuthatch, siskin, blackbird, fieldfare, goshawk, hazel grouse, bullfinch, nightingale, cuckoo, hoopoe, gray crane, goldfinch, woodpecker, black grouse, chaffinch. More or less large predators are represented by wolves, lynxes and foxes. Mixed forests are also home to hares (hares and white hares), lizards, hedgehogs, snakes, frogs and brown bears.

Mushrooms and berries

The berries are represented by blueberries, raspberries, lingonberries, cranberries, blackberries, bird cherry, strawberries, drupes, elderberries, mountain ash, viburnum, rose hips, hawthorns. In the forests of this type there are a lot of edible mushrooms: boletus, white, valui, chanterelles, russula, honey mushrooms, milk mushrooms, boletus, boletus, various ryadovki, boletus, mushrooms, mushrooms and others. Some of the most dangerous poisonous macromycetes are fly agarics and pale toadstools.

Shrubs

Mixed forests of Russia abound with shrubs. The understory layer is unusually developed. The oak massifs are characterized by the presence of hazel, euonymus, wolf bast, forest honeysuckle, and in northern zone- buckthorn brittle. Rosehip grows on the edges and in the woodlands. In the forests of the coniferous-broad-leaved type, there are also liana-like plants: new fence, climbing hops, bittersweet nightshade.

Herbs

The grasses of mixed forests (especially of the coniferous-deciduous type) have a great species diversity, as well as a complex vertical structure. The most typical and widely represented category is mesophilic nemoral plants. Among them, representatives of broad oak grass stand out. These are plants in which the leaf plate has a considerable width. These include: perennial forest forest, common lancet, unclear lungwort, May lily of the valley, European hoof, hairy sedge, yellow zelenchuk, lanceolate stellate, nomad (black and spring), amazing violet. Cereals are represented by oak grass bluegrass, giant fescue, forest reed grass, short-legged feathery, spreading pine forest and some others. The flat leaves of these plants are a variant of adaptation to the specific phyto-environment of coniferous-deciduous forests.

In addition to the aforementioned perennial species, these massifs also contain herbs of the ephemeroid group. They transfer their growing season to spring, when the lighting is maximum. After the snow melts, it is the ephemeroids that form a beautifully blooming carpet of yellow anemones and goose bows, purple crested beetles and lilac-bluish forest trees. These plants go through a life cycle in a couple of weeks, and when the leaves of the trees bloom, their aboveground part dies off over time. They experience an unfavorable period under a layer of soil in the form of tubers, bulbs and rhizomes.

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conifers, mixed, broad-leaved and small-leaved

Forests account for just over 45% of Russia's area, and almost a quarter of the world's total forest area. In the European part of the country there are much fewer of them than in the Asian one. The most common forest-forming tree species are spruce, larch, pine, cedar, oak, maple and hornbeam. The forests are full of berry bushes, mushrooms, valuable herbs, and countless species of fauna. Deforestation leads to a reduction in forest areas and the threat of extinction for many animals. In the 21st century, it is very important to be able to reproduce forest resources, which play one of the main roles in the regulation of the planet's climate.

Map of forest cover of the territory of Russia in%

Russia is the largest country in the world, and for this reason, many natural areas are located on its territory, in which various types of trees grow. The forests of Russia, depending on the prevalence of certain tree species, are divided into four main types: 1) coniferous forests; 2) broadleaf forests; 3) mixed forests; 4) small-leaved forests. Below we will look at each of these forest types in more detail.

Characteristics of coniferous forests in Russia

Coniferous forests are located in the natural zone of the taiga, and occupy about 70% of the total forest area of ​​the country. This area is known for its low temperatures and moist air... Coniferous forests stretch from the western borders of Russia to the Verkhoyansk ridge. The main forest-forming species are spruce, pine, fir and larch.

In severe winter conditions, you can most often find mixed forests: dark coniferous and light coniferous. Evergreen tree species develop well. Their photosynthesis begins in spring with the onset of favorable weather conditions. There is practically no undergrowth in the taiga. There is podzolic soil and many bogs. Conifers shed needles, which, when decomposed, release compounds toxic to many plants into the ground. The ground is usually covered with mosses and lichens. Shrubs and flowers mainly grow along river banks, in dark places of the forest there are very few of them. There are lingonberry, juniper, mountain ash, blueberry and curly lily.

It is the weather conditions that determine the flora of Russia. In the zone coniferous forests temperate continental climate prevails. Winters are dry and cold and last on average six months. Short summer warm and humid, with numerous cyclones. In autumn and spring, as a rule, only one month is allotted. Conifers are not demanding on temperature extremes.

Representatives of the animal kingdom feed on moss, lichens, bark and cones. The high forest crown protects the animals from the winds, and the branches make it possible to build nests. Typical representatives of the fauna of coniferous forests are the vole, white hare, Siberian weasel, and chipmunk. From large mammals the Siberian tiger, brown bear, lynx and elk can be noted, and from the forest-tundra zone comes to coniferous forests reindeer... Eagles and vultures soar in the sky.

Coniferous wood is considered one of the most valuable. Its approximate reserve is 5.8 billion cubic meters. In addition to logging, oil, gold and gas are mined in the taiga. The coniferous forests of Russia are a huge forest area. He suffers from wildfires and uncontrolled felling... Due to negative human activities, rare animals die. There are many reserves, but for the full restoration of forests, it is necessary to properly organize the protection and rational use of the country's forest resources.

Characteristics of broadleaf forests in Russia

Broadleaf forest / Wikipedia

The territory of deciduous forests stretches from the western border of Russia to the Ural Mountains. The main tree species are beech, oak, elm, linden, maple and hornbeam. The forests are multi-tiered: the upper tier is replaced by a canopy and undergrowth, which, in turn, are herbaceous plants and forest litter. The soil is covered with mosses. There are areas in which lush crowns completely exclude undergrowth. Foliage, falling off, decomposes and forms humus. The land in the undergrowth is rich in organomineral compounds.

Forests are located in the temperate continental zone. The weather here is much warmer than in the neighboring taiga. Summer lasts four months average temperature per season is + 10 ° С. This promotes the growth of broad-leaved trees. The climate is humid with a lot of precipitation. The average monthly temperature in January drops to -16 ° C. Maximum precipitation occurs in summer, there is no deep snow cover.

The leaves cannot survive the cold season and fall off in mid-autumn. A dense cover of foliage, twigs and bark protects the ground from excessive evaporation. The soil is rich in trace elements, it provides the trees with everything they need. The foliage that has fallen for the winter covers the root system, protects it from cold weather and stimulates the roots to further growth.

The composition of the fauna in the European part is somewhat different from the Far Eastern forests. The Asian lands are covered with thickets of fern, ilmen and linden. The dense thickets are home to the elk, the Himalayan bear and the Ussuri tiger. Shitomordnik, viper and Amur snake are common reptiles. European deciduous forests are home to wild boar, elk, deer, wolf, weasel, beaver, muskrat and nutria. It is also home to mice, lizards, snakes, moles and hedgehogs. Birds are represented by black grouse, eagle owls, owls, starlings, swallows and larks.

The zone of deciduous forests has long been developed by man, especially in the west of Russia. People had to significantly reduce the green area for grazing, planting and building cities. Trees are the main raw material for the logging industry. Processing of recyclable materials has been adjusted. The bowels are rich in minerals, and large rivers have the potential for the development of hydropower.

The forest area is significantly reduced, while forests are being cut down on the same scale. Due to anthropogenic influence, plants and animals in the Red Book are dying out. Unscrupulous entrepreneurs cut down huge areas of forests. To preserve natural complexes, several reserves and national parks have been created, but this is not enough. Broad-leaved trees grow relatively quickly. It is necessary to organize the planting of seedlings on the territory of felled forests, as well as to carefully use the preserved forest tracts.

Characteristics of mixed forests in Russia

Mixed forests are located in the Russian Plain region, West Siberian Plain, Priamurye and Primorye. A variety of tree species can be found in this area. These forests are characterized by a pronounced layering. Poplars, pines and spruces stretch towards the light. Maples, elms, lindens and oaks rise below them. The layer of shrubs is represented by hawthorn, rose hips, raspberries and blackberries. The soil is covered with lichens, mosses and low grasses.

Trees of mixed forests are easier to tolerate the severity of the climate than in neighboring broad-leaved ones. Vegetation can withstand frosts down to -30 ° C. The amount of precipitation depends on the region. V European forests there is more snow than in the Far East. The maximum amount of precipitation falls on warm season... Summers are mild and humid. The climate changes from maritime to continental, from west to east.

Continuous renewal of green mass contributes to the replenishment of trees and the cleaning of the earth from unnecessary substances. The inhabitants of the forest use the resources of all the layers as a food base. Coniferous seeds attract birds, rodents eat nuts, larvae under the bark are food for insectivorous birds.

Numerous once animals were exterminated as a result of uncontrolled hunting. You can also see roe deer and wild boar. The bison and red deer have survived only in nature reserves. A famous predator mixed forest is common fox... The badger lives in the European part. Squirrel, mink, dormouse, marten, forest cat, brown bear are considered common representatives of mixed forest fauna. The world of birds is also diverse, especially woodpeckers, wood grouses, wild pigeons, finches and robins.

Stocks valuable wood are located in the Asian part. Manchurian walnut, Korean cedar, whole-leaved fir are renowned for their strength and resistance to decay. Eleutherococcus and lemongrass are used for medical purposes. Logging activities are carried out in Europe.

Mixed forests have suffered the most at the hands of humans. This resulted in a series environmental issues... The need for agricultural land has led to the deforestation of a significant part of the territory. The ecosystem has changed due to the draining of the swamps. Growth settlements, especially in the west, led to the fact that forest cover decreased by 30%.

The foliage of trees is excellent at recycling carbon dioxide. Deforestation, which has reached gigantic proportions, has destroyed millions of hectares. Because of this, harmful gases accumulate in the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect. Hundreds of species of flora and fauna disappear from the face of the earth. Through the fault of people, forest fires occur, which radically change the ecosystem. Illegal hunting is carried out for rare species of animals. Resources are almost depleted, only interaction between the state and citizens can stop the process of destruction of the country's mixed forests.

Characteristics of small-leaved forests in Russia

The small-leaved forest zone stretches from the East European Plain to the Far East. Forests stretch in a narrow strip, at times replacing broad-leaved ones. Finely deciduous trees play the role of a second forest, replacing broadleaf and coniferous species.

The main forest-forming species are birch, alder and aspen. Their foliage is narrow sheet plate... Trees are undemanding to climate and soil quality. Birch forests are the most widespread.

Often trees grow at the site of fires or felling. Alder reproduces by shoots, and aspen - by root suckers. Where there were no forests, trees grow by seed. An amazing feature is the ability to accumulate moisture. Thickets of alder and birch block the path of fire, do not allow it to spread to noble species.

The fauna is formed under the influence of indigenous trees. There are a lot of birds. Mammals include hares, lynxes, moose and squirrels. Strips of small-leaved forest alternating with farmlands - favorite places for raccoon dogs.

Secondary forests contribute to the restoration of green areas, although full rehabilitation takes about 180 years. They act as a fire buffer. It is hoped that small-leaved forests will contribute to the reorganization of the country's forest resources.

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Mixed and deciduous forests of Russia

Mixed forests differ from other species in that various tree species can be found on their territory. For example, not only deciduous, but also coniferous forests grow here. While broadleaf forests are mainly composed of certain species.

The climatic conditions in these areas are different moderate temperatures and quite acceptable for the growth of various types of trees.

Features of mixed forests in Russia

It is the richest forest in natural resources, found in only a few countries. For our state, the development and cultivation of species growing in such forests is an important component of the successful development of the entire industry of the country.

Mixed forests are considered as such and belong to this type only when the admixture of two types of tree species: deciduous and coniferous is about 5% of the total volume of the forest.

In the territories of our country, where mixed forests grow, it is generally warm enough and there is no prolonged rainfall. Summer is no different here abnormal heat and sharp changes in temperature conditions. While in winter there will be no heavy snowfalls or natural disasters associated with sharp drops in temperatures.

Mixed forests are characterized by:

• temperate climate,
• the presence of an optimal moisture coefficient,
• the growth of a wide variety of trees within the same forest area.

Closer to the south of the natural zone where mixed forests grow, massifs are located in which broadleaf breeds trees. After all, most of the north is taiga. The climatic conditions of these territories allow only the most "hardy" tree species to grow here.

Mixed forest soils are especially fertile. The constant renewal of nature contributes to their replenishment and cleaning the earth from substances it does not need. For example, soil that has already been cultivated by man needs to be renewed. It will take several years for the forest to expand again.

If we consider mixed forests from the point of view of the history of their appearance, then in the past they were present in large areas. However, due to human activities and the development of urban infrastructure, forest areas have significantly reduced their volume.

Despite the fact that our country has enormous advantages in terms of the development of the forest industry, the territories of mixed forests and other varieties of these natural resources are significantly reduced every year.

This leads to natural disasters, because only a strong root system of trees is able to restrain strong winds and prevent floods. Mixed forests are a whole complex of all kinds of natural elements and resources, combined in one area.

Only these massifs create a special natural zone, represented by coniferous-deciduous forests. There are only a few places in the world whose climate allows such a variety of trees to be collected in one area. At the same time, so that they can peacefully coexist with each other, in fact, in the same climatic zone.

But it is allowed to carry out the production of wood on these lands only after receiving the relevant documents, first of all approved by the state. Such natural areas, in which forests grow, are considered the property of the state. Similar laws have been passed in order to:

• reduce unauthorized felling of trees,
• allow mixed forests to expand their territories without hindrance,
• take care of improving the ecological situation in Russia by increasing the volume of forests.

Territories of coniferous forests in Lately decreased significantly. But the situation is saved by coniferous-small-leaved forests. They allow these natural areas to quickly restore their natural potential. This is due to the growth of already felled trees, the so-called young forests, on the site.

They reduce the stages of transition of a forest damaged by felling to a full-fledged restoration of the forest area. In fact, birch and pine trees grow in place of the felled pine and spruce species, which are the most demanded natural resources in the forest industry.

The mixed forests of Europe, as well as the forests prevailing in our country, are located practically in the same natural zone. Therefore, the main species that form the forests belonging to this variety are: spruce and oak. Rarely nowadays you can find an array where ash or maple stands out the most among all tree species.

After man began to develop these lands, most of the rocks simply disappeared from these places. Their full restoration takes years and the organization of work on planting the required number of seedlings, which will become the basis for the future forest.

Nature is unique, because it is capable of creating such a variety of forests. They differ from each other not only in the shape of the leaves, but also in a whole complex of all kinds of characteristics. Mixed forests cannot be created with human effort and properly planted trees.

It is almost impossible to artificially create such an ecosystem that functions at the expense of its own resources and is completely autonomous. Therefore, a person has no choice but to preserve the wealth already available in our country.

It is possible to create forests artificially for only one purpose - further felling and harvesting of already processed natural material. Sometimes trees are planted to purify water in nearby rivers or to create an additional natural "filter" for air purification.

Such synthetically created forests lend themselves well to felling, and their potential can be restored by planting new seedlings. Thus, nature manages to replenish the amount of forest resources that has already been developed in the forest.

Mixed forests are very difficult to grow in artificial conditions. That is, if you just randomly plant a few trees on the territory you need for subsequent felling, only some species will be able to fully grow.

After all, in fact, a mixed forest is a unique system that has existed for several hundred years, created by nature taking into account:

• the climate of our country,
• the endurance of trees that constantly grew in the same area,
• the existence of a certain forest area that protects young trees from strong winds and other climatic influences.

In addition, there is no point in waiting until the newly planted seedlings grow. The technologies that ensure their landing are partially used. For example, new, young trees or seedlings are planted on an already developed area. Moreover, the species of these trees should already grow in this mixed forest.

Deciduous forests of Russia

Despite the fact that these forests are found in our country more often than mixed ones, the volumes of their tracts are significantly reduced. A forest can be classified as a broad-leaved species only if several varieties of trees with deciduous and wide leaf blades grow in it. For comparison, in mixed forests, in addition to deciduous species, conifers grow, with needles in place of leaves. Essentially, these needles are replacing leaves for trees.

For the formation of these forests, a temperate type of climate and good humidity are needed. Deciduous forests can sometimes tolerate dramatic changes in temperature and harsh winters. However, for their full-fledged development, they need a more "calm" climate.

That is, in order to go through one cycle of its life, buds first grow on the tree, then leaves, flowers appear, and only then fruits. Leaves fall off in the fall, allowing the tree to prepare for the winter. Surprisingly, the leaves become fertilizer and additional insulation for the winter for the same breeds on which they once grew. When winter comes, all processes in the trees are suspended, they fall into a state similar to sleep.

If we consider mixed forests, then conifers are very active in winter, as they are able to withstand even the most severe climatic conditions. Therefore, mixed forests combine different types of trees.

Broad-leaved forest types are found mainly in the south of Chile, America and several other countries, climatic zones which are similar in their weather conditions and temperature regime.

The soils are rich in useful minerals and fertilizers. Often, broad-leaved forests contain chernozems and podzolic soils. But sometimes there are gray, brown forest and other varieties most characteristic of deciduous trees.

Leaves, as mentioned above, are an additional and almost universal nutrient for trees. They contain all the substances necessary for these rocks, allowing them to accelerate their growth or slow it down if climatic conditions have changed.

Winter in deciduous forests is mild enough abrupt shifts in the climatic picture of the natural zone is not observed. If we compare them with mixed ones, the climate of which varies depending on the natural zone, then deciduous tree species like temperate winters and warm summers in climatic terms. Only in the summer periods of the year can the tree regain its strength after winter sleep and grow fully.

Due to this temperate climate and the absence of strong moisture, the level of swampiness is reduced for these places. Therefore, you can hardly find swamps here. But they take place in those natural zones, the climate of which is already closer to mixed forests and taiga regions, where the humidity is much higher.

The most common are forests, the main trees in which are: linden, hornbeam or oak. But you can also find maple.

Our country is rich in various types of forests, while only a few tree species grow in America. In the past, this country was proud of oak and chestnut forests. They have practically disappeared from our planet and are present in small clusters of trees.

In this regard, Russia has more opportunities to create the formation of different forest areas. It all depends on:

• nature,
• human activities,
• the speed of development of urban infrastructure, which is the main reason deforestation of most forests in Russia.

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Mixed and deciduous forests | Geography grade 6

Mixed forests- natural zone of the temperate zone, transitional from the taiga zone to the zone of deciduous forests. Mixed forests are formed in a fairly humid climate, are common in the oceanic and transitional climatic regions of the continents in Europe, North America, South America, New Zealand, Tasmania.

This zone of mixed forests is characterized by a climate with moderately cold, snowy winters (t ° Wed January from –5 to –14 ° С) and warm summers (t ° Wed July to +20 ° С). The amount of precipitation (400-800 mm per year) is not much higher than the evaporation rate.
Forests are coniferous-broad-leaved, and in more continental regions - coniferous-small-leaved, mainly on sod-podzolic soils. Among conifers prevail: spruce, pine, fir; from small-leaved species are distinguished: birch, aspen; from broadleaf: oak, maple, linden, ash. An increase in the proportion of broad-leaved species in the species composition occurs in the direction of distance from the poles and with an increase in climate humidity.
The fauna consists of both taiga species and species that live in deciduous forests: hare, lynx, elk, fox, squirrel, wild boar, wood grouse, black grouse, etc.

The territory of the mixed forest zone is one of the most economically developed. There is a high population density, located big number large cities. This led to the fact that the natural vegetation of the zone was preserved only in small areas, and most of the territory is occupied by cities, agricultural lands, etc.

Broadleaf forests- a natural zone of the temperate zone, formed in the conditions of a humid climate of the oceanic territories of the continents. The main areas of deciduous forests are distributed in Europe and North America, where they are sometimes distinguished as the southern part of a single zone of temperate forests; small areas of broadleaf forests are found in South America.
This zone is characterized by a maritime and moderately continental climate with moderately cold winters (average January temperature from –5 to –15 ° С) and rather long warm summers (average July temperatures up to +22 ° С). The amount of precipitation (600-1500 mm per year) is approximately equal to or slightly higher than the evaporation rate.

The vegetation is dominated by trees with wide leaves that fall for the winter. The dominant species are oak, beech, maple, ash, linden, hornbeam, chestnut and other trees that give significant shading, a dense grass cover is characteristic. Brown forest and gray forest soils are widespread under deciduous forests.
In Europe, deciduous forests occupied the largest area. The most common tree here is oak (pedunculate, rocky and other types). In North America, deciduous forests are prominent southeast of the Great Lakes. In South America, the zone is represented by southern beech forests in southern Chile.
Ungulates and predators are found among the inhabitants of the zone; typical mammals are mink, black ferret, European wild cat, dormouse, bison, etc. Birds include green woodpecker, cuckoo, woodcock, pheasant.

The favorable climate and soil fertility has led to the active settlement and development of this natural zone, the expansion of arable land and deforestation, therefore, the place of natural vegetation in most of the broad-leaved forests was taken by anthropogenic complexes.

The natural zone of mixed and deciduous forests occupies a smaller area than coniferous forests. However, this complex, formed in a sufficiently warm and humid climate, is distinguished by a wide variety of flora and fauna.

Characteristics of the natural zone Mixed forests

Mixed forests are a transitional link between the taiga zone and deciduous forests. The name of the natural area speaks for itself: both conifers and deciduous trees grow here. Mixed forests are found in Russia and the European region, South and North America, New Zealand.

The climate of this natural complex is rather mild. In winter, the temperature drops to -15 degrees Celsius, and in summer it fluctuates between + 17-24.

In comparison with taiga, summer is warmer and longer. Number of annual atmospheric precipitation exceeds evaporation, which was the impetus for the appearance of deciduous trees.

A distinctive feature of mixed forests is a well-developed grass cover growing on sod-podzolic soils.

Rice. 1. In the mixed forest zone, the grass cover is very developed.

This natural zone is characterized by a pronounced layering - a change in the type of vegetation depending on the height:

• the highest tier of coniferous-deciduous forests is mighty oaks, pine and spruce;
• below there are lindens, birches, wild apples and pears;
• further the lowest trees grow: viburnum, mountain ash;
• below are bushes of raspberry, hawthorn, rose hips;
• the layering of mixed forests is completed by a variety of grasses, mosses and lichens.

The fauna of mixed forests is also diverse. Here live large herbivores (elks, wild boars, deer and roe deer), rodents (beavers, mice, ferrets, squirrels), predators (foxes, wolves, lynxes).

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Rice. 2. Lynx is a typical representative of forest predators.

Description of the deciduous forest zone

When moving to the south of the mainland, climatic conditions change, which leads to a change from mixed forests to broad-leaved ones. As a result, the number of conifers decreases significantly, and the dominance is completely transferred to deciduous species.

Deciduous forests are characterized by a fairly warm climate with mild winters and long warm summers. The amount of annual atmospheric precipitation is slightly higher than evaporation, which makes waterlogged soils very rare for these territories.

Characteristic tree species for this zone are maple, linden, oak, beech, ash.

In dense thickets of deciduous forests, dense tree crowns do not allow the full development of the grass cover. The ground in such areas is covered with a layer of fallen leaves. Decomposing, it contributes to the formation of humus and the enrichment of gray and brown forest soils.

Rice. 3. In the zone of deciduous forests, conifers are rare.

The fauna of deciduous forests is no different from the zone of mixed forests. However, as a result of vigorous human activity, the number of wild animals has significantly decreased, and at present they live only in reserves or in remote areas.

On the southern border of the coniferous forest zone, about 60 ° N. sh. in the west of Eurasia and in the Great Lakes region in North America, broad-leaved species join conifers. It is warmer here, humidification is no longer excessive, but sufficient due to greater evaporation. Summers are longer, but winters are cold and snowy. In such conditions, oaks, lindens, maples, elms, ash trees, and sometimes beeches can grow. All of them are represented in Eurasia and North America in different species.

Broad grass appears in these coniferous-deciduous forests - plants with wide leaf blades dominate in the herbaceous cover. Large litter of deciduous trees, shrubs and grass cover contributes to the formation of humus, and moderate moisture contributes to the accumulation of organic and mineral substances in the upper soil horizons.

As a result, soddy-podzolic soils with a well-defined humus horizon are formed. They are usually podzolized. The degree of podzolization depends on the properties of the soil and on the nature of the relief, which affects the drainage of the territory. When the water stagnates, gleying also develops.

As in each transitional zone, in mixed forests, the internal structure of the vegetation cover is affected by big influence local conditions: relief, properties of surface rocks.

For example, on moraine loams in southern Sweden, the Baltic countries, in European Russia there are many forests with a predominance of spruce or pure spruce forests. On the end-moraine ridges and outwash plains of Poland, the Baltic States, Belarus, Russia, formed from the surface by rocks of light texture, are widespread pine forests... In Belovezhskaya Pushcha, a large forest area located in a zone of mixed forests, 50% of the plantations are pine forests, and the remaining half are spruce-pine forests, spruce forests, oak-hornbeam massifs, secondary alder and aspen forests.

The heterogeneity of forests is exacerbated by selective felling.

So, in the central regions of Russia, an oak, which is widely used in the economy, was cut down. It is possible to guess that it grew here in mixed forests almost everywhere, it is possible from individual surviving specimens and the presence of shrubs and grasses characteristic of oak forests in coniferous and small-leaved forests. Fellings and fires also contribute to the replacement of polydominant forest communities with monodominant, often secondary birch and aspen forests, sometimes with an admixture of oak or spruce, and sometimes pure ones. The forests of this zone on both continents were also cut down for agricultural land, since sod-podzolic soils have a certain fertility.

Broadleaf forests

To the south, conifers "fall out" from the stand. The forests are becoming purely broadleaf. In this zone, the average July temperatures are 13-23 ° С, the average January temperatures are not lower than -10 ° С. Humidification conditions are different, but still, there is at least 500 mm of precipitation per year, and the summer is quite humid. In such conditions, forests grow in the oceanic sectors of the continents and disappear in the central parts, where it is hotter and dry summer and Cold winter.

Vegetation and soil

In European deciduous forests, the main species are English oak and European beech. They are often joined by maple, linden, ash, hornbeam and elm.

These forests, sometimes with an admixture of birch in the recent past, occupied all the plains and mountain slopes up to an altitude of 1000-1200 m in Western and Central Europe. The famous geobotanist A.P. Ilyinsky called the beech forests "a child oceanic climate". On the plains, they do not go east of Moldova. In the mountains, these forests usually grow on the northern and western more humid and cooler slopes or higher than oak. Oak forests, less demanding in terms of moisture, but requiring summer heat, reach the easternmost border of the zone and also form forest islands in the forest-steppe. The original form of oak trees was evergreen species, they became deciduous in conditions of relatively low winter temperatures... Indeed, leaves from oak trees fly off later than from other trees, and sometimes dry foliage stays on the branches all winter. The chestnut forests of southwestern Europe are peculiar with an undergrowth of evergreen bushes - holly and berry yew. They survived only in the lower mountain belt of southeastern France. There are few forests left in Europe at all. Only on the slopes of the mountains there are more or less large forests. In the names of some mountain ranges there is the word “forest”: Czech Forest, Thuringian Forest, Black Forest (translated as “Black Forest”), etc. Relatively fertile brown and gray forest soils are formed under broad-leaved forests. They have a rather thick and dark humus horizon with a humus content of 6-7%, a neutral reaction. The wash-in horizon has a nutty structure and humus films along the edges of structural units. with such soils, they are almost completely plowed up.

Animal world

The fauna is very diverse and rich. In the preserved forests of Europe, wild boars, roe deer, red deer, hares, badgers, hedgehogs still live, martens are found, forest cats, lynxes, brown bears and some other species predatory mammals... In the forest litter and in the soil, there is an abundant fauna of invertebrates that process deciduous litter. There are many insects and their caterpillars in the crowns of trees. They eat leaves and shoots, and small birds feed on them: warblers, warblers, tits. and others. There are birds and rodents that eat seeds and fruits: jays, forest mice and voles, dormouse.

Broad-leaved forests are peculiar East Asia... The conditions here are somewhat different: with a very humid warm season, cold winters. The history of the development of the modern organic world was also different than in the West. V ice ages vegetation and animals could retreat to the south to their habitats, since there were no significant sublatitudinal mountain barriers. For the same reason, free exchange of species between zonal groupings is still possible.

Vegetation

It is difficult to draw the line between mixed and deciduous forests here: conifers go far south to the subtropics. In addition, deciduous trees were cut down more intensively, and the proportion of conifers in mixed forests is predominant. But from subtropical latitudes, evergreen magnolias, tulip trees, paulownias have penetrated into this zone. In the undergrowth, along with honeysuckle and lilacs, bamboo and rhododendron are common. Lianas are numerous: actinidia, wild grapes, grapes, lemongrass. Bamboo and some lianas penetrate far to the north and are even found in the Far Eastern taiga. There are many endemic plants. In addition to the trees usual for Europe, represented, however, by their own species, Manchurian walnut, velvet tree, and chozenia grow here. Araliaceae are widespread. In the grass cover, along with genera close to European and even species, there are endemics: for example, ginseng, one of the Jeffersonia species (other species of this genus are common in North America). Under these forests, as well as under Western European ones, brown forest soils are formed.

In the animal world, the same features are observed as in the plant. The fauna is very rich and unique. It includes animals close to North American and tropical Asian species... Tiger, leopard, kharza marten, some species of birds and insects live from Hindustan to the Far East.

There are few forested areas in East Asia. Within overpopulated China, all eligible Agriculture the land was plowed up long ago. The Far Eastern "Manchu" flora has survived mainly on the territory of our country, but even here it is under the threat of destruction. There are remnants of these forests in mountainous areas. Better than on mainland territories, forests are preserved on the islands of the Japanese archipelago, where they occupy the lower mountain belt on about. Honshu and in the south about. Hokkaido. There is a great participation of evergreen species and a high degree of endemism in the flora and fauna. Forestry has significantly altered the composition and structure of Japanese forests, but the people of the country take good care of their forests, especially in numerous national parks and reserves.

Similar reasons determine the originality of the deciduous forests of eastern North America. Here, too, there are no sublatitudinal mountain barriers and free migration is possible.

The submeridional strike of the zone has led to the fact that in the north the share of broad-leaved species is very large and deciduous forests almost approach the forest-tundra. In the south, the admixture of evergreens increases, which penetrate far to the north. With the change in climatic conditions from temperate latitudes to subtropical, the participation of evergreen and generally thermophilic flora increases, and forests become humid subtropical.

In terms of the diversity and preservation of relict plants, these forests are close to the East Asian ones. Both have and simply common elements - a tulip tree, magnolias, etc. The forests of the Southern Appalachians are especially rich, they are similar in structure to tropical rainforests: they are polydominant, multi-tiered, with lianas and epiphytes. In the northeastern United States and Canada, broadleaf forests are more similar to European ones. They are dominated by sugar maple, American ash, beech. American broadleaf forests survive mainly in mountainous areas, but there, too, they have been significantly modified.

The fauna of the North American forests has features and similarities, and differences with the Eurasian ones.

There are closely related species: the wapiti deer is a race red deer, but the Virginia deer, a representative of the subfamily endemic to America, also lives there. Mice and rats are replaced by hamsters in the same ecological niches. Endemic and large water vole- muskrat, which is often called the water or musk rat. Similar to the East Asian black bear baribal. Endemic marten pecan, raccoon gargle, gray fox that can climb trees. The deciduous forests of North America are inhabited by the only representative of marsupials on the Northern continents - the opossum, or the marsupial rat. Of the birds, the endemics are mockingbirds, and the flycatchers and warblers of Eurasia are replaced by tyrannous and arboreal species. In the west, to the northernmost border of the zone, South American hummingbirds penetrate.

The productivity of deciduous forests is up to 150-200 c / ha, mixed - about 100 c / ha. On significant areas of both continents, they have been cut down, and the land is occupied by agricultural land. Often, during reforestation work, broad-leaved species are replaced by fast-growing conifers and small-leaved ones. The animals that inhabited these ecotopes are gradually disappearing, and their ranges are shrinking. Among other things, the unique rich Appalachian forests and the beautiful chestnut forests of the south of France have suffered. Special measures are required to protect the still existing forest areas.

What soils prevail in mixed forests, you will learn from this article.

What are the soils in the mixed forest zone?

* Sod-podzolic soils

In mixed forests, the soil of the sod-podzolic type is widely formed. Due to weather conditions, a powerful humus-accumulative horizon has formed here, in which a small portion belongs to the sod layer. The following elements are involved in the formation of sod-podzolic soils:

1. Ash particles

3. Calcium

7. Hydrogen

8. Aluminum

Since the environment of this type of soil is oxidized, its fertility is not too high. It contains 3-7% humus. Sod-podzolic soil is enriched with silica, but at the same time practically does not contain nitrogen and phosphorus. Contains a large number of moisture.

* Forest gray soils

Gray soil is considered a transitional soil from podzolic soil to black soil. This type was formed due to the warm climate and plant diversity. The basis for the formation of gray soils is plant particles, animal excrement, and the remains of microorganisms. Mixing, they create a large layer of humus.

* Brown soils

Brown soils are also formed under the influence of a warm climate, or rather a moderately hot and constant soil moisture. They have a rich brown tint. Due to the fact that a large amount of grass grows on such soils, they are sufficiently enriched with humus. But its fertility level is slightly lower than that of chernozem due to the fact that high humidity leads to leaching of some elements.

What is a mixed forest?

Mixed forests are a natural area where various types of deciduous and coniferous trees grow.

In mixed forests, there are different types of trees. The main species are - maple, oak, linden, birch, hornbeam, pine, larch, fir, spruce. Due to the high level of humidity and the frequent change of weather seasons, different types of soils have formed in these zones, namely, brown, soddy-podzolic and forest gray soils. They are characterized by a high level of humus capacity.