For everyone and about everything. Knight's armor (probable version)

Scientists became interested in how much energy a person dressed in Western European knightly armor spends. Modern fans of reenacting historical battles wear lighter armor than the warriors who wore them in the 15th century. Solid articulated armor was produced only in Europe, so to speak, for their own needs, because they fought in such clothing only in Europe. In Asia, it was rarely found only among Turkish sipahis.

At one of the festivals “Crossroads of Times”, dedicated to the Day of the Baptism of Rus', which took place in the format of a knightly tournament, men dressed in knightly costumes participated in impromptu duels and mass battles different eras. Modern armor weighs from 10 to 30 kilograms. When the thermometer exceeds the 30-degree mark, fighting with such equipment is not at all easy. Medieval warriors had it even worse - in the 15th century, the weight of knightly armor ranged from 30 to 50 kilograms.

Researchers from the University of Leeds have found that moving with armor is twice as difficult as without it. According to the biology web journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B, volunteers participating in the experiment donned knight's armor and stood on a treadmill. Sensors were attached to them to record exhaled air, heart rate, blood pressure and other physiological parameters while the subjects walked or ran.

The experiment showed that walking in armor consumes 2.1-2.3 times more energy than without it. During running, this figure increased by 1.9 times. The researchers also found that energy consumption when wearing armor is higher than when moving with an equal weight load on the hands. This is due to overcoming the resistance of the armor when moving the limbs.

Answering the simple question of how much knightly armor weighed on average is not so simple. The whole problem lies in the evolution that this military vestment has undergone. The immediate predecessors of Western European knights were heavily armed horsemen - cataphracts (translated: “armored” or “clad in iron”). In late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages, they were part of the Iranian, late Roman and Byzantine armies. Accordingly, the prototype for knightly armor was the protective vestment of cataphracts.

From the first half of the 12th century, chain mail woven from steel rings (sometimes in two or three layers) became widespread. Chain mail existed until the middle of the 14th century.

In the next century, armor appeared that protected the most vulnerabilities. In addition, chain mail could no longer protect against a new product that had appeared in military affairs - firearms.

English armor of the 14th century

The individual parts of the knight's armor were connected to each other with rivets, and the parts were fastened with straps and buckles. The total number of parts of Western European knightly vestments sometimes reached two hundred, and their total weight could be 55 kilograms.

Russian warriors, For the most part, those who fought with the steppe nomads wore lighter armor, which weighed about the same as the average load of a modern paratrooper, that is, about 20-35 kilograms.

The armor of the 15th century reliably protected against damage from arrows from a bow, and withstood the blows of crossbow bolts and arquebus bullets fired from a distance of 25-30 meters. Neither darts, nor spears, nor even swords, with the exception of heavier two-handed swords, could penetrate them.

English armor of the 15th century

In the second half of the 15th century, the art of forging knightly armor reached its highest development, not only from a technological point of view, but also from an artistic one. Knightly armor for the nobility was decorated very richly: they were covered with niello (a special alloy of silver, lead and sulfur), they were tauched (inlaid with metal on metal) or notched (filling specially made “grooves” in the armor with non-ferrous metal - gold, silver, aluminum). Deep embossing and bluing were also used, that is, obtaining iron oxides on the surface of the steel.

Moreover, the latter was used not only for decorative purposes, but also for pragmatic ones, as it helped reduce metal corrosion. Also used was a method of decorating armor such as gold plating or gilding. To cover military vestments with a layer of this precious metal, gold was first dissolved in mercury and stirred with a graphite rod until completely dissolved. The resulting amalgam was poured into water and cooled, after which it was applied to the prepared product. The “uniforms” of the Italian knights were considered the most beautiful.

Maximilian armor

In the 16th century, a new “style” of knightly armor appeared, which, unlike the Gothic ones, began to be called Maximilian, in honor of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg (1459-1519), nicknamed the “last knight”. However, in German there is another equivalent for their name - Riefelharnisch, and in English they are also not always called Maximilian armor, but fluted armor.

The armor was a complex mechanical structure, consisting of more than two hundred individual parts, made individually for a specific person. To carry it, good physical training was required, since its weight without weapons was at least three poods (fifty kilograms).

The main part of Maximilian's armor is the aventail, a plate with a cutout for the neck, it was intended to protect the collarbone and shoulders. The remaining parts of the armor were attached to it. The chest and back of the knight were protected by armor, which consisted of two halves. In front, for greater reliability, a belly pad was put on the armor. It was made from a set of metal plates connected by hinges. The upper part of the armor was reinforced by mantles, to which bracers were attached. They consisted of two parts, connected by a hinged elbow pad, which allowed the knight to bend his arm. A belt or spring mechanism connecting the armor and mantles ensured free movement of the arms.

But that's not all. A special throat plate and butt plate were attached to the top of the aventail, which protected the neck from a slashing blow from behind.

The lower part of the helmet rested on the throat plate, protecting the chin and lower part of the face. The upper part was lined with soft leather from the inside and lay loosely on the knight's head. Only when the visor was lowered were the parts of the helmet connected into a single rigid structure.

The knight's legs were protected by steel legguards, to which hinged knee pads were attached. The shins were covered with special leggings, consisting of a front and back half.

Not only the inside of the helmet, but also the surface of the armor was covered with leather, and in places of possible impacts, felt or woolen plates were inserted under the skin. On the outside, Maximilian armor was decorated with various patterns and engravings.

To prevent the metal armor from chafing the body, the knight wore a gambizon underneath - a thin quilted robe consisting of a short jacket and pants. After the advent of lightweight tournament armor, the gambizon was no longer used, replacing it with a leather camisole and leggings.

The knight, dressed in Maximilian armor, could practically not move without outside help. In a combat situation, he was constantly accompanied by a squire. He served necessary weapons and helped the knight get off his horse.

Special steel recipes were developed for armor. Thanks to special hardening, they protected from almost all types of throwing and cutting weapons. Making armor was a long and difficult task, since all the parts were bent by hand using cold forging.

Curiously, hard metal armor became widespread only in Europe. In the countries of the East, Maximilian armor was replaced by long metal chain mail, to which metal plates - mirrors - were attached to the back and chest.

The use of chain mail was explained by the fact that the main branch of the military in the East was cavalry, the success of which was ensured by speed and maneuverability. But it is difficult to even imagine how a cavalry charge could be carried out if it involved horses loaded to the limit with metal.

turkish armor

Russian armor

On average, the weight of knightly armor reached 22.7-29.5 kilograms; helmet - from 2.3 to 5.5 kilograms; chain mail under the armor - about seven kilograms; shield - 4.5 kilograms. The total weight of knightly armor could be close to 36.5-46.5 kilograms. Knocked out of the saddle, the knights could no longer mount their horses on their own. For foot combat they used special armor with a steel skirt instead of leggings and boots.

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In the Middle Ages, the helmet was an invariable and most important attribute of knightly armor. In addition to its main purpose ─ to protect the head of the owner, it also served to intimidate opponents, and in some cases it was a badge of honor during tournaments and battles, where in the general “extras” it was difficult to make out who was who. For this reason, gunsmiths tried to endow each of their products with features inherent only to it, and often real works of art appeared in their workshops.

Helmets of the inhabitants of the Ancient World

The oldest prototypes of future knightly helmets, dating back to the 3rd millennium BC. e., discovered during excavations of Ur ─ largest city Sumerian civilization. Their appearance in that era became possible thanks to a fairly high level of metal processing technology.

However, helmets made of gold and copper were extremely expensive and unaffordable for most warriors. Therefore, the bulk of the warriors used special headdresses made of leather and linen, reinforced with copper plates only in the most vulnerable places.

The birthplace of iron helmets, which appeared in the 8th - 7th centuries BC, were two states of the Ancient World - Assyria and Urartu. There, for the first time, gunsmiths began to abandon bronze and gave preference to a cheaper and more durable material - iron. The workshops made steel helmets of spheroconic shape, however, they were able to completely displace their bronze predecessors only in the 1st millennium AD. e.

Armor as a symbol of the era

Historians have noted a very paradoxical fact: the heyday of the production of knightly armor, and in particular helmets, occurred in the period of the Late Middle Ages, that is, the XIV ─ XV centuries, when chivalry itself had already lost its significance as the main fighting force.

Thus, numerous armor presented in various museums around the world and sometimes representing genuine masterpieces of weaponry art, for the most part are only decorative attributes of the era and indicators of the high social status of their owners.

The appearance of steel helmets in Europe

The beginning of the widespread use of protective equipment made of iron in Europe is considered to be the Early Middle Ages, which, as is commonly believed, began after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. Combat helmets created in the early period of this era were distinguished by a characteristic feature - they were based on a frame made of thick steel strips, on top of which metal segments were attached. This design ensured their reliability and simplified the manufacturing process, but also significantly increased the weight of the product.

Only in the 6th century did European gunsmiths abandon the frame structure and switch to making a new type of helmet, riveted or soldered from several segments. Often the craftsmen supplemented them with nose guards - narrow, vertically located metal strips that protected the warrior’s face. This novelty was first used by the Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons, and only over the next two centuries did it become widespread among other European peoples.

The emergence of new helmet models

In the 12th century, knightly helmets with a cylindrical crown came into use, which were soon transformed into a new independent type, which received the name “topfhelm” for its characteristic shape, which translated from German means “pot helmet”. They survived until the 14th century.

Around the same period, another unique type of helmet appeared - chapels, which were metal caps with brims, the shape of which often varied depending on the taste of the master and the wishes of the customer.

Since the main advantage of chapels was their relative cheapness, they were used mainly by infantry and poor mounted knights. By the way, in the 15th - 16th centuries, one of the varieties of this type of helmet was used by the conquistadors - the Spanish and Portuguese conquerors of the New World.

Further developments by gunsmiths

The most widespread were the so-called cerveliers - iron hemispherical helmets that fit tightly around the head and resembled a modern helmet. They were deprived of any external protective elements, with the exception of nasals, but at the same time they had an important advantage: with their inside gaskets made of thick shock-absorbing material and covered with fabric were attached. They softened the blows the warrior received to the head.

Cerveliers remained in service with the largest European armies until the beginning of the 14th century, after which they were replaced by domed or hemispherical bascinet helmets, equipped with a chain mail aventail, and had many varieties. It is known that initially they, like the cerveliers, were intended to be worn under the larger topfhelm helmets, which were discussed above, but over time they received independent use.

Many authentic helmets of this type, equipped with visors of various designs, have survived to this day. Some of their samples are equipped only with nose guards or even have a design that does not provide for face protection. The common element has always been the chain mail frame, which protected the warrior’s neck and shoulders.

Knights sung by poets

About knightly armor and its transformation over the centuries modern researchers receive information not only on the basis of those copies that make up the collections of the largest museums in the world, but also from the literary monuments of the Middle Ages, among which French poems occupy a special place.

Their authors paid great attention to describing not only the exploits of the heroes, but also their armor, the decoration of which was sometimes both decorative and heraldic in nature. For example, knightly helmets often featured not only plumes of feathers, but also rather complex designs in the form of horns and crests of fantastic animals, as well as elements of the family coats of arms of their owners.

The appearance of helmets equipped with a visor

An important stage in the history of defensive weapons was the appearance in the first quarter of the 13th century of helmets that completely protected the head and were equipped with only narrow slits for the eyes. The effectiveness of this design prompted gunsmiths to further develop it, and about a century later knightly helmets, equipped with a visor ─ a movable part designed to protect the warrior’s face, came into use. In the middle of the 14th century, they became an integral part of any combat armor.

When studying helmets from different eras, a characteristic difference inherent in Western European models is striking. It is noted that Asia in all centuries has been characterized by open designs that provide warriors with wide visibility, the same can be said about helmets Ancient Rome. In Europe, on the contrary, knights preferred reliable solid protection of the head and face, even in cases where it created certain inconveniences.

"Dog Hood"

Gunsmiths sought to combine reliability with comfort in their products. An example of this is the type of helmet that appeared in the 14th century and was firmly established, bearing the characteristic name “Hundsgugel”, which translated from German means “dog hood”.

Its peculiarity was the presence of a cone-shaped visor extended forward, the shape of which actually resembled a dog’s muzzle. This design served two purposes. Firstly, it made the warrior’s head more protected from enemy arrows and spears that ricocheted down an inclined surface, and secondly, it made it possible to make a larger number of ventilation holes on the enlarged surface of the visor, thereby making breathing easier.

Models of helmets of the Late Middle Ages

In the 15th century, despite the fact that the importance of heavy cavalry in battles had significantly decreased, the design of armor continued to be improved, as the custom of holding knightly tournaments continued throughout Europe. At this time, the most interesting new product was a helmet with a visor, called “armet”.

Unlike the cone-shaped structures that existed at that time, this helmet had a spherical shape and a chin that opened into two halves, fastened with a pin during battle. In addition, it was equipped with a second visor that moved to the back of the head and special devices that reliably protected the throat and collarbones.

Another knight’s helmet, which became widespread in the Late Middle Ages, is also very interesting. It is called “salad” and is a distant relative of the bascinets described above. A characteristic feature of these designs was the backplate ─ part of the helmet extended back, which not only protected the warrior from attacks from the rear, but also did not allow him to be pulled off the horse with special hooks designed for this purpose. Salads were made both with and without visors. In the first case, they were intended for mounted warriors, in the second, for infantry.

Combat and tournament helmets

Helmets of the Middle Ages, like all defensive weapons, developed in two different ways depending on their purpose. For tournaments, heavier and stronger samples were forged, which provided greater safety, but did not allow one to stay in them for a long time. In particular, the widely used “toad head” tournament model, which was one of the most reliable in the history of chivalry, but lacked proper ventilation, was designed only for short-term use, not exceeding 5 minutes. After this period, the supply of air in it dried up, and the warrior began to suffocate.

Military weapons, which included the entire set of armor, were made in such a way as to allow the owner to stay in it for a long time. Based on this, when making it, gunsmiths tried to give all the parts the least weight. This requirement fully applied to helmets. Without compromising reliability, they had to be extremely light, well ventilated and provide good visibility.

Armor is a defensive weapon that consists of the armor itself. In this case, the following types of armor are distinguished: soft, ringed, lamellar, lamellar-ringed. Naturally, there are many more types of armor, and today we will look at some of them in more detail. The armor also includes a combat headband, leggings, bracers and other protective equipment.

Gothic armor

The solid armor of the European heavy cavalry of the second half of the 15th century, the predecessor of Maximilian, differs from the latter in greater functionality, high quality metal processing and manufacturing of parts, elegance of forms and somewhat less accuracy of joining parts, absence of grooves. Based on the totality of its properties, some researchers define it as the most advanced solid armor.

Decorative armor

Interior armor, which is produced for the purpose of designing and decorating various interiors. This type of armor is a copy of combat, hunting and other types of armor, but does not fulfill its original functions.

Heterogeneous armor

Armor that includes elements consisting of parts that are not rigidly connected and are small in size.

Homogeneous armor

Armor, which contains mainly large parts consisting of one material, as well as large ones.

Homogeneous-heterogeneous armor

Armor that combines the properties of both homogeneous and heterogeneous armor.

Gendarme armor

A classic type of solid armor, which was widespread in the second half of the 15th century. It was first adopted under King Charles VII. Used by the French gendarmes - heavy cavalry from impoverished nobles. As the head of the armor, a salad was used, in which the end of the crown goes into a long nape plate. A forearm screwed to the top of the plate breastplate protects the lower part of the face. The upper part of the face is covered with a fixed visor, in which there is a transverse slit at eye height, providing visibility.

The shoulders are covered with shoulder pads made of overlapping plaques, connected, in turn, to elbow pads. The armpits are covered with a chain mail net and, in addition, are covered with shoulder shields lowered low to the breastplate. A single-plate plate breastplate has a thickening at the bottom, called the “carapace,” which provides additional reinforcement to this part of the armor. The belly and legguards are made in the form of somewhat curved plates, stacked on top of each other like tiles. For a warrior sitting in the saddle, they cover his legs up to the knees.

The hips can be protected only with thigh guards or additionally with side guards (hips). The plate backplate (back plate) also has a “shell”, the continuation of which is the sacral covering, which reaches the saddle when the rider is sitting. Under the armor, the pelvic area is additionally protected by a chainmail skirt.

The knee pads, attached to the pads (lower part of the thigh) and leggings, consist of 5 plates, the central one (superimposed on the side ones like a ridge tile) is strongly curved in the form of a dome. Leggings consist of a greave and a shin guard, connected by hinges and fastened on the inside of the leg. The shoes are pointed, with a long point and spurs in the form of a wheel with long rays placed on a long shaft.

The points of the shoe and spurs are fastened by the squire after the knight mounts his horse, and are unfastened before he dismounts. The elbows are covered with elbow pads, the forearms are a continuation of plate gauntlets. The armor is relatively light (total weight 15-30 kg), but can only be fully donned and securely fastened with the help of a squire. Worn over soft overalls (pants and jacket), chain mail elements.

First, the shoes are put on, then the pads, connected by straps to the belt. After them, leggings, legguards, knee pads are put on, then armor, belly and shoulder pads. The last to be secured were the shoulder shields, attached to the overalls and passing through special holes in the bib with straps. Additional protection for the right side of the body is provided by the spear guard.

The shield is not provided as an independent weapon and is practically not used. The rider's weapons are a sword, a spear, a dagger, and a dagger; The officers, moreover, are slanderers. The horse also wears plate armor that completely covers the chest, back, croup, sides, neck and head, superimposed on or connected by a chain mail net. By the end of the 16th century. the armor has undergone changes. The spear was removed from service, and instead the gendarme received a sword and dagger, the leg guards disappeared, and the breastplate became shorter and lighter. The cuirass has been replaced by a half cuirass.

Ringed armor

Armor that is made of metal rings, but their sizes are not the same. This type of armor includes chain mail and canopy.

Laminar armor

Armor that includes plates made of hard material. The plates are quite long and arranged horizontally, they are connected to each other.

Plate armor

Armor, the basis of which is a relatively small number of large, flat or curved (often complex relief) plates (armor), connected to each other into a single whole using auxiliary parts, hinges or non-connected, independent ones. Plate as armor that provides protection to the chest, abdomen and back (analogous to a cuirass) is known already in Ancient Egypt, widespread among the Celts and in Ancient Greece, where it was made in the form of two rigid curved plates of forged bronze connected by hinges, accurately reproducing the relief of muscles customer (owner), in connection with which they were manufactured strictly individually (Hyalothorax).

From simple plate armor (cuirass, greaves, bracers, shoulder pads), this armor later developed into continuous armor by increasing the number of parts, connecting them to each other and precise mutual adjustment. Maximum development and perfection was achieved in Gothic armor of the late 15th century. and in Maximilian armor of the early 16th century, completely covering the entire body. In Russia, armor of this type was called plank or plank.

Plate armor XVII and XVIII

Over time, solid armor becomes simpler, no longer covers the entire body, the number of parts decreases, and first of all, the legs, pelvis, and back lose coverage. The armor, especially the cuirass breastplate, is very heavy and massive to protect against bullets. The breastplate is short, there is usually no paunch, the legguards are in the form of long pads fastened to the cuirass, forming a protrusion of the knee pad with side ears above the knee. Leggings are usually absent. The Burguignot type helmet often has a characteristic of this era, oriental type nosepiece in the form of a rod giving a curl at the bottom, and another curl above the protrusion of the visor.

Sometimes there is a similar decoration on the back of the head. The shoulder pads are symmetrical - they, like the bracers, are scaly. The last troops armed with such armor were the cuirassiers of Louis XIV. The armor is blued, the breastplate is even shorter, the belly is short, and the pads are large. The arms are covered with scales, the combat head is a chaplain with a back plate and a nosepiece, reminiscent of a Japanese head. There is a sultan on the crown.

At the beginning of the 18th century. in the armor only the chaplain and cuirass remain, very short, covering the body to the level of the ribs and deeply cut under the arms. Subsequently, the backrest is abandoned, and the breastplate of the cuirass is put on and secured to the body with belts. Sometimes, instead of a half-cuirass, they wear an iron collar, like a plate necklace, with a wide protrusion going down to the chest. Shoulder pads and forearm armor could be attached to this collar.

Maximilian armor

The armor, which became widespread during the Renaissance, was used by knights in Europe. It consists of about 200 large elements, and the outside is covered with ribs and gutters. The total number of parts, including buckles, connecting bolts, hooks and other small parts, reaches 1000. The ribs (veins) and grooves are designed and directed so that the spear blows slide outside the joints of the armor, which increases the protective properties of the armor. In addition, they act as stiffening ribs and increase the strength of the armor, while simultaneously reducing its weight. Named after Emperor Maximilian I, for the weapons whose army it was developed. The average weight of armor is 22-30 kg, helmet - 1.5-4 kg, chain mail - 4-7 kg, shield - 3-6 kg, sword - 1-3 kg. The total weight of the armor rarely exceeded 40 kg.

The combat headgear - arme - has a pommel with holes near the ears; sometimes the ridge protruding from the pommel is not flat, but in the form of a tourniquet. On the back (crown) there is a tube for the plume. A visor is made of one or two parts, the upper one (visor) protects the forehead, the lower one (blowhole) protects the chin; has slots or is made in the form of a lattice. Sometimes the visor consisted of three or more parts. The chin covers the entire lower part of the face up to lower lip, it is continued by a throat cover made of several curved plates attached to it. At the back, a butt plate made of several scales is attached to the pommel using scales.

The basis and support for the armor is a mantle-aventail made of three front and rear plates covering the neck; armor, shoulder pads, and armor are attached to it. An aventail is a kind of necklace; it has a hinge on the left side and clasps or cufflinks on the right. It was always made to measure, carefully adjusted in accordance with the anthropometric data of the owner of the armor, as it ensured mobility and strength of joints, and the ability to move the head.

A poorly selected aventail causes pain and deprives a warrior of mobility and the ability to control weapons. Sometimes, instead of arme, they used a helmet with a necklace, with a straight base, which did not have a throat cover and a butt plate. When the head was turned, the lower smooth edge of the helmet slid in a groove or along the upper rounded edge of the neck covering (necklace). The necklace served as a cover for the throat, back of the head, appearance resembled an aventail, only very wide and worn over the head, which is why it did not require adjustment to the owner.

However, the lower edge of the helmet and the necklace were adjusted to each other very carefully so as not to interfere with the movements of the head. This design, unlike the previous one, did not allow the head to be tilted or thrown back in battle without threatening the safety of the knight. The armor consisted of a breastplate connected by hinges, equipped with a large rib, and a backrest. The breastplate was usually forged from a single sheet of iron. The rib deflected the blow, the grooves directed it.

The shape of the breastplate changed - convex, pointed at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, in the middle of the 16th century. it becomes elongated oblong, from the 1570s. made with a point, and from the beginning of the 17th century. - blunt and short. Very rarely, the entire cuirass was made of scales. Axillary scales were attached to the bib in the armpits using straps.

The abdomen consisted of 2-3 plates. Gaiters covered the sides, starting from the waist, and top part legs (the upper third of the front and lateral surface of the thigh), often were a continuation of the peritoneum. Consisted of several scales or plates, at the end of the 16th century. lengthened to cover the thigh from the hip joint to the knee and compensate for the lack of obsolete pads.

The lower part of the back was covered by a sacral cover of 1-3 scales that did not have a cutout, which was made in Gothic armor for a tight fit to the surface of the saddle. On top of the armor, mantles were attached to the aventail with straps. The right shoulder is always smaller so as not to interfere with arm movements; in addition, the left side, which is usually hit, requires more protection.

Armor for left-handers is known. Not all armor has neck covers and they are ridges or wings over the shoulders that protected from hooks and prevented the knight from pulling off the helmet. Sometimes round plaques were attached instead. The bracers are divided into two parts by the elbow pad. The top one is a cylinder and several scales attached to it. The lower one, protecting the forearm, was made in the form of a double-leaf cylinder with hinges and cufflinks, and was attached to the upper one with belts. The elbow pad is convex, in early models with a point, and is attached to the bracers with screws.

Tin-lined mittens (gloves) in some Spanish and Italian armor had fingers, then each finger was covered with scales or rings; in other armor, the fingers were covered with common scales, sometimes only indicated on the outside. Thumb in all cases it is separated from the others and has a separate scaly covering. The opening of the glove is decorated with a bracelet or edge with a hinge and clasp.

The frame (bracket) is composite, with the lower part (support) fixedly attached to the cuirass, and the hook itself could, if necessary, be lowered on a hinge. The pads consisted of two plates (the front and the outer side) and were fastened with belts. The kneecap consisted of a conical or spherical front part and an outer side, as well as four scales. Leggings for the lower legs are semi-cylindrical, their flaps are called greaves and greaves (spreaders and greaves), connected on the outer surface of the leg with a hinge and fastened on the inside.

Later, the leggings lost the back half and began to be secured with straps. The foot greaves are attached to the greave with a leg joint. Under the armor they wore suede leggings, overalls, chain mail to mid-thigh or slightly shorter, with long sleeves. The armor scales were attached to each other from bottom to top. Large scales were attached on top of smaller ones. The blow of the spear and the tip of the sword slid along the scales until it met the next scale, then with raised ribs and stripes, where it lost power. The weak parts of the armor were doubled with chain mail underneath.

Soft armor

Armor made from fabric and leather. There were varieties that also included reservations.

Hunting armor

Armor that became widespread among hunters who hunted large animals - for example, wild boar.

Ceremonial armor

Armor that was worn only for especially special events. In all cases, it differed from the battle armor of the same time in its lighter weight, lower quality fitting of parts and rich finish. There are known ceremonial armor and plates made entirely of gold, silver, inlaid precious stones, and the thickness of the armor sometimes does not exceed 5 mm (the earliest golden armor was discovered in a Bronze Age burial). European plate ceremonial armor, in addition, was distinguished by the absence of a fokra (spear hook) and the symmetry of the shoulder guards. Sometimes it was covered with expensive fabrics.

Plate-ringed armor

Armor that consisted of rings and plates. This type of armor includes bakhterets and yushman.

Plate armor

Armor, which includes plates, and their shape and size can be different.

Full armor

Armor, which includes armor, leggings, helmet, bracers, shield and other elements.

Knight's armor

Full armor worn by knights in Europe during the Middle Ages.

Solid armor

One of the varieties of scaly or ring-scale armor that completely protected the warrior’s body.

Sports armor

Armor used to protect athletes during military sports competitions. Tournament armor is also considered sports armor.

Quilted armor

Soft-shaped armor consisting of layers of leather or fabric. Between the layers, a cotton or wool interlining was usually sewn, which was sewn along both straight and oblique lines.

Training armor

Armor that was worn during the training of warriors, that is, when military exercises were practiced.

Tournament armor

Armor worn by European warriors in tournaments. As a rule, it is a solid, heavy armor that greatly limits the mobility of a knight, which over time has been greatly simplified and transformed into incomplete armor, providing protection only for the head, the front surface of the body (mainly its left part) and the left leg, hips. Made from very thick iron.

The armor for the equestrian spear tournament with a barrier (lattice) excluded the use of leggings. To prevent injury from sliding along the barrier, the leg was protected by a special design of the saddle pommel in the form of a box. The guards and legguards were made from a single plate. The hands were usually not protected, the left had a mitten, the right was covered with a shield. The cuirass had one, sometimes two (front and rear) fokras, and later began to be equipped with blow counters.

Later, the back plate of the cuirass was abandoned - thus, only the front surface of the body was covered. An additional shield is often screwed to the left side of the breastplate. The space between the shoulder and chest is covered by armpit covers in the form of discs. If there is only a left disc, then the right shoulder shield is enlarged and often has a cutout for a spear. The left shoulder pad is sometimes integral with the solid helmet. Combat head - lattice helmet, burgignot, early 16th century. a “toad head” headband is used. This helmet is attached to the breastplate, and sometimes to the backrest. At the end of the 16th century. Mostly lettuce was used.

Tarch transformed into a wooden cloak. If the spear did not have a shield, the right hand acquired a bracer that protected its front surface. The total weight of the armor reached 80 kg.

Tournament armor for foot combat remained complete (solid) until the cessation of tournaments; it differed from contemporary combat armor in the absence of a belly, leg guards and sacral cover, replaced by a bell-shaped skirt that more reliably protected the pelvic area. The shoulder pads are almost symmetrical. The total weight of the armor ranged from 25-40 kg. Combat head - lattice helmet, burgignot, in the 16th century. - salad.

Knotted armor

Protective weapons in the form of a covering worn on the body, woven from wood fibers, bark, twigs, vines, and tarred ropes. Thick knots, tightly tied close to each other, provided reliable protection from arrows, blow needles, and chopping blows from bronze and even iron blades. Various varieties of this armor were widely used by the natives of Africa, Polynesia, and America.

Scaled armor

The armor, consisting of plates, is shaped like scales.

A protective covering used to protect a person from various types weapons, both melee and ranged (for example, bows). Armor was used to protect both soldiers and war animals such as war horses (horse armor was called barding).

Armor has been used throughout history and was made from a variety of materials; Starting with the simplest leather armor, personal armor has evolved to armor. For most of military history, the production of metal armor in Europe was the most technologically advanced process. The production of armor was responsible for the development of many technologies of the ancient world, such as wood processing, mining, metal refining, manufacturing Vehicle(for example, chariots), leather processing, and, later, decorative metal processing. This production influenced the development of the Industrial Revolution, and influenced the commercial development of metallurgy and engineering.

Technologies armor were the single most influential factor in the development of firearms that revolutionized the battlefield.

Materials

Over the centuries, a wide variety of materials have been used to make armor: hides, leather, bones, linen, wood, bronze, iron plates. The armor's resistance to penetrating impact depends on the thickness of the steel - 2mm thick steel can withstand 3 times more impact energy than 1mm thick steel.

Characteristics of armor

Since the 15th century most human body was protected by specialized steel elements, usually placed on linen or wool underwear, which were fastened to the body with leather straps, clasps and ties. Chain mail protected areas that could not be protected by plate armor; for example, the back and knees. Known components of plate armor include the helmet, gauntlets, breastplate, and.

Complete for the elite armor was made individually. Most armor was purchased "as is", but some armor was customized to suit the individual wearer. The cost of armor varied greatly depending on the era and place, and included both the cost of production and the cost of decoration of the armor. In the 8th century, chain mail cost 12 oxen; by 1600, a horse's armor cost 2 oxen. A typical full plate suit of armor cost approximately £1 in 14th century England, with a warrior earning around 1 shilling per day during the same period. Thus, the armor cost approximately 20 days of service. But plate armor was only available to those who could buy it: the nobility, landowners, and mercenary professional warriors who were the bulk of armies in the Medieval period. Lower ranking soldiers wore significantly less armor. Full plate armor made the wearer virtually invulnerable to sword blows, and also provided significant protection against arrows, clubs, and even early firearms. The edge of the sword could not penetrate the relatively thin plate (only 1 mm). Additionally, while arrows from bows and crossbows, as well as early firearms, could penetrate plates, especially at close range, later improvements in steel processing techniques and armor design made this method of attack much more difficult. As the pinnacle of development, the hardened steel armor was almost impregnable on the battlefield. Knights were more vulnerable to polearms such as halberds and blunt weapons such as maces or war hammers, the blows of which caused damage without piercing armor, and resulted in injuries such as fractures, internal hemorrhages, and/or traumatic brain injuries. Other tactics were aimed at striking between pieces of armor, using daggers, spears and the points of other weapons, hitting the eyes or joints.
Contrary to common misconceptions, well-made medieval "battle" armor (as opposed primarily to the ceremonial "ceremonial" or "tournament" armor favored by kings and nobles of later years) hindered its wearer no more than modern military equipment. It must be remembered that the knight was trained to wear armor from adolescence, and he was able to develop the technique and endurance to run, crawl, climb ladders, as well as climb onto a horse without a crane. Full medieval plate armor supposedly weighed about 30kg, and was on average lighter than modern military equipment (up to 50kg).

History of armor

Many factors have influenced the development of armor throughout human history. The most significant factors in the development of armor include the economic and technological needs of production. For example, plate armor first appeared in Medieval Europe, when hammers powered by a water wheel made plate formation faster and cheaper. Likewise, modern militaries generally do not provide their soldiers with the best protection, as it would be extremely expensive. Throughout time, the development of armor has paralleled the development of weapons on the battlefield, and armorers have strived to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.

Mail armor

Chain mail is made of iron rings connected to each other, which can be riveted or welded. Mail is believed to have been invented by the Celts in Eastern Europe around 500 BC As the Celts moved west, chain mail began to spread. Most cultures that used chain mail used the Celtic word "byrnne" or variations thereof, implying the Celts as the creators. The Roman army used chain mail throughout most of its history. Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, the infrastructure for making plate armor was largely lost in Europe, leaving chainmail to be the best armor available during the Early Medieval Period.

Transition to plate armor

Gradually, small additional plates or discs of iron were added to the chain mail to protect vulnerable areas. By the end of 1200. the knees were thus protected, and two round discs called "besagews" protected the armpits. There are many known ways to improve the protection of chain mail, and in all likelihood, armorers experimented with various options for protection. Reinforced leather and pinned devices were used to protect parts of the arms and legs. The plate jacket appeared, armor made of large plates sewn onto a textile or leather jacket (sometimes quite long).

Early plate armor in Italy, and in other places in the 13-15th centuries it was made of iron. Iron armor could be carburized or tempered to produce a harder surface. Plate armor became cheaper than chain mail by the 15th century because it was less labor-intensive to manufacture, and labor became much more expensive after the bubonic plague epidemic in Europe in 1348-49, although it required more metal to produce. Mail continued to be used to protect those parts of the body that could not be adequately protected by plates, such as the armpits, elbows and groin. Another advantage of the armor was that the support for the spear could be mounted on the chest plate.

Probably the most recognizable style of armor in the world is plate armor, associated with the knights of the European Late Middle Ages.

Until about 1400, a full set of plate armor was developed in the armories of Lombardy. Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries due in part to their armor.

In the early 15th century, small "hand guns" began to be used on the battlefields of the Hussite Wars, in combination with gorod tactics, allowing infantry to defeat armored knights on the battlefield. At the same time, crossbows became powerful enough to pierce armor. Rather than eradicating armor as a class, the threat of firearms stimulated improvements in the protective properties of armor. This was a 150 year period in which better and more metallurgically advanced steel armor was used, due to the danger posed by firearms. Thus, firearms and armored cavalry were "menace and retribution" together on the battlefield for almost 400 years. By the 15th century, plate armor in Italy was almost always made of steel. In southern Germany, gunsmiths began to harden their steel armor only at the end of the 15th century.

Quality of metal used for manufacturing armor, worsened as armies became larger and armor was made thicker, requiring the removal of riding horses. If during the 14th-15th centuries armor rarely weighed more than 15 kg, then by the end of the 16th century the armor weighed 25 kg. The increasing weight and thickness of late 16th century armor gave a significant increase in strength.

During the appearance of the first pistols and arquebuses, firearms had a relatively low bullet speed. Full armor, or breshtuks, actually stopped bullets fired from short distances. The front gaps were actually zeroed in during testing of the armor. The point of impact of the bullet was often surrounded by an engraving to indicate it. This was called "proof". Armor often bore the manufacturer's insignia, especially if it was of good quality. Crossbow arrows, if still in use, rarely penetrated good armor, nor did any bullet except those fired at close range.

In fact, rather than rendering armor obsolete, the advent of firearms stimulated the development of armor in its later stages. For much of the period, the armor allowed riders to fight while constantly in the crosshairs of arquebusiers without becoming easy targets. Full suits of armor were commonly worn by generals and royal commanders until the second decade of the 18th century. This was the only way to be safe away from the battlefield from distant musket fire.

The horses were protected from spears and infantry weapons by steel plate "bard" protection. This gave protection to the horse and enhanced the visual impression of the mounted knight. Later, elaborately crafted bards were used in ceremonial armor .

In this article, in the most general outline the process of development of armor in Western Europe in the Middle Ages (VII - late XV centuries) and at the very beginning of early modern times (early XVI century). Material supplied big amount illustrations for a better understanding of the topic. Most of the text is translated from English.

Mid-VIIth - IX centuries. Viking in a Vendel helmet. They were used mainly in Northern Europe by the Normans, Germans, etc., although they were often found in other parts of Europe. Very often has a half mask covering the upper part of the face. Later evolved into the Norman helmet. Armor: short chain mail without a chain mail hood, worn over a shirt. The shield is round, flat, medium in size, with a large umbon - a metal convex hemispherical plate in the center, typical of Northern Europe of this period. On shields, a gyuzh is used - a belt for wearing the shield while marching on the neck or shoulder. Naturally, horned helmets did not exist at that time.

X - beginning of XIII centuries. Knight in a Norman helmet with rondache. An open Norman helmet of a conical or ovoid shape. Usually,
A nasal plate is attached in front - a metal nasal plate. It was widespread throughout Europe, both in the western and eastern parts. Armor: long chain mail to the knees, with sleeves of full or partial (to the elbows) length, with a coif - a chain mail hood, separate or integral with the chain mail. In the latter case, the chain mail was called “hauberk”. The front and back of the chain mail have slits at the hem for more comfortable movement (and it’s also more comfortable to sit in the saddle). From the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries. under the chain mail, knights begin to wear a gambeson - a long under-armor garment stuffed with wool or tow to such a state as to absorb blows to the chain mail. In addition, arrows were perfectly stuck in gambesons. It was often used as a separate armor by poorer infantrymen compared to knights, especially archers.

Bayeux Tapestry. Created in the 1070s. It is clearly visible that the Norman archers (on the left) have no armor at all

Chain mail stockings were often worn to protect the legs. From the 10th century Rondache appears - a large Western European shield of knights early Middle Ages, and often infantrymen - for example, Anglo-Saxon Huskerls. It could have a different shape, most often round or oval, curved and with a umbon. For knights, the rondache almost always has a pointed lower part - the knights used it to cover their left leg. Produced in various versions in Europe in the 10th-13th centuries.

Attack of knights in Norman helmets. This is exactly what the crusaders looked like when they captured Jerusalem in 1099

XII - early XIII centuries. A knight in a one-piece Norman helmet wearing a surcoat. The nosepiece is no longer attached, but is forged together with the helmet. Over the chain mail they began to wear a surcoat - a long and spacious cape of different styles: with and without sleeves of various lengths, plain or with a pattern. The fashion began with the first Crusade, when the knights saw similar cloaks among the Arabs. Like chain mail, it had slits at the hem at the front and back. Functions of the cloak: protecting the chain mail from overheating in the sun, protecting it from rain and dirt. Rich knights, in order to improve protection, could wear double chain mail, and in addition to the nosepiece, attach a half mask that covered the upper part of the face.

Archer with a long bow. XI-XIV centuries

End of XII - XIII centuries. Knight in a closed sweatshirt. Early pothelmas were without facial protection and could have a nose cap. Gradually the protection increased until the helmet completely covered the face. Late Pothelm is the first helmet in Europe with a visor that completely covers the face. By the middle of the 13th century. evolved into topfhelm - a potted or large helmet. The armor does not change significantly: still the same long chain mail with a hood. Muffers appear - chain mail mittens woven to the houberk. But they did not become widespread; they were popular among knights leather gloves. The surcoat somewhat increases in volume, in its largest version becoming a tabard - a garment worn over armor, sleeveless, on which the owner’s coat of arms was depicted.

King Edward I Longshanks of England (1239-1307) wearing an open sweatshirt and tabard

First half of the 13th century. Knight in topfhelm with targe. Topfhelm - a knight's helmet that appeared at the end of XII - early XIII V. Used exclusively by knights. The shape can be cylindrical, barrel-shaped or in the shape of a truncated cone, it completely protects the head. The tophelm was worn over a chainmail hood, under which, in turn, a felt liner was worn to cushion blows to the head. Armor: long chain mail, sometimes double, with a hood. In the 13th century appears as a mass phenomenon, chain mail-brigantine armor, providing more strong defense than just chain mail. Brigantine is armor made of metal plates riveted on a cloth or quilted linen base. Early chain mail-brigantine armor consisted of breastplates or vests worn over chain mail. The shields of the knights, due to the improvement by the middle of the 13th century. protective qualities of armor and the appearance of fully closed helmets, significantly decrease in size, turning into a targe. Tarje is a type of shield in the shape of a wedge, without a umbon, actually a version of the teardrop-shaped rondache cut off at the top. Now knights no longer hide their faces behind shields.

Brigantine

Second half of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. Knight in topfhelm in surcoat with aylettes. A specific feature of tophelms is very poor visibility, so they were used, as a rule, only in spear clashes. Topfhelm is poorly suited for hand-to-hand combat due to its disgusting visibility. Therefore, the knights, if it came to hand-to-hand combat, threw him down. And so that the expensive helmet would not be lost during battle, it was attached to the back of the neck with a special chain or belt. After which the knight remained in a chain mail hood with a felt liner underneath, which was weak protection against the powerful blows of a heavy medieval sword. Therefore, very soon the knights began to wear a spherical helmet under the tophelm - a cervelier or hirnhaube, which is a small hemispherical helmet that fits tightly to the head, similar to a helmet. The cervelier does not have any elements of facial protection; only very rare cerveliers have nose guards. In this case, in order for the tophelm to sit more tightly on the head and not move to the sides, a felt roller was placed under it over the cervelier.

Cervelier. XIV century

The tophelm was no longer attached to the head and rested on the shoulders. Naturally, the poor knights managed without a cervelier. Ayletts are rectangular shoulder shields, similar to shoulder straps, covered with heraldic symbols. Used in Western Europe in the 13th - early 14th centuries. as primitive shoulder pads. There is a hypothesis that epaulettes originated from the Ayletts.

From the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. Tournament helmet decorations became widespread - various heraldic figures (cleinodes), which were made of leather or wood and attached to the helmet. Various types of horns became widespread among the Germans. Ultimately, topfhelms completely fell out of use in the war, remaining purely tournament helmets for spear clashes.

First half of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries. Knight in bascinet with aventile. In the first half of the 14th century. The topfhelm is replaced by a bascinet - a spheroconic helmet with a pointed top, to which is woven an aventail - a chainmail cape that frames the helmet along the lower edge and covers the neck, shoulders, back of the head and sides of the head. The bascinet was worn not only by knights, but also by infantrymen. There are a huge number of varieties of bascinets, both in the shape of the helmet and in the type of fastening of the visor of various types, with and without a nosepiece. The simplest, and therefore most common, visors for bascinets were relatively flat clapvisors - in fact, a face mask. At the same time, a variety of bascinets with a visor, the Hundsgugel, appeared - the ugliest helmet in Europe, nevertheless very common. Obviously, security at that time was more important than appearance.

Bascinet with Hundsgugel visor. End of the 14th century

Later, from the beginning of the 15th century, bascinets began to be equipped with plate neck protection instead of chain mail aventail. Armor at this time also developed along the path of increasing protection: chain mail with brigantine reinforcement was still used, but with larger plates that could withstand blows better. Individual elements of plate armor began to appear: first plastrons or placards that covered the stomach, and breastplates, and then plate cuirasses. Although, due to their high cost, plate cuirasses were used at the beginning of the 15th century. were available to few knights. Also appearing in large quantities: bracers - part of the armor that protects the arms from the elbow to the hand, as well as developed elbow pads, greaves and knee pads. In the second half of the 14th century. The gambeson is replaced by the aketon - a quilted underarmor jacket with sleeves, similar to a gambeson, only not so thick and long. It was made from several layers of fabric, quilted with vertical or rhombic seams. Additionally, I no longer stuffed myself with anything. The sleeves were made separately and laced to the shoulders of the aketon. With development plate armor, which did not require such thick underarmor as chain mail, in the first half of the 15th century. The aketone gradually replaced the gambeson among the knights, although it remained popular among the infantry until the end of the 15th century, primarily because of its cheapness. In addition, richer knights could use a doublet or purpuen - essentially the same aketon, but with enhanced protection from chain mail inserts.

This period, the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries, is characterized by a huge variety of combinations of armor: chain mail, chain mail-brigantine, composite of a chain mail or brigantine base with plate breastplates, backrests or cuirasses, and even splint-brigantine armor, not to mention all kinds of bracers , elbow pads, knee pads and greaves, as well as closed and open helmets with a wide variety of visors. Small shields (tarzhe) are still used by knights.

Looting the city. France. Miniature from the early 15th century.

By the middle of the 14th century, following the new fashion for shortening that spread throughout Western Europe outerwear, the surcoat is also greatly shortened and turns into a zhupon or tabar, which performs the same function. The bascinet gradually developed into the grand bascinet - a closed helmet, round, with neck protection and a hemispherical visor with numerous holes. It fell out of use at the end of the 15th century.

First half and end of the 15th century. Knight in a salad. All further development of armor follows the path of increasing protection. It was the 15th century. can be called the age of plate armor, when they became somewhat more accessible and, as a result, appeared en masse among knights and, to a lesser extent, among infantry.

Crossbowman with paveza. Mid-second half of the 15th century.

As blacksmithing developed, the design of plate armor became more and more improved, and the armor itself changed according to armor fashion, but Western European plate armor always had the best protective qualities. By the middle of the 15th century. the arms and legs of most knights were already completely protected by plate armor, the torso by a cuirass with a plate skirt attached to the lower edge of the cuirass. Also, plate gloves are appearing en masse instead of leather ones. Aventail is being replaced by gorje - plate protection of the neck and upper chest. It could be combined with both a helmet and a cuirass.

In the second half of the 15th century. arme appears - new type knight's helmet of the 15th-16th centuries, with a double visor and neck protection. In the design of the helmet, the spherical dome has a rigid back part and movable protection of the face and neck on the front and sides, over which a visor attached to the dome is lowered. Thanks to this design, the armor provides excellent protection both in a spear collision and in hand-to-hand combat. Arme is the highest level of evolution of helmets in Europe.

Arme. Mid-16th century

But it was very expensive and therefore available only to rich knights. Most of the knights from the second half of the 15th century. wore all kinds of salads - a type of helmet that is elongated and covers the back of the neck. Salads were widely used, along with chapelles - the simplest helmets - in the infantry.

Infantryman in chapelle and cuirass. First half of the 15th century

Deep salads with full protection face (the brim in front and on the sides was forged vertical and actually became part of the dome) and neck, for which the helmet was supplemented with a bouvier - protection for the collarbones, neck and lower part of the face.

Knight in chapelle and bouvigère. Middle - second half of the 15th century.

In the 15th century There is a gradual abandonment of shields as such (due to the massive appearance of plate armor). Shields in the 15th century. turned into bucklers - small round fist shields, always made of steel and with a umbon. They appeared as a replacement for knightly targes for foot combat, where they were used to parry blows and strike the enemy’s face with the umbo or edge.

Buckler. Diameter 39.5 cm. Beginning of the 16th century.

The end of the XV - XVI centuries. Knight in full plate armor. XVI century Historians no longer date it back to the Middle Ages, but to the early modern era. Therefore, full plate armor is more a phenomenon of the New Age than of the Middle Ages, although it appeared in the first half of the 15th century. in Milan, famous as the center for the production of the best armor in Europe. In addition, full plate armor was always very expensive, and therefore was available only to the wealthiest part of the knighthood. Full plate armor, covering the entire body with steel plates and the head with a closed helmet, is the culmination of the development of European armor. Poldrones appear - plate shoulder pads that provide protection for the shoulder, upper arm, and shoulder blades with steel plates due to their rather large size. Also, to enhance protection, they began to attach tassets - hip pads - to the plate skirt.

During the same period, the bard appeared - plate horse armor. Consisted of the following elements: chanfrien - protection of the muzzle, critnet - protection of the neck, peytral - protection of the chest, crupper - protection of the croup and flanshard - protection of the sides.

Full armor for knight and horse. Nuremberg. Weight (total) of the rider’s armor is 26.39 kg. The weight (total) of the horse's armor is 28.47 kg. 1532-1536

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. two mutually opposite processes take place: if the armor of the cavalry is increasingly strengthened, then the infantry, on the contrary, is increasingly exposed. During this period, the famous Landsknechts appeared - German mercenaries who served during the reign of Maximilian I (1486-1519) and his grandson Charles V (1519-1556), who retained for themselves, at best, only a cuirass with tassets.

Landsknecht. The end of the 15th - first half of the 16th centuries.

Landsknechts. Engraving from the early 16th century.