Social organizations. Social organizations, their types

Higher type The organization of a social group and community is represented by social organization. These are banks, enterprises, universities, shops, transport systems, etc. A social organization has its own name, charter, goals, scope of activity, operating procedures, staff, head office, uniform, and even the manager’s company car.

In a broad sense, social organization includes the most different types social communities that do not necessarily have a hierarchical structure: the state, labor collectives, tribe, family, small groups, gangster groups, youth associations, peasant farming, etc. Examples are also a political party, government agency, bank, steel company, symphony orchestra, football team team, club of interests, board of founders. Social organization does not include races and ethnic groups (they have no agenda), social classes (there is no clear collective identity, self-identity, or list of members), cliques and play groups, and socio-political currents. The state is a social organization, the nation is not. In domestic and foreign sociology, the subject of study of social organization is usually limited to the framework of a business organization: enterprise, firm, bank, corporation, workshop, etc.

Social organizations have features that resemble the properties of other types of collectivities. For example, status hierarchies in social organizations and in social classes are somewhat similar. But in an organization, superior, equal and inferior statuses are precisely predetermined as positions. Demotion and promotion sometimes dramatically changes a person's behavior, range of responsibilities, and workplace. There is nothing of this in the system of social stratification of society. In relation to a social class or social stratum, it is impossible to say for sure whether an individual ranks more high place than another (engineer or teacher), or not. Such estimates are always approximate and subjective.

Each type of social organization has a strictly limited set of forms(or species). There are three main forms of family (nuclear, patriarchal, extended) and marriage (monogamy, polyandry, polygyny). Six types have been known since Aristotle political power(monarchy, aristocracy, constitutionalism, tyranny, oligarchy, democracy). Those social organizations that are limited in this way remain stable for a long time and become social institutions. Even developing independently in different countries, they go through the same stages and have much in common. For example, monogamy as a social institution is similar among both Australian aborigines and modern Europeans. The same can be said about the institution of bureaucracy, which has many more similarities than differences, in Ancient Egypt and China, in medieval Europe and modern America. Social institutions remain almost unchanged even as societies and countries change or disappear altogether. Thanks to the existence of historically stable types of social organizations, comparative studies in sociology are possible. Thus, Max Weber compared bureaucracy in different eras, and Karl Marx identified historically recurring social formations.

The stability of social organization is based on the laws of joint activity of people. When several people interact enough long time, they develop stable partner behavior (more similarities than differences; in new situations they often act in concert than separately; everyone can predict how a partner will behave in an unfamiliar situation), identity of attitudes and views, strong confidence in their ability to develop as individuals precisely in close connection with each other (for example, loving spouses).

Most sociologists understood social organization as a special subsystem of an enterprise. For example, V.G. Podmarkov distinguished three levels in it: the main production team (enterprise), the secondary team (workshop) and the primary, or contact, team (team). The fabric of social organization, in his opinion, consists of various types of social connections:

• formal connection means a functionally determined and enshrined in official instructions system of relations between people. The formal structure of a team arises at the intersection of three types of connections: functional, professional and hierarchical;
• informal communication based on non-work interpersonal contacts of people;
• semi-formal communication arises between the administration and public organizations (party committee, trade union committee, Komsomol committee);
• informal communication is a variant of informal communication. Its peculiarity is that formal goals are achieved through informal means;
• official communication practically coincides with the formal one, since both are based on administrative regulations. The difference between them is that every official organization is also formal, but not every formal organization is recognized by higher authorities as official;
• informal communication develops between people beyond and outside the framework of job descriptions and officially established regulations.

The concept of social organization serves as a connecting link between two other important categories - the enterprise and the team, while the team of the enterprise is understood both as a set of workers and as a set of social relations arising between them.

A social organization is a social system characterized by unity of activity, having a list of members, a program and charter, goals and objectives. It is usually referred to as open systems. The main elements of social organization: position, position, power, authority, prestige, organizational culture, topography, competence.

Distinguish formal organization made up of official official relations, And informal, implying informal service (friendly) relationships. The first is headed by a manager, the second by a leader. Both functions can be performed by one person, then the bearer of authority (informal recognition) becomes the subject of power (formal recognition). But as soon as the leader of a small group is appointed leader, the group selects a new leader from its ranks.

Social organization is a collection of individuals, roles, and other elements that are systematically interrelated to achieve results that are inaccessible to isolated individuals. It represents a way of joint activity of people in which social organization takes the form of strictly ordered, regulated, coordinated and aimed at achieving specific goals of interaction.

Sociologists believe that social organization is a structure designed to coordinate the activities of two or more people through the division of labor and hierarchy of power to achieve a common goal. Such formulation includes:

• A) distribution of functions(horizontal specialization) between teams, sections, workshops, departments (the structure and methods of their action are formalized by regulations, instructions and other official documents);
• b) subordination of positions(vertical specialization) – the volume and degree of responsibility in decision-making at different levels;
• V) communication system, those. means and channels for transmitting information that moves “over)” down (transmission of orders, instructions, tasks), bottom up (reports from subordinates) and horizontally (consultations and exchange of opinions of peers).

All functions are united management, those. organization of the management process, ensuring the adoption of the optimal decision and its practical implementation, as well as monitoring and verification of execution.

Thus, social organization is a set of hierarchically located social positions (statuses), functions performed (roles), forms of activity, relationships and connections of employees. In social organization, the unit is not the individual as such, but his role. Therefore, social organization can be defined as a set of similar roles united into a system through communication channels. Moreover, social organization is target group, i.e. a grouping of people striving to achieve certain goals in an orderly manner. However, the main thing that attracts the attention of sociologists to social organization is the presence in it social hierarchy, a special system of distribution of roles and statuses, a complex mosaic of social relations and interactions, which must necessarily include types, types and forms of power, leadership, prestige, career, rewards, sanctions, norms and rules of behavior, etc.

A large social organization resembles a society in miniature, for in the first we will find everything that exists in the second. The only difference is in scale: the social hierarchy consists of large social groups (classes, strata, estates, castes), and the organizational hierarchy consists of small ones: senior administration, line managers, staff managers, supervisors (lower management ranks) and the so-called individual contributors - employees and workers who have no one under them.

• For more details see: Podmarkov V. G. Introduction to industrial sociology. M., 1973.

Social organization is an association of people who jointly realize common goals and act on the basis of certain rules and procedures. Signs of social organization: goal-oriented nature; distribution of organization members by roles and statuses; division of labor and specialization of functions; construction on a vertical (hierarchical) principle; the presence of specific means of regulation and control of the organization’s activities; integrity of the social system.

The key element of social organization is purpose.

The following are mainly distinguished: types of social organizations :

business organizations, membership in which provides workers with a means of subsistence (enterprises, corporations, firms, banks, etc.);

public organizations, representing mass associations, membership in which allows one to satisfy political, social, cultural, spiritual, creative and other needs ( political parties, trade unions, creative associations, etc.);

intermediate organizations, combining the characteristics of business and public organizations (cooperatives, artels, partnerships, etc.);

associative organizations, arising on the basis of mutual realization of interests ( scientific school, interest clubs, informal groups etc.).

Typology of organizations by industry: industrial and economic, financial, administrative and managerial, research, educational, medical, sociocultural, etc.

Social organization plays important role in the life of society. Modern man is a “man of organization.” The organization requires him to focus on a rational style of behavior, competence, knowledge and skills. In turn, a person can realize these qualities only within the framework of an effectively functioning organization.

16. Bureaucracy as special kind social group. The inevitability of the emergence of bureaucracy, especially its attitude to the public domain and its own role in society. Principles of “ideal bureaucracy” by M. Weber. The concept of adhocracy.

In sociology, bureaucracy is understood as an impersonal management mechanism based on formal-rational relations and a hierarchical system of power.

According to Weber, the spread of bureaucracy in modern society inevitably. The development of bureaucratic power is the only way to cope with the administrative demands of large-scale social systems. Weber connects the formation of bureaucracy with the process rationalization and considers it as the most rational and effective form of achieving management goals, based on the legal-rational type of legitimacy (domination). Bureaucracy for Weber is an “ideal type” of management, focused on the rational and effective implementation of the tasks facing the organization. Weber's ideal type of rational bureaucracy has the following main features:

1. strictly hierarchical structure;

2. formal status subordination;

3. management according to formal, impersonal rules;

4. emotional neutrality of relationships.

Rational bureaucracy is considered by Weber to be technically more advanced and efficient than all previous forms of administration, since it is the most predictable, accurate, impartial and quick to act. Modern sociology notes the limitations and inefficiency of the bureaucracy. Adhocracy - the opposite of bureaucracy. An adhocracy ignores the classical management principles that everyone has a defined, permanent role and is a flexible organization where individuals are free to use their talents as needed.

17. The concept of a social institution, the main types of social institutions, their purpose

Social Institute- this is an adaptive structure of society, created to satisfy its most important needs and regulated by a set of social norms. Basic institutions exist in every society, from the most primitive to the most modern.

Depending on the goals and objectives, functions performed in society, the main types of social institutions can be distinguished:

Institute of Family and Marriage;

economic institutions;

political institutions;

sociocultural and educational institutions(education, science, art, religion, etc.).

There are certain features and characteristics that are characteristic of all social institutions: attitudes and patterns of behavior (for the institution of the family - affection, respect, trust; for the institution of education - the desire for knowledge); cultural symbols (for family - wedding rings, marriage ritual; for the state - coat of arms, flag, anthem; for business – brand name, patent mark; for religion – cross, icons); utilitarian cultural features (for a family - a house, apartment, furniture; for business - a store, factory, equipment; for education - classes, a library); oral and written codes of conduct (for the state - constitution, laws; for business - contracts, licenses); ideology (for family - love, compatibility; for business - freedom of trade, business expansion; for religion - Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, Islam).

The activities of a social institution are considered functional if they benefit society and contribute to its stability and integration.

Thanks to social institutions in society, stability, predictability of people's behavior, and the stability of their social connections are achieved.

18. Social progress as a process and as an idea. Criteria for social progressiveness. The problem of social progress in the modern world.

No society stands still: it either progresses or regresses. If the sum of positive changes in society exceeds the sum of negative ones, then we speak of progress. Otherwise there is regression.

Social progress- this is a global, world-historical process of the ascent of human societies from a state of savagery to the heights of civilization. Progress is a global process that characterizes movement human society throughout history.

Progress is both local and global. There are gradual and spasmodic types of social progress. The first is called reformist, the second - revolutionary. Reform is a partial improvement in any area of ​​life, a series of gradual transformations that do not affect the foundations of the existing social order. Revolution - a comprehensive change in all or most of the parties public life, affecting the foundations of the existing system.

Reforms are called social, if they concern transformations in those areas of society or aspects of public life that are directly related to people, are reflected in their level and lifestyle, health, participation in public life, access to social benefits (the introduction of universal secondary education, health insurance, health benefits unemployment, etc.) They relate to the social status of various segments of the population, limit or expand their access to education, healthcare, employment, and guarantees.

By comparing the evolution of societies that human civilization goes through in its development, scientists have identified a number of patterns. One of them - law of acceleration of history. He testifies on the compaction of historical time: each subsequent stage takes less time than the previous one. Recent history constitutes one thousandth of world history. But this is the most eventful period with social, cultural, economic and political events.

Of course, with a large number of approaches to the study of social organizations, sociologists classify them according to the most various signs, but let’s try to highlight the following main types of social organizations:

• 1. Business organizations - firms and institutions that either arise themselves for commercial purposes or are created by broader organizational systems to solve individual problems. It should be noted that the goals of employees are not always related to the goals of the owners of the organization or the state. Membership or employment in a given business organization provides workers with a livelihood (often wage). The basis of regulation in these organizations is the administrative order, the principles of unity of command, appointment and commercial feasibility;
• 2. Public organizations (unions), mass organizations, the goals of which are developed “from within” and represent a generalization of the individual goals of the participants. Regulation is ensured by a jointly adopted charter, the principle of election, i.e. dependence of management on those led. Membership in them provides satisfaction of political, social, economic, amateur needs;
• 3. Intermediate organizations, for example cooperative ones (agricultural, fishing collective farms, mining cooperatives), which combine the main features of unions, but perform entrepreneurial functions. They should be distinguished from consumer cooperative organizations (consumer unions, housing cooperatives, etc.). Organizational formations of another kind arise in society, which are not organizations themselves, but have some signs of the latter;
• 4. Associative organizations - family, scientific school, informal group. They show some autonomy from the environment, relative stability of the composition, hierarchy (superiority, leadership), relatively stable distribution of participants (by roles, prestige), acceptance general solutions. Regulatory functions are carried out by spontaneously developing collective values ​​and norms. However, the degree of their formalization is insignificant. But their more important difference from organizations of the first two types lies in the peculiarities of their target properties: they are built on mutual satisfaction of interests, when not a common goal is a factor of unification, but each other’s goals, i.e. The goal of one participant serves as a means to achieve the goal of another. The finite, the whole here, as elsewhere, is not identical to its components, but the general goals are coinciding individual goals;
• 5. Settlement - a type of community that has similar organizational features to those described above. Initially, people settle together in order to use each other’s activities and abilities through neighborly connections, while submitting to some expediency of the whole (observing the layout of streets, the shape and size of the home, the structure of specialization, etc.), which each individual does not need. With urbanization, the factor of integrity increases, becomes depersonalized and isolated even more.

It is obvious that all of these organizational forms are interconnected and intersect with each other. On the territory of most settlements there are administrative organizations (police, prefectures, etc.), many have apparatus and even enterprises. Sometimes merging them is effective when, for example, Research institute is created on the basis of a scientific school or the staff of a remote meteorological station is formed from members of the same family. In some other cases, such combinations are considered harmful and disorganizing; therefore, we can briefly outline the main first 4 organizations that are considered effective:

• 1. Business organizations, membership in which provides workers with a means of subsistence (enterprises, corporations, firms, banks, etc.);
• 2. Public organizations, which are mass associations, membership in which allows one to satisfy political, social, cultural, and other needs (political parties, trade unions, etc.);
• 3. Intermediate organizations that combine the characteristics of business and public organizations (cooperatives, artels, partnerships, etc.);
• 4. Associative organizations arising on the basis of mutual realization of interests (scientific school, interest clubs, informal groups, etc.).

But we should not forget that the most common types of organization are formal And informal f. The main criteria for such a division is the degree of formalization of the connections, statuses and norms existing in the systems.

1. The formal aspect of the organization is the main thing that distinguishes the organization from other social phenomena. Organization implies the presence of a stable form, a rigid hierarchical framework of relationships. The formal nature of social organization is manifested in the presence of a permanent status structure, a set of formalized norms, and a stable division of responsibilities and powers. The basis of formalization is the functional division of labor. In accordance with the system of division of labor, differences in status are formed and recorded at the formal level. Statuses are ordered hierarchically according to the similarity of functional tasks and leadership-subordination relationships are established between them.

In other words:

Formal groups are groups created by the will of management.

Highlight:

• · Leadership groups, working (task) groups and committees.
• · The management team consists of the manager and his direct subordinates under his control (president and vice presidents).
• · Working (target) group - employees working on one task.

A committee is a group within an organization to which authority has been delegated to carry out a task or set of tasks. Sometimes committees are called councils, commissions, or task forces. There are permanent and special committees.

2. The informal aspect of the organization is manifested in the obligatory presence in it of a kind of “background”, which consists of a moral and psychological atmosphere, interpersonal relationships, implicit leadership, likes and dislikes of people. Between “form” and “background” there are always complex dialectical relationships of indissoluble interconnection.

An informal group is a spontaneously emerging group of people who regularly interact to achieve a specific goal. Reasons for joining are a sense of belonging, help, protection, communication.

The crystallization of the formal structure of social organization constitutes the process of institutionalization. During this process, the formal structure acquires a kind of independent existence, independent of a particular individual and his will. It is precisely because of this “independence” that it is so detached from the individual that it ceases to respond to individual variability, loses any psychologism, turning into the social as such.

Informal organizations exercise social control over their members. Usually there are certain norms that each member of the group must comply with. In informal organizations there is a tendency to resist change. Usually informal organization headed by an informal leader. The informal leader must help the group achieve its goals and maintain its existence.

Note that the term “organization” (from Lat. organiso- inform, slender appearance, arrange) is used in several meanings:

• as an element of the social structure of society;
• as a type of activity of a group;
• as the degree of internal orderliness and consistency in the functioning of system elements.

In sociology key concept there will be an element of social structure and the following definition is given: social organization- a large social group formed to achieve certain goals(N. Smelser)

The first attempt to create a theory of organization was made by an American engineer Federico Note that Taylor(1856-1915) Putting into practice a system of standardization of labor methods, he came up with the idea of ​​production lines and conveyors. In such an organization, the main role was played by the administration and management personnel, who exercised control over the production process. Moreover, the most hardworking and proactive ones. Note that Taylor proposed to be stimulated through a system of material incentives. By the way, this model, note that Taylor’s was called the “school of scientific management” or “Taylorism.”

At the beginning of the 20th century. French engineer Henri Fayol(1841-1925) developed the “organization-machine” model. Its essence was that the organization itself was understood as an impersonal mechanism, an instrument for solving social problems. significant problems, in which a person was an exclusively formal performer, an elementary cell in the system of management and control. The administration's task was exclusively to control, coordinate and plan the work of various parts of the system. Fayol believed that the effectiveness of an organization is determined by unity of command and a clear division of labor.

All organizations, due to the standardization of their activities and unity of management, are to one degree or another bureaucratized. The term itself "bureaucracy", meaning the power of officials, was introduced into scientific circulation by the French scientist de Gournay in 1745 by A. M. Weber. who first developed the sociological concept of bureaucracy, singled out seven main characteristic features bureaucratic organization:

• hierarchy of power in the form of a pyramid, implying the responsibility of lower-level officials to their superiors;
• the activities of officials are regulated on the basis of formally established rules and instructions that ensure uniformity and continuity of management activities;
• strict division of labor, and each function must be performed by a competent and knowledgeable specialist working under a contract and bearing full responsibility for the quality performance of their duties;
• the private life of officials is separated from activities in the organization, they obey only official duty and must be as objective as possible (“the ideal administrator works without anger and bias”);
• The promotion (career) of an official through the ranks is carried out depending on his professional abilities, level of qualifications and work experience;
• The activities of employees are based on official discipline and administrative control:
• officials are rewarded with a constant salary (salary)

M. Weber believed that modern bureaucracies effective organizations, since decisions here are made not arbitrarily, but according to general criteria, professional training cuts off “talented amateurs” and raises general level competence. Bureaucracy, by giving a fixed salary and strictly limiting functions, reduces corruption compared to organizations of traditional societies; general criteria for evaluating activities reduce the possibility of personal and family connections.

The main advantage of bureaucracy, according to Weber, - ϶ᴛᴏ high economic efficiency: accuracy, speed, knowledge, constancy of the management process, official secrecy, unity of command, subordination, minimizing conflicts and efficiency. Main disadvantage- ignoring specifics conflict situations, template actions, lack of necessary flexibility.

Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that bureaucracy for M. Weber is the “ideal type” of management, focused on the rational and effective implementation of the tasks facing the organization. In reality, no really existing organization can fully emulate the Weberian model of bureaucracy.

Despite numerous shortcomings, bureaucracy, according to a number of experts, retains its functionality as a form of management at the present time. Therefore, one of the tasks modern management- adjust the activities of the bureaucracy in accordance with the principles developed by M. Weber.

Russian sociologist A.I. Comely(b. 1940) highlights the following signs of a modern organization:

• target nature;
• distribution of organization members by roles and statuses;
• division of labor and specialization of functions;
• construction on a vertical (hierarchical) principle;
• the presence of specific means of regulation and control of the organization’s activities;
• integrity of the social system.

The key element of social organization is purpose. There are three interrelated type of organizational goals:

• goals-tasks - instructions issued externally by a higher-level organization, formalized as programs of general actions;
• goal-orientation— a set of goals implemented through the organization;
• goals-systems - goals dictated by the desire to preserve the organization as an independent system.

All the variety of social organizations are classified according to different criteria. So, American sociologist. Etzioni divides all organizations into three main groups:

• voluntary, whose members unite on a voluntary basis (political parties, trade unions, clubs, religious associations and etc.);
• forced, whose members become forced by force (army, prisons, mental hospitals, etc.):
• utilitarian, whose members unite to achieve common and individual goals (enterprises, firms, financial structures, etc.)

Modern Russian sociologists mainly distinguish the following types of organizations:

• business, membership in which provides workers with a means of subsistence (enterprises, corporations, firms, banks, etc.);
• public, which are mass associations, membership in which allows you to satisfy political, social, cultural, spiritual, creative and other needs (political parties, trade unions, creative associations, etc.);
• intermediate, combining the characteristics of business and public organizations (cooperatives, partnerships, etc.);
• associative arising on the basis of mutual realization of interests (scientific school, interest clubs, informal groups, etc.)

A typology of organizations can be produced by industry: industrial and economic, scientific research, administrative and managerial, financial, educational, sociocultural, medical, etc.

Modern organizations have complex control system, including the following characteristics:

• development of an organization management strategy;
• activities for managing the organization’s personnel;
• obtaining, selecting and distributing business and socially significant information;
• rational distribution of organization resources;
• implementation of personnel policy;
• conducting business negotiations;
• introduction of innovative management principles;
• advertising distribution;
• planning and designing work in an organization;
• control and coordination of employee actions.

This is far from full list functions of a specialist performing management activities. Today, such specialists will be key figures in the organization. At the same time, informal connections and relationships can develop within organizations that arise spontaneously as a result of prolonged interpersonal and intragroup communication. Informal relationships serve as a kind of mechanism for relieving tension generated by the contradiction between individual interests and the rigid rules of the formal organization, but sometimes they can have a negative impact on the activities of the organization.

Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that social organization plays an important role in the life of society. According to the figurative expression of the American sociologist W. White, modern man— ϶ᴛᴏ “man of the organization.” At the same time, the organization requires him to focus on a rational style of behavior, competence, knowledge and skills. With this in mind, sociology is called upon to solve social problems optimizing the conditions for the effective functioning of organizations.

Types of social organizations

There are two main types of organization - formal and informal. They are distinguished from each other by the degree of formalization of all connections, interactions and relationships existing in it. At the same time, in practice, organizations have both a formal and an informal aspect.

Formal aspect of organization- the main thing that distinguishes an organization from other social phenomena. Organization implies the presence of a stable form, a rigid hierarchical framework of relationships. The formal nature of a social organization will remain in the presence of a permanent status structure, a set of formalized norms, and a stable division of responsibilities and powers.
It is worth noting that the basis of formalization will be the functional division of labor. In ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙii with the system of division of labor they develop and are fixed on the formal

level of status difference. Statuses are ordered hierarchically according to the similarity of functional tasks and leadership-subordination relationships are established between them.

Informal aspect of organization will remain in the obligatory presence of a “background” in it, which consists of the moral and psychological atmosphere, interpersonal relationships, implicit leadership, likes and dislikes of people. Between “form” and “background” there are always complex dialectical relationships of indissoluble interconnection.

The crystallization of the formal structure of social organization constitutes the process of institutionalization. During this process, the formal structure acquires a kind of independent existence, independent of a specific individual and his will. It is precisely because of this “independence” that it is so detached from the individual that it ceases to respond to individual variability, loses any psychologism, turning into the social as such.

Classical functionalism (T. Parsons, R. Merton, A. Etzioni) considers the formal organization as a self-balancing system, self-sufficient in its objectivity. The main thing that distinguishes an organization from all other types of groups is conscious goal setting. An organization is created with a specific, clearly understood purpose and consciously plans the actions of its members. Etzioni points out the total nature of the organization for society: “We are born in the organization, raised in it, we devote a significant part of its existence to work in the organization... It is important to know that most of us die in it, and when the hour of funeral comes, the greatest one of the organizations - the state - must issue a burial permit.”

The degree of organization of social relations and Everyday life maximum in industrial society. The emergence of large forms of production and capital at the end of the 19th century. required the solution of the following questions: how to rationalize the labor process and production management, how to achieve the goals and at the same time maximally satisfy the needs of the participants in achieving them. F. Taylor tried to answer these questions in his managerial concept of bureaucracy and M. Weber in his theoretical concept

bureaucracy. Both concepts were united by the belief in the possibility of an ideal social organization, which could ensure uninterrupted, ideally coordinated labor activity and the same ideal management. The key to all this, according to Weber, was adherence to the principle of rationality.

According to M. Weber's concepts, the formation of the formal structure of society - its organization - occurs on the basis of progressive rationality. The material was published on http://site
The more mature a society becomes, the more rationally it tends to organize itself. It is worth noting that it is freed from irrational ideas and traditions. It develops a bureaucratic organization based on professional management, stability and a strictly fixed hierarchy.

Describing the “ideal type”, i.e. a theoretical model of bureaucracy that does not actually exist, Weber identified seven main distinctive features that characterize a bureaucratic organization:

• division of labor enshrined in formal rules or laws (list of job responsibilities);
• vertical hierarchical order of subordination;
• the presence of a public office or office where written documents reflecting the activities of the organization are stored, business correspondence is conducted, and complaints are received;
• existence of a formal procedure for training officials;
• the presence of full-time employees who are constantly occupied with the affairs of the organization throughout the working day;
• the presence of official rules regulating the organization’s operating hours, the distribution of weekends and working days, break hours, reception of visitors, etc.;
• loyalty of each employee to the organization as a whole, acceptance of its rules, activities in the interests of the whole.

By the way, this formal system of regulation is aimed at ensuring that the actions of individuals included in the organization are as predictable as possible, easily coordinated and simply controlled.

Weber believed that the maximum development of bureaucracy should ensure absolute efficiency of management, ideal speed and coherence in the functioning of the social mechanism. Its advantages are impersonality, alienation from the individual, unambiguous relationships, since it is rather a rigid abstract scheme, a bare drawing, the main advantage of which will be clarity. It is important to note that at the same time Weber also noted the shortcomings of bureaucratic management, such as the lack of flexibility necessary to adequately respond to non-standard situations, template thinking and actions, which entails the inability to allow for the possibility of unforeseen consequences of any action that does not fit into the template.

From historical practice and later research by sociologists (for example, R. Mrton, who showed the inevitability of “unforeseen consequences”) it became clear that, in principle, there cannot be a perfectly functioning formal organization. The formal organization is rigid, while living social reality is changeable and always richer and more diverse than the bureaucratic scheme. Moreover, a formal organization operates exclusively with roles - boss, subordinate, secretary, auditor - and does not see beyond them real people, since it cannot take into account the individuality of individuals, their psychology, and interpersonal relationships that arise between them. It is worth noting that it operates with simple and clear logic and is so impersonal in its mechanical inertia that it gives rise to the phenomena of “dead souls” and Kizhe’s second lieutenants.

Modern sociology of organizations critically perceives Weber's theory of bureaucracy. T. Parsons, A. Gouldner and many other sociologists see the main contradiction in the fact that the real person at the top of the bureaucratic pyramid does not always have sufficient special knowledge. His status as a formal leader gives him great power within the organization, while professional authority and competence belongs to informal leader. Therefore, next to the formal hierarchy, an informal one arises, and such a state can become a source of constant conflicts.

A bureaucratic organization can become an obstacle to creativity and innovation. According to the French sociologist M. Crozier, creativity is possible in organizations where there are norms that encourage innovation, but the structure of a bureaucratic organization, focused on uniformity and unquestioning subordination to higher structures, does not provide the necessary freedom to introduce innovation.

The system of bureaucratic control does not encourage independence of thought, but conformity and discipline, so bureaucratic organization will be a positive factor in decisions simple tasks and is incompatible with the creative process.

Solving complex problems involving high degree uncertainty and unpredictability of conditions requires a different management organization.

In a bureaucratic organization, the self-interests of individuals are transformed into the general interests and goals of the organization as a single entity. This leads to the leveling of individual creativity in the name of preserving the bureaucratic structure. Except for the above, with such a fusion of interests, the goals of the top of the hierarchy are identified with the interests of the organization as a whole. Ultimately, the goal of the bureaucracy is to preserve the material and other privileges of the ruling elite, the existing system of social regulation and, in general, the managerial status quo.

Western sociology has developed a different typology of organizations, including various models organizations proposed by foreign researchers. Let's study the most famous ones.

Organization as a labor process(Tylorism), the basis of which is the “man - labor” block. The behavior of an employee, according to this model, is completely determined from the outside according to a rationalized scheme.

Organization is a machine, which considers the organization as an impersonal mechanism built from formalized connections, statuses, goals in the form of a multi-level administrative hierarchy. It is precisely such a system that presupposes complete controllability, controllability, a person in it does not appear in specific manifestations, but exclusively as an abstract “man in general” (A. Fayol, L. Urvik, etc.)

Organization - community, where the main regulator is the norms of behavior adopted in the organization. It is important to know that informal relationships play a major role in this environment in the form of informal associations that arise quite often. Such organization satisfies the social needs of the individual (for communication, recognition, belonging) and controls his behavior (through ostracism, condemnation). By the way, this naturally occurring system is poorly controlled by previous methods. It is worth noting that it represents an “organization within an organization” and is the only effective method management for nes will be included in this system (E. Mayo, F. Roethlisberger, etc.)

Sociotechnical model organization, based on dependence within group connections on production technology. With all this, there is also an influence of the socio-psychological organization of the group on productivity.

Interactionist model, considered as a system of long-term interactions between employees. Individuals bring their own expectations and values ​​to the organization depending on the situation, influencing the goals and structure of the organization. As a result of formal and informal interactions and the significant influence of the latter, great uncertainty arises for management, risk for decisions (C. Barnard, G. Simon, J. March, etc.)

"Natural" organization(based on the ideas of T. Parsons, R. Merton, A. Etzioni, etc.) The functioning of organizations is considered as an objective, self-improving process, in which the subjective principle will not be predominant. Organization within the framework of this model is understood as the homeostatic state of the system, allowing it to self-adjust under influences from the outside or from the inside. It is important to know that a large role in the functioning of this organization belongs to specially unplanned, spontaneous factors. This approach allows us to consider the organization as a specific social phenomenon, developing according to its own, little-known patterns, as a result of which numerous unforeseen situations arise.

Bureaucratic model M. Weber's organization is close to the organization-machine model, which is based on the concept of rationalization (“bureaucratization”) of human behavior in organizations.

Types of social organizations

Let's study the typology of social organizations according to social systems. We should not forget that the most important demosocial organization pre-industrial society was a family. It is worth noting that it was governed by the laws of customary law and functioned on the basis of a system of customs, traditions, rituals, and strict subordination to the boss - the father. IN industrial In European society, the family became a social institution, regulated by love, morality, and law. When going to post-industrial In society, the family turns into a social group, losing ϲʙᴏ and institutional features. This once again shows the complex dialectical relationship between social group, institution and organization.

Economic organizations - agricultural, industrial, transport, construction, etc. enterprises engaged in the production, distribution, consumption and exchange of material social goods and services. Their activities are accompanied by a system of exchanges, banks, savings banks, etc. financial organizations. Production and financial organizations ensure the functioning and development economic system society. It is worth noting that they differ in state (Asian) and market (European) societies.

IN market In societies, production and financial organizations are created by enterprising owners of the means of production to produce some goods and make a profit. It is worth noting that they are gradually uniting into holdings, trusts, corporations, banks, forming a market economy of the world. In state societies, such organizations are created by state authorities - for example, GAZ in the USSR. It is worth noting that they are part of sectoral monopolies-ministries, forming the state economy of the country.

The enterprise contains a production management body (directorate, production and economic bureaucracy), which develops a charter, a plan, selects funds, and controls the activities of the enterprise. The enterprise operates on the basis of division and coordination of labor of many professional groups regulated by moral, administrative, etc. norms.

Do not forget that the most important political the organization of the society will be government, which contains: 1) legislative, executive, judicial branches; 2) the state apparatus (administration apparatus, or bureaucracy (officialdom)); 3) legal norms (constitution, laws, job descriptions) defining the rights and responsibilities of government bodies and their representatives; 4) material resources of power: finances, buildings, weapons, communications, prisons, etc.

State power is created and improved throughout the postprimitive history of mankind. The goals and functions of state power will be protection from other states (or attack on them), maintaining order, organizing economic life. It is worth noting that it is a hierarchical system of managing society, headed by a monarch or president, parliament, government, etc. By the way, this system operates on the basis of strict differentiation of the activities of statuses and roles. The system of statuses and roles is supported by a system of legal, administrative, moral, material regulators (values, norms, traditions, etc.)

Spiritual the system of society contains ideological (church, parties, etc.), artistic (creative associations, etc.), educational (school, university, etc.), scientific organizations(academies of sciences, etc.) In this system of society, social institutions, not organizations, predominate. This means that the relations between governing bodies and managed organizations-institutions are determined not by administrative and legal norms, but by ideology, mentality, morality (conscience, duty, etc.) In Soviet society - as a type of totalitarian - the CPSU, the Academy of Sciences, etc., were more organizations than institutions.

The type of social organizations depends on historical era. In the post-industrial (post-economic) era, which advanced countries are now opening, there will be post-industrial (post-economic) transnational corporations (TNCs). They are characterized by the following features: 1) their activities are based not on command and control, a strict hierarchy of statuses and roles, but on a modular scheme when small associated groups of workers work on the basis of a common worldview, mentality, and attitudes; 2) the process of creativity, and not its conditions, becomes the property of workers, as a result of which there is an increased dependence of management and owners of corporations on workers; 3) employees in such corporations perceive work as creativity, that is, activity motivated by spiritual (self-realization) interests.

Organizations can be viewed in a broad and narrow sense. In the first case, these are any organized communities of people or a set of social groups interconnected. In the second, it is a social subsystem. In a social organization, there is interaction between various members of which are united by common interests, values, norms and goals that arise in connection with joint activities. Thus, the social organization of an enterprise is a system of social groups (consisting of employees) that are aimed at achieving a common goal - obtaining products and subsequently material resources. Thus, it is formed in connection with the interest of group members in obtaining material benefits.

Social organization has certain characteristics:

• the existence of a system of management and power, subordination of workers to the management of the enterprise;
• the presence of a single goal - provision of services, production of products, etc.
• distribution of responsibilities and powers between employees interacting with each other.

Structure of social organization

Any organization is one of the elements social system. Society includes a set of interacting organizations. The latter is an intermediary between society and man.

Feature social structure - mandatory hierarchical ordering that allows you to regulate social positions different levels. That is, depending on the positions, subordinate employees (workers) are subordinated to higher ones. and the positions that are included in the structure are recorded in documentation, in which each person is assigned a certain range of responsibilities. One of the important conditions for the functioning of an organization is the possibility of advancement through the ranks. The second such condition is the presence of an established communication system. Mutual exchange of information is necessary to coordinate people's activities and make important management decisions.

Social organization and its types

There are several approaches to typology.

In the first of them, 3 types are distinguished:

1. institutions (cultural, financial, educational, scientific, managerial);
2. enterprises (trade, manufacturing, service);
3. public organizations (voluntary, professional, religious).

In another approach, classification is made according to the following criteria:

• economic;
• cultural;
• social;
• managerial.

In the third campaign the following groups are distinguished:

1. forced, when members of a social society become members of a social society in a forced way. These include in particular: the army, labor treatment center, prison, etc.;
2. voluntary, when membership arises on a voluntary basis. These are various trade unions, parties, political movements, religious associations;
3. utilitarian, when members are united to achieve some common and individual goals. These include firms, banks, and enterprises.

Social organization can also be:

• public - these are mass associations to meet social, economic, cultural, political and other needs. These include parties;
• business - thanks to which workers are provided with a means of subsistence. These are firms, banks and enterprises;
• associative - arises for the mutual realization of interests. and clubs;
• intermediate - combines the characteristics of social and business organizations. These are cooperatives and partnerships.