Textbook: Social ecology. Environmental problems of plants

One of the global problems of mankind is the constantly deteriorating state of its environment, the cause of which is itself. The interaction between man and nature, which is becoming more active, has led to ecosystem disturbances, many of which are irreversible. Thus, the ecological problem of mankind lies in the fact that further rash use of natural resources will lead to a catastrophe on a planetary scale.

Destruction of plants and animals

The technical civilization of modernity has generated a lot of environmental problems that need to be considered separately.

Not all even the global environmental problems of mankind can lead to such catastrophic consequences as this one. The world gene pool is depleted and destroyed, and species diversity is being violated faster and faster. Now about 20 million species of flora and fauna live on Earth, but they also become victims of an unfavorable environment.

American environmentalists made a report on their research, according to which over the past two centuries our planet has lost 900 thousand species, which means that on average about 12 species die out every day!

Fig.1. Extinction of species.

Deforestation

The rate of planting of green spaces cannot overtake the rate of their destruction, the scale of which becomes so catastrophic that in the next hundred years people will literally have nothing to breathe. Moreover, the main enemy of the “lungs of the planet” is not even lumberjacks, but acid rain. Sulfur dioxide emitted by power plants travels long distances, falls as precipitation and kills trees. Any essay on this topic will show sad statistics - every year 10 million hectares of forests disappear on the planet, and the numbers are becoming more and more frightening.

Figure 2. Deforestation.

Reducing the stock of minerals

The uncontrolled and ever-increasing consumption of ore reserves and other gifts of the planet led to a natural result - the environment was disturbed, and humanity was on the verge of a crisis. Minerals accumulated in the depths for a long time, but modern society pumps and digs them incredibly fast: for example, of the total amount of oil that has been produced, half is the result of the last 15 years of human activity. If you continue in the same spirit, it will last for several decades.

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Instead of using minerals as resources for energy production, alternative and inexhaustible sources can be used for the same purpose - the sun, wind, heat from the bowels.

Pollution and destruction of the oceans

Without water, people will die out just as without air, but garbage is still a global problem for mankind. Garbage litters not only land, but also water expanses. Chemical waste is dumped into the ocean, causing the death of animals, fish and plankton, the surface of huge areas is covered with an oil film, and non-degradable synthetic waste turns into garbage islands. In short, this is not just environmental pollution, but a real disaster.

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The level of human impact on the environment depends primarily on the technical equipment of society. It was extremely small at the initial stages of human development. However, with the development of society, the growth of its productive forces, the situation begins to change dramatically. The 20th century is the century of scientific and technological progress. Associated with a qualitatively new relationship between science, engineering and technology, it colossally increases the possible and real scale of society's impact on nature, poses a number of new, extremely acute problems and, first of all, ecological.
What is ecology? This term, first used in 1866 by the German biologist E. Haeckel (1834-1919), refers to the science of the relationship of living organisms with the environment. The scientist believed that new science will deal only with the relationship of animals and plants with their environment. This term has firmly entered our lives in the 70s of the XX century. However, today we are actually talking about the problems of ecology as social ecology - a science that studies the problems of interaction between society and the environment.

Today ecological situation in the world can be characterized as close to critical. Among the global environmental problems are the following:

1. - the atmosphere in many places is polluted to the maximum permissible extent, and fresh air becomes a deficit

2. - the ozone layer is partially broken, protecting from cosmic radiation harmful to all living things;

3. the forest cover has been largely destroyed;

4. - surface pollution and disfigurement of natural landscapes: on Earth it is impossible to find a single square meter of the surface, where there would be no elements artificially created by man.
thousands of species of plants and animals have been destroyed and continue to be destroyed;

5. - the world ocean is not only depleted as a result of the destruction of living organisms, but also ceases to be a regulator of natural processes

6. - the available stock of minerals is rapidly declining;

7. - extinction of animal and plant species

1Atmospheric pollution

Back in the early sixties, it was believed that air pollution was a local problem. big cities and industrial centers, but later it became clear that air pollutants can spread through the air over long distances, having an adverse effect on areas located at a considerable distance from the place of emission of these substances। Thus, air pollution is a global phenomenon and international cooperation is needed to control it.

Table 1 Ten most dangerous pollutants of the biosphere

Among the mostcommon atmospheric pollutants include gases such as freons
। Greenhouse gases also include methane released into the atmosphere during the extraction of oil, gas, coal, as well as during the decay of organic residues, an increase in the number of cattle। Methane growth is 1.5% per year। This also includes such a compound as nitrous oxide, which enters the atmosphere as a result of the widespread use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture, as well as as a result of the combustion of carbon-containing fuels in combined heat and power plants। However, do not forget that despite the huge contribution of these gases to the "greenhouse effect", the main greenhouse gas on Earth is still water vapor। With this phenomenon, the heat received by the Earth does not spread into the atmosphere, but thanks to greenhouse gases remains near the Earth's surface, and only 20% of the total thermal radiation of the earth's surface irretrievably goes into space. Roughly speaking, greenhouse gases form a kind of glass cap over the surface of the planet.

In the future, this can lead to increased ice melting and an unpredictable rise in the level of the world ocean, to the flooding of part of the coast of the continents, the disappearance of a number of plant and animal species that are unable to adapt to new natural conditions of life. The phenomenon of the "greenhouse effect" is one of the main root causes of such an urgent problem as global warming।

2 Ozone holes

The ecological problem of the ozone layer is no less complex in scientific terms. As you know, life on Earth appeared only after the protective ozone layer of the planet was formed, covering it from cruel ultraviolet radiation. For many centuries, nothing foreshadowed trouble. However, in recent decades, intensive destruction of this layer has been noticed.

4 Desertification

Under the influence of living organisms, water and air on the surface layers of the lithosphere

gradually formed the most important ecosystem, thin and fragile - the soil, which is called the "skin of the Earth." It is the keeper of fertility and life. A handful of good soil contains millions of microorganisms that support fertility.
It takes a century to form a layer of soil with a thickness (thickness) of 1 centimeter. It can be lost in one field season. Geologists estimate that before people began to engage in agricultural activities, graze livestock and plow land, rivers annually carried about 9 billion tons of soil into the oceans. Now this amount is estimated at about 25 billion tons 2 .

Soil erosion - a purely local phenomenon - has now become universal. In the US, for example, about 44% of cultivated land is subject to erosion. Unique rich chernozems with humus content have disappeared in Russia ( organic matter, which determines the fertility of the soil) in 14–16%, which was called the citadel of Russian agriculture. In Russia, the areas of the most fertile lands with a humus content of 10-13% have decreased by almost 5 times 2 .

A particularly difficult situation arises when not only the soil layer is demolished, but also the parent rock on which it develops. Then the threshold of irreversible destruction sets in, an anthropogenic (that is, man-made) desert arises.

One of the most formidable, global and fleeting processes of our time is the expansion of desertification, the fall and, in the most extreme cases, the complete destruction of the biological potential of the Earth, which leads to conditions similar to those of a natural desert.

Natural deserts and semi-deserts occupy more than 1/3 of the earth's surface. About 15% of the world's population lives on these lands. Deserts are natural formations that play a certain role in the overall ecological balance of the planet's landscapes.

As a result of human activity, by the last quarter of the 20th century, more than 9 million square kilometers of deserts appeared, and in total they already covered 43% of the total land area 2.

In the 1990s, desertification began to threaten 3.6 million hectares of drylands.

This represents 70% of the potentially productive drylands, or ¼ of the total land area, and this figure does not include the area of ​​natural deserts. About 1/6 of the world's population suffers from this process 2 .

According to UN experts, the current loss of productive land will lead to the fact that by the end of the century the world may lose almost 1/3 of its arable land 2 . Such a loss, at a time of unprecedented population growth and increased food demand, could be truly disastrous.

5 Pollution of the hydrosphere

One of the most valuable resources of the Earth is the hydrosphere - oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, glaciers of the Arctic and Antarctic. There are 1385 million kilometers of water reserves on Earth and very little, only 25% of fresh water suitable for human life. And in spite of

these are people who are very crazy about this wealth and completely, randomly destroy it, polluting the water with various wastes. Mankind uses mainly fresh water for its needs. Their volume is slightly more than 2% of the hydrosphere, and the distribution water resources across the globe is extremely uneven. In Europe and Asia, where 70% of the world's population lives, only 39% of river waters are concentrated. The total consumption of river waters is increasing from year to year in all regions of the world. It is known, for example, that since the beginning of the 21st century, fresh water consumption has increased 6 times, and in the next few decades it will increase by at least 1.5 times.

The lack of water is exacerbated by the deterioration of its quality. The waters used in industry, agriculture and everyday life are returned to water bodies in the form of poorly treated or generally untreated effluents. Thus, pollution of the hydrosphere occurs primarily as a result of the discharge into rivers, lakes and seas of industrial,

agricultural and domestic wastewater.
According to the calculations of scientists, soon 25,000 cubic kilometers of fresh water, or almost all of the actually available resources of such a runoff, may soon be required to dilute these very wastewaters. It is not difficult to guess that it is in this, and not in the growth of direct water intake. main reason aggravation of the problem of fresh water. It should be noted that wastewater containing the remains of mineral raw materials, human life products enrich water bodies with nutrients, which in turn leads to the development of algae, and as a result, to waterlogging of the reservoir. Currently, many rivers are heavily polluted - the Rhine, Danube, Seine, Ohio, Volga, Dnieper, Dniester and others. City drains and large landfills are often the cause of water pollution by heavy metals and hydrocarbons. Since heavy metals accumulate in marine food chains, their concentrations can reach lethal doses, which happened after a large industrial release of mercury into the coastal waters of Japan near the city of Minimata. The increased concentration of this metal in the tissues of fish has led to the death of many people and animals who have eaten the contaminated product. Increased doses of heavy metals, pesticides and petroleum products can significantly weaken the protective properties of organisms. The concentration of carcinogens in the North Sea is currently reaching enormous values. Huge reserves of these substances are concentrated in the tissues of dolphins,

being the last link in the food chain. The countries located on the coast of the North Sea have recently been implementing a set of measures aimed at reducing, and in the future, completely stopping the discharge into the sea and the incineration of toxic waste. In addition, man carries out the transformation of the waters of the hydrosphere through the construction of hydraulic structures, in particular reservoirs. Large reservoirs and canals have a serious negative impact on the environment: they change the ground water in the coastal strip, affect soils and plant communities, in the end, their water areas occupy large areas of fertile land.

Nowadays, pollution of the world's oceans is growing at an alarming rate. And here a significant role is played not only by sewage pollution, but also by the ingress of a large amount of oil products into the waters of the seas and oceans. In general, the most polluted are the inland seas: the Mediterranean, North, Baltic, Japan, Java, and Biscay,

Persian and Mexican Gulfs. Pollution of the seas and oceans occurs through two channels. Firstly, sea and river vessels pollute water with waste products from operational activities, products of internal combustion in engines. Secondly, pollution occurs as a result of accidents, when toxic substances mostly oil and oil products. Diesel engines of ships emit harmful substances into the atmosphere, which subsequently settle on the surface of the water. On tankers, before each next loading, containers are washed to remove the remains of previously transported cargo, while the washing water, and with it the remains of cargo, are most often dumped overboard. In addition, after the delivery of the cargo, the tankers are sent to the new loading point empty, in this case, for proper navigation, the tankers are filled with ballast water, which is contaminated with oil residues during the navigation. Before loading, this water is also poured overboard. As for the legislative measures to control oil pollution during the operation of oil terminals and the discharge of ballast water from oil tankers, they were taken much earlier, after the danger of large spills became obvious.

Among such methods (or possible ways of solving the problem) can be attributed the emergence and activity of various kinds of "green" movements and organizations. In addition to the notorious « Green PeaWithe'a",distinguished not only by the scope of its activities, but also, at times, by a noticeable extremism of actions, as well as similar organizations that directly carry out environmental protection

In other words, there is another type of environmental organization - structures that stimulate and sponsor environmental activities - such as the Wildlife Fund, for example. All environmental organizations exist in one of the forms: public, private state or mixed type organizations.

In addition to various kinds of associations that defend the rights of civilization that are gradually destroying nature, there are a number of state or public environmental initiatives in the field of solving environmental problems. For example, environmental legislation in Russia and other countries of the world, various international agreements or the system of "Red Books".

International "Red Book" - a list of rare and endangered species of animals and plants - currently includes 5 volumes of materials. In addition, there are national and even regional "Red Books".

Among the most important ways to solve environmental problems, most researchers also highlight the introduction of environmentally friendly, low-waste and waste-free technologies, the construction of treatment facilities, the rational distribution of production and the use of natural resources.

Although, undoubtedly - and this is proved by the entire course of human history - the most important direction in solving the environmental problems facing civilization is the increase ecological culture of a person, serious ecological education and upbringing, everything that eradicates the main ecological conflict - the conflict between the savage consumer and the intelligent inhabitant of the fragile world that exists in the human mind.

The problem of protecting the plant world and the entire environment in our days has a vital importance. Factors that disturb the balance of ecological systems are known. One of the universal factors is the growth of industry, transport, urban economy. These are emissions into the atmosphere, into water bodies of waste from industrial enterprises, vehicle exhaust gases. They pollute vast areas on a global scale.

Another important factor is the irrational, predatory use of natural resources. This group includes clear felling forests that expose vast areas. And this leads to soil erosion.

A special place in the destruction of the balance in nature is occupied by mass recreation of the population. Free access of the population to recreational areas around cities leads to forest fires, broken trees and shrubs, trampled grasses, and littered forests. But the most dangerous consequence of the rest of the townspeople is the immoderate picking of bouquets, medicinal herbs, rare plants. So, under the threat of reduction were such wild medicinal plants, like spring adonis, Caucasian Dioscorea, ginseng and many others, especially bulbous, tuberous, rhizomatous herbaceous plants.

One of the forms of saving rare and endangered plant species is the organization of botanical gardens. In them, areas of diversity of local flora are created and work is underway to study and preserve the genetic fund of the plant world. After all, many plant species have disappeared from the face of the Earth. Many plant species are in danger of extinction today.

Gerald Durrell said very accurately: "The extermination of any kind is a criminal act, equal to the destruction of unique cultural monuments, such as paintings by Rembrandt or the Acropolis." Man has no right to consider himself the master of nature. The biosphere of the Earth must be known, scientifically studied, and protected.

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PLANT PROTECTION

The problem of protecting the plant world and the entire environment is of vital importance today. Factors that disturb the balance of ecological systems are known. One of the universal factors is the growth of industry, transport, urban economy. These are emissions into the atmosphere, into water bodies of waste from industrial enterprises, vehicle exhaust gases. They pollute vast areas on a global scale.

Another important factor is the irrational, predatory use of natural resources. This group includes clear cuttings of forests, due to which huge areas are exposed. And this leads to soil erosion.

A special place in the destruction of the balance in nature is occupied by mass recreation of the population. Free access of the population to recreational areas around cities leads to forest fires, broken trees and shrubs, trampled grasses, and littered forests. But the most dangerous consequence of the rest of the townspeople is the immoderate collection of bouquets, medicinal herbs, and rare plants. Thus, such wild-growing medicinal plants as spring adonis, Caucasian Dioscorea, ginseng and many others, especially bulbous, bulbous, rhizomatous herbaceous plants, were under the threat of reduction.

One of the forms of saving rare and endangered plant species is the organization of botanical gardens. In them, areas of diversity of local flora are created and work is underway to study and preserve the genetic fund of the plant world. After all, many plant species have disappeared from the face of the Earth. Many plant species are in danger of extinction today.

Gerald Durrell said very accurately: "The extermination of any kind is a criminal act, equal to the destruction of unique cultural monuments, such as paintings by Rembrandt or the Acropolis." Man has no right to consider himself the master of nature. The biosphere of the Earth must be known, scientifically studied, and protected.

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF JUSTICE

Faculty of Specialists Training

for the judiciary

CORRESPONDENCE TRAINING

(CORRESPONDENCE Faculty of Law)

COURSE WORK

In the discipline "International Law"

On the topic: "Actual international legal problems of the protection of flora and fauna"

Performed:

5th year student

distance learning

(second degree)

weekend group

Zaitseva M.A.

Scientific adviser:

Rafalyuk E.E., PhD in Law, Associate Professor

To present work

Moscow 2013

Introduction

International legal regime for the protection of flora and fauna

International organizations for the protection of flora and fauna

Problems of legal regulation of environmental protection in Russian Federation

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Progress in the development of science and technology, the economy of states is associated with intensive and ever-expanding human intervention in the natural environment, a person violates natural connections and processes, which leads to the degradation of soils and water bodies, atmospheric air and forests. In turn, this causes great damage to flora and fauna, leading to the disappearance of many species of flora and fauna. In recent decades alone, many hundreds of species of plants, mammals, birds, and fish have disappeared due to the harmful anthropogenic impact on nature.

Therefore, it is quite natural that the formation of international environmental law followed the path of adopting conventions on the protection of certain species of flora and fauna.

The relevance of the topic under consideration lies in the fact that in the face of the threat of a global environmental catastrophe, the international community has come to the realization of the fact that through the efforts of individual states, and even their regional associations problems are not solved. Consolidated efforts of all states are needed. Only through the conclusion of comprehensive and universal international treaties, as well as the creation of an effective mechanism for international control over their implementation, can any significant positive results be achieved in reducing the global environmental threat.

The purpose of this work is to, on the basis of a legal analysis of the doctrines international law environment, international treaties and customs to theoretically generalize the largest and most urgent international legal problems of the protection of flora and fauna.

To achieve this goal, a number of tasks are distinguished:

1. Study of the international legal regime for the protection of flora and fauna.

Consideration of the activities of individual international organizations for the protection of flora and fauna.

3.Definition and description of topical international legal problems of animal and plant protection.

1.International legal regime for the protection of flora and fauna

International cooperation in the field of environmental protection originated relatively recently - in late XIX in. At first, such cooperation was clearly episodic in nature, based mostly on bilateral agreements and related to the protection of individual natural objects.

The animal and plant world is characterized by biological diversity. It includes diversity within a species (genetic diversity), between species (species diversity) and ecosystems (ecosystem diversity).

Living organisms are responsible for a wide range of ecological functions that maintain the ecological balance in nature, such as the regulation of atmospheric gases, the protection of coastal zones, the regulation of the hydrological cycle and climate, the formation and maintenance of soil fertility, the dispersion and decomposition of waste, the pollination of many crops, and the absorption of pollutants. .

The most important role, both at the global and local levels, is played by forest ecosystems, which serve as providers of environmental services for all living things in general, and for humanity.

The Stockholm Conference of 1972 characterized forests as the largest, most complex and self-preserving ecosystems of all existing on Earth. During the Conference, the need to develop a quality forest management policy, conduct global monitoring of the state of forests and implement forest management planning was especially emphasized. The conference recommended that countries:

-strengthened basic and applied research to improve forestry planning and management, focusing on the functions they perform;

-modernized the concept of forest management, including an understanding of the various functions of the forest, as well as assessing the costs and profitability of forest management.

The conference also called for:

-organizations of the UN system to consolidate their efforts to integrate environmental data in the field of national land use and forest management in order to obtain the necessary new knowledge in this area;

-continue to monitor the global state of forest cover by organizing (in countries) the necessary monitoring system for these purposes.

The international community has adopted a number of international legal acts aimed at protecting the flora and fauna. A special place among them is occupied by the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and natural heritage adopted in Paris in 1972 at the 17th session of UNESCO. Its participants are 176 states, including Russia.

By natural heritage, the Convention understands:

natural monuments created by physical and biological formations or groups of such formations, having an outstanding universal value in terms of aesthetics or science;

geological and physiographic formations and severely restricted areas representing the range of endangered animal and plant species of outstanding universal scientific or conservation value;

natural attractions or strictly limited natural areas that are of outstanding universal value for science, conservation, or natural beauty.

In accordance with Art. 5 of the Convention, each State Party is obliged:

1) pursue a policy to give cultural and natural heritage certain functions in public life and to protect this heritage within the framework of the program general planning;

) establish on its territory one or more services for the protection, preservation and promotion of cultural and natural heritage;

) to develop scientific and technical developments and research to improve the methods of work for the conservation of cultural and natural heritage;

) take appropriate legal, scientific, technical, administrative and financial measures to identify, protect, preserve, promote and restore this heritage;

) to promote the creation or development of national or regional centers of training in the field of protection, preservation and promotion of cultural and natural heritage, as well as to encourage scientific research in this field.

To ensure the implementation of the provisions of the Convention, it is planned to create a special body under UNESCO - the Intergovernmental Committee for the Protection of the World and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Committee).

According to Art. 19 of the Convention, any state party to the Convention may apply for international assistance in favor of cultural or natural heritage property of outstanding universal value located on its territory. It must submit, together with its application, the documentation, which must contain a description of the proposed activity, necessary work, their approximate cost, urgency and statement of reasons, etc.

As a general rule, funding for the necessary work should only be partly borne by the international community. The financial contribution of the state benefiting from international assistance should be a significant part of the funds allocated for each program or project, unless its resources do not allow it.

The key place among the international legal acts aimed at protecting the flora and fauna is occupied by the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, adopted and open for signing at the Conference in Rio de Janeiro. In 1995 this Convention was ratified by Russia. Its participants today are 167 states and the EU.

The preamble of the Convention notes the value of biological diversity, as well as the ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic value biodiversity for the evolution and conservation of the life-supporting systems of the biosphere, which is common goal of all mankind and states have sovereign rights over their own biological resources and are responsible for the conservation of their biological diversity and the sustainable use of their biological resources. The participating States have expressed concern that biological diversity is being significantly reduced as a result of some human activities. Therefore, it is necessary to develop scientific, technical and organizational capacities to ensure a common understanding of this problem, as well as to take appropriate measures to prevent and eliminate the cause of the reduction or loss of biological diversity.

It is further noted that the main condition for the conservation of biological diversity is the conservation of in-situ ecosystems and natural habitats, the maintenance and restoration of viable populations, species in natural conditions, and here the great and traditional dependence of many local communities and indigenous peoples who are the keepers of the traditional way of life from biological resources and, preferably, to share in an equitable manner the benefits associated with the application of traditional knowledge, innovations and practices relevant to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.

The main obligation under the Convention is the conservation of species and ecosystems and their sustainable (ie not leading to reduction and extinction) use.

Art. Article 3 of the Convention establishes that states have the sovereign right to develop their own resources in accordance with their environmental policies and are responsible for ensuring that activities within their jurisdiction or under their control do not cause damage to the environment of other states or areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

The parties to the Convention have undertaken to develop national strategies, plans and programs for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and for these purposes in accordance with Art. 8 establish systems of protected areas in which special measures must be taken to conserve biological diversity; develop guidelines for the selection, establishment and management of such areas; regulate or rationally use biological resources that are important for the conservation of biological diversity; contribute to the protection of ecosystems, take measures to restore degraded ecosystems; develop or implement the necessary legislative norms to fulfill their obligations under the Convention and other measures provided for in Art. 9, 10.

The Convention also regulates the issues of ecological expertise, the provision of mutual information by the Parties on possible adverse effects in order to prevent them, the adoption of legislative measures, access to genetic resources, to biotechnology on fair and most favorable conditions.

Reservations to the Convention on Biological Diversity are not allowed.

In development of the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity, in January 2000 in Montreal (Canada) the Cartagena Protocol on Safety to the Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted, which entered into force on September 11, 2003. Russia does not participate in this agreement.

The purpose of the Protocol is to provide an adequate level of protection in the area of ​​the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms resulting from the application of modern biotechnology and that may adversely affect the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, also taking into account risks to human health and with particular attention to transboundary movement.

The Protocol specifically requires the exporter to provide notification in writing to the national competent authority of the country of import prior to the intentional transboundary movement of a living modified organism falling within the scope of this agreement.

The Protocol pays particular attention to the notification procedure for living modified organisms intended for direct use as food or feed or for processing.

The Protocol also provides for the exchange of information and the Biosafety Clearing-House.

Also of great importance are international legal acts aimed at the conservation of certain species of wildlife, especially those that are endangered. In this regard, special mention should be made of the Convention on international trade endangered species of wild fauna and flora, which was signed in Washington in 1973 (CITES). Its participants are 165 states, including Russia.

The essence of the Convention is that special conditions international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora. All of them are summarized in three Appendixes.

Appendix I includes all species that are threatened with extinction and for which trade has or may have an impact on their existence.

Annex II includes:

(a) all species which, although not necessarily currently under immediate threat of extinction, may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is strictly regulated to prevent their use incompatible with their survival;

b) other species that should be subject to control so that trade in specimens of the species referred to in point "a" can be effectively controlled.

The provisions of the Convention completely prohibit trade in species listed in Appendix I. For other species (listed in Appendix II and III), trade is allowed, but strictly regulated.

Annex III includes all species which, by definition of any Party, should be subject to regulation within its own jurisdiction to prevent or limit exploitation, and which require the cooperation of other Parties in regulating trade.

To perform export-import operations with specimens of species, the countries parties to the Convention must require a special permit in accordance with the species specified in the Annexes, and only if certain conditions are met: decision of the scientific competent authorities that there is no threat to the survival of this species; proof that this sample was not obtained in violation of the laws of this state relating to the protection of fauna and flora, etc.

Another important international treaty in this area is the 1994 Lusaka Agreement on Joint Action Against the Illegal Trade in Flora and Fauna. Russia, unfortunately, does not participate in it.

The purpose of the Agreement in accordance with Art. 2 - reduce and subsequently completely eradicate illegal trade in flora and fauna. To realize this goal, a Special Commission for carrying out actions against illegal trade in flora and fauna (Task Force) has been established on a permanent basis.

It should be noted that the above Agreement is one of the most effective and efficient international treaties in the field of conservation and protection of the environment.

At the UNCTAD Conference in Geneva on January 26, 1994, the International Tropical Timber Agreement was adopted, which entered into force on January 1, 1997. Russia does not participate in the Agreement.

Objectives of the agreement: Facilitate the process sustainable development; increasing the capacity of participants to implement a strategy to achieve sustainably sourced tropical timber and timber exports by the year 2000; encouraging and supporting research and development to improve forest management and improve the efficiency of wood use; consultations to encourage non-discriminatory timber trade practices, etc.

Given the significant ecological functions of wetlands as regulators of the water regime and as habitats that ensure the existence of characteristic flora and fauna, especially waterfowl, under the auspices of UNESCO, on February 2, 1971, the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance was adopted, the main as a habitat for waterfowl (Ramsar Convention). Russia, as the successor state of the USSR, is a party to the Convention, its Protocol of 1982 and subsequent amendments.

The preamble to the Ramsar Convention emphasizes that wetlands are a resource of great economic, cultural and recreational value, the loss of which would be irreparable, and one of the arguments in favor of adopting the convention is the desire to stop the increasing human encroachment on wetlands and their loss.

Wetlands in the Convention are areas of swamps, foehns, peatlands or bodies of water - natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, stagnant or flowing, fresh, brackish or saline, including sea waters, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters, and accordingly, waterfowl refers to birds that are ecologically associated with wetlands.

Each party to the Convention determines the list of wetlands on its territory, which are included in the List of wetlands international importance. The legal significance of the inclusion in the List of certain wetlands lies in the fact that as a result there is a basis for the implementation of joint coordinated measures for their protection.

The convention provides that the participants convene conferences for the protection of wetlands and waterfowl as necessary. These Conferences are advisory in nature and have the right to:

Discuss the implementation of the provisions of the Convention;

Discuss additions and changes to the List;

Consider information regarding changes in the ecological character of listed wetlands;

to request relevant international bodies to produce reports and statistics of a predominantly international nature relating to wetlands.

Each of the Contracting Parties shall have one vote in the Conference, with recommendations being adopted by a simple majority of the votes cast, provided that at least half of the Contracting Parties take part in the vote.

The adverse effects of desertification and drought are of serious concern to the international community. In this regard, on January 17, 1994, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those countries experiencing severe drought and/or desertification, especially in Africa, was adopted in Paris. Russia acceded to the Convention on May 29, 2003.

The objective of the Convention is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing severe drought and/or desertification, especially in Africa, through effective action at all levels, combined with international cooperation and partnership agreements, in an integrated approach consistent with Agenda 21 and aimed at achieving sustainable development in the affected areas.

The Parties to the Convention are committed to:

1.give priority to desertification control and drought mitigation and allocate adequate resources according to their own circumstances and capabilities;

2.develop strategies and set priorities, within the framework of sustainable development plans and strategies, to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought;

3.address issues of addressing the causes underlying desertification and give Special attention socio-economic factors contributing to the development of desertification processes;

4.promote local awareness and participation, especially women and youth, with the support of non-governmental organizations, in efforts to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought;

5.create an enabling environment through the appropriate strengthening of relevant existing laws and, where they do not exist, through the issuance of new laws and the formulation of long-term policies and programs of action.

The Convention provides for national, subregional and regional programs of action, as well as scientific and technological cooperation to effective fight with desertification and drought.

For the settlement of disputes arising in connection with the convention, an appropriate procedure is provided, and the parties have the right, as an alternative, to apply to the International Court of Justice.

Reservations to the Convention are not permitted.

Very important provisions are concentrated in three annexes to the Convention concerning the implementation of the convention at the regional level for Africa (Annex I), Asia (Annex II), Latin America and the Caribbean (Annex III), Northern Mediterranean(Appendix IV). These Applications take into account the special conditions of the respective regions.

Taking into account the special importance of protecting people, flora and fauna from the effects of industrial accidents, on March 17, 1992, in Helsinki, under the auspices of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, the Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents was adopted.

The need for international legal regulation in this area is due to the fact that the harmful effects of industrial accidents can be felt beyond borders and require cooperation between states.

The provisions of the Convention apply to the prevention of industrial accidents, preparedness for them and the response to accidents that may lead to transboundary impacts, including the impact of accidents caused by natural disasters, as well as to international cooperation concerning mutual assistance, research and development, exchange of information and technology in the field of industrial accident prevention, preparedness and response.

An important provision of the Convention is the obligation of the States Parties to the Convention to provide mutual assistance. If, in the event of an industrial accident, a Party needs assistance, it may request it from other Parties, indicating the amount and type of assistance required. The Party to which the request for assistance is addressed shall immediately decide and inform the Party that has sent the request whether it can provide the required assistance, and also indicates the amount and conditions of assistance that can be provided.

The Convention contains a number of annexes that specify the provisions of the Convention regarding, for example, a list of hazardous substances for the purpose of identifying hazardous activities, dispute settlement procedures, measures to ensure preparedness for emergencies etc.

The International Plant Protection Convention of 1951 is aimed at strengthening cooperation in the control of diseases and pests of plants and plant products and preventing their removal and spread beyond national borders. The Convention entered into force on 03.04.1952. Russia participates in the convention as a successor state of the USSR.

In accordance with the provisions of the Convention, each member is obliged to establish a national plant protection organization with the following main functions:

) inspection of growing plants, cultivated land (including fields, plantations, nurseries, gardens and greenhouses), plants and plant products in warehouses and in transit, especially with a view to detecting the presence, emergence and spread of plant diseases and pests and controlling these diseases and pests;

(a) Examination of plants and plant products traded internationally and, within its capabilities, examination of other imported and exported items and commodities that are in such conditions that they may inadvertently be carriers of diseases and pests of plants and plant products;

)inspection and supervision of warehouses and all kinds of Vehicle used in international exchange for both plants and plant products and other products, especially to prevent the spread of diseases and pests of plants and plant products across national borders;

)carrying out disinsection or disinfection of plants and plant products that are the object of international trade, as well as containers, storage facilities and all vehicles used for transportation;

)issuance of certificates regarding the phytosanitary status and origin of exported plants and plant products (“phytosanitary certificates”).

Thus, an analysis of the provisions of the international conventions discussed above shows that today the international community has at its disposal a fairly effective and efficient system of international legal means to ensure adequate protection of the animal and plant world.

2.International organizations for the protection of flora and fauna

international legal protection vegetable

The UN Charter is the main international legal act, but does not contain provisions directly related to the protection and preservation of the environment. In accordance with Art. 1 The UN pursues such a goal as the implementation of international cooperation in resolving international problems of an economic, social, cultural and humanitarian nature, in the promotion and development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion, and to be a center for the concerted action of nations in the pursuit of these common goals.

In 1972, under the auspices of the UN, the first international environmental forum was held - the UN Conference on the Environment, at which representatives of 113 states discussed global environmental problems and adopted a number of decisions that still determine the development of international environmental law.

Under the auspices of the UN, the vast majority of international treaties in the field of environmental protection have been concluded. And their number is growing year by year.

The UN carries out its activities to protect and preserve the environment through its two main bodies - General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council. The main instrument of the activity of the General Assembly in the field of protection and preservation of the environment are resolutions.

By resolution, the UN General Assembly is created in accordance with Art. 22 of the UN Charter subsidiary bodies for the implementation of the functions of the General Assembly. One of the most important such bodies is the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).

The basic component of the UN activities is the concept of sustainable development, which consists in the formation of a balanced model for the development of a civilization that is safe for the environment.

The Commission on Sustainable Development was established as a functional body of the Economic and Social Council and is associated with the emergence and development of the concept of sustainable development

In accordance with Resolution 47/191 of 1992, the Commission strengthens international cooperation and improves decision-making capacities among governments to integrate environment and development issues and reviews the implementation of Agenda 21 at the international, regional and national levels.

Guided by the program documents signed at the Conference in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the President of the Russian Federation approved by Decree of February 4, 1994 No. 236 the Main provisions of the state strategy of the Russian Federation for environmental protection and sustainable development. Among the main activities to ensure environmentally sound sustainable development are:

environmentally sound distribution of productive forces;

environmentally safe development of industry, energy, transport and public utilities;

ecologically safe development of agriculture;

sustainable use of renewable natural resources;

expanded use of secondary resources, recycling, neutralization and disposal of waste;

improvement of management in the field of environmental protection, nature management, prevention and elimination of emergency situations.

The concept of sustainable development also outlined the main directions of Russia's international activities in the field of environmental protection, including:

-biodiversity conservation;

-protecting the ozone layer from depletion;

-prevention of anthropogenic climate change;

-forest protection and reforestation;

-combating desertification;

-development and improvement of the system of specially protected natural areas;

-ensuring the safe destruction of chemical and nuclear weapons;

-solution of the problems of the World Ocean and interstate regional environmental problems (reduction of transboundary pollution, normalization of the environment in the basins of the Baltic, Black, Azov, Caspian Seas and the Arctic region).

The Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted in Paris in 1972, was a special body under UNESCO - the Intergovernmental Committee for the Protection of the World and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Committee). It consists of twenty-one States Parties to the Convention, which are elected during the ordinary sessions of the General Conference of UNESCO on the basis of equitable representation of different parts of the world and cultures.

Each of the Parties to the Convention shall provide the Committee with a list of cultural and natural heritage properties located on its territory that may be included in the World Heritage List based on their Outstanding Universal Value in accordance with established criteria.

The Committee shall compile, update and publish, when circumstances so warrant, a List of World Heritage in Danger, as well as a list of properties on the World Heritage List for which significant work is required to save and for which assistance may be requested under the Convention. This list indicates the approximate cost of operations. This list may only include cultural and natural heritage properties that are threatened by serious and specific dangers, such as the threat of extinction due to progressive destruction, large public or private works projects, rapid urban and tourism development, destruction due to a change in purpose or property rights to land, serious damage due to an unknown cause, earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, changes in water level, floods, tides, etc. In case of emergency, the Committee may at any time include a new value in the List of World Heritage in Danger and immediately report it.

Decisions of the Committee are taken by a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting. The quorum is a simple majority of the members of the Committee.

The World Heritage Committee is assisted by a Secretariat appointed by the Director-General of UNESCO.

In accordance with Article 15 of the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, the Fund for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of Outstanding Universal Value (the World Heritage Fund) was established.

Contributions to the Fund and other forms of assistance provided to the Committee may only be used for purposes determined by the Committee. The Committee may accept contributions intended only for a particular program or project, subject to the Committee's decision on the execution of that program or project. Contributions to the Fund are not subject to any political conditions.

The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity established a special body - the Conference of the Parties.

The main task of the Conference of the Parties is to constantly monitor the implementation of the provisions of the Convention. To this end, the Conference, in particular, considers scientific, technical and technological recommendations on biological diversity, amendments to the Convention and its annexes, establishes the necessary subsidiary bodies.

An important element of the work of the Conference of the Parties is reporting on the measures it has taken to implement the provisions of the Convention and on their effectiveness in achieving the objectives of the Convention.

The Lusaka Agreement on Joint Action Against Illicit Trade in Flora and Fauna of 1994 established a Special Commission for Action Against Illegal Trade in Flora and Fauna in order to realize its objectives.

The Commission includes the Director, operations officers, intelligence officer and other employees as determined by the Board of Governors.

All employees of the Commission enjoy privileges and immunities in accordance with international law.

To implement the provisions of the Lusaka Agreement, each of the participants is obliged to create a state body on its territory - the National Bureau.

The Governing Council consists of representatives of all parties to the agreement, usually at the ministerial level, whose competence includes environmental issues.

The Ramsar Convention of February 2, 1971 established a permanent bureau - the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

The duties of the permanent bureau are as follows:

Facilitate the convening and organization of conferences;

Maintain the List of Wetlands of International Importance and receive information from Contracting Parties on any additions, extensions, deletions or limitations to wetlands included in the List;

Receive information from Contracting Parties on any changes in the ecological character of wetlands included in the List;

Send notice to all Contracting Parties of any changes to the List or changes in the nature of the wetlands included in it, and ensure that these matters are discussed at the next conference;

bring to the attention of the Contracting Parties concerned the recommendations of the conferences regarding such changes to the List or changes in the nature of wetlands on the List.

Members international convention Plant Protection Council of 1951 pledged to work together to establish regional plant protection organizations.

One such organization, which today plays a central role, was created in accordance with the Convention establishing the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization of April 18, 1951, as amended by the Council on April 27, 1955.

Almost all states of the region are members of this organization. Russia also participates in this international agreement. The seat of the Organization is Paris.

The main functions of the Organization relate mainly to pest control, such as the Colorado potato beetle, American white butterfly, etc. The objectives of the Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization are:

1)carry out its work in cooperation with the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization as a recognized regional plant protection organization, in accordance with the International Plant Protection Convention of December 6, 1951;

2)advise Member Governments on the technical, administrative and legislative measures necessary to prevent the introduction and spread of pests and diseases of plants and plant products;

3)to assist, where necessary, Member Governments in the implementation of such measures;

4)where practicable, coordinate and encourage international campaigns to control pests and diseases of plants and plant products;

5)collect information from the Member Governments of the Organization on the presence, emergence and spread of pests and diseases of plants and plant products and transmit this information to the Member Governments of the Organization;

6)ensure the exchange of information on national phytosanitary regulations or other arrangements relating to the free movement of plants and plant products;

7)explore the possibilities of simplification and unification of phytosanitary rules and certificates;

8)to promote cooperation in scientific research in the field of pests and diseases of plants and plant products and methods of their control, as well as to promote the exchange of relevant scientific information;

9)to establish a documentation service and publish materials in a suitable form for propaganda purposes or for the purposes of scientific and technological progress, in accordance with the decisions of the Organization.

The structure of the Organization consists of the Council, the Administration, including the Executive Committee, Director General and the staff of the Accounting Review Group and the Technical Bodies (working groups and international conferences).

Greenpeace is an international non-governmental and non-profit environmental organization. It appeared in 1971 as a group of like-minded people who were ready by their example and protest to contribute to the solution of environmental problems. Today it is an organization supported by over 2.5 million people, 15,000 of them in Russia, and with branches in more than 40 countries around the world.

Greenpeace is headquartered in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The budget of Greenpeace is formed from contributions from the national offices and is approved at the annual meeting of representatives of the boards of the national offices.

Greenpeace exists on donations from citizens and private charitable foundations, does not accept financial support from government organizations, commercial structures and political parties. Greenpeace does not support any political party. At the same time, he maintains a dialogue with everyone. Protest actions are one of the ways to draw attention to a particular environmental problem and achieve the necessary changes.

During the 1970s, Greenpeace campaigned against commercial whaling. In 1982, Greenpeace secured consideration by the International Whaling Commission of a moratorium on commercial whaling, which came into force in 1986. In 1994, the Antarctic sea zone was declared a whale sanctuary.

In the 1990s, Greenpeace drew public attention to the problem of air pollution and ozone depletion by holding campaigns at factories of well-known companies that were emitting hydrocarbons.

In 1996, Greenpeace launched a campaign against genetically modified food. In 1999, the EU government established a moratorium on the import and cultivation of genetically modified crops.

In 1992, Greenpeace Russia was established, which actively carries out its activities on the territory of our country. Thus, as a result of the joint work of Greenpeace, the Ministry of Natural Resources, the Buryat regional branch for Baikal, an order was issued to stop the illegal construction of an oil pipeline by Transneft along the northern coast of Lake Baikal. The UNESCO Committee pointed out to Russia the inadmissibility of the oil pipeline passing through the territory of the UNESCO World Heritage Site - "Lake Baikal", demanded a report on Baikal, proposed to receive UNESCO experts to check the situation in connection with the construction of the oil pipeline.

With the support of Greenpeace, the All-Russian movement “Let's Revive Our Forest” was launched. Its focal points are located in Moscow, Veliky Novgorod, Arkhangelsk, Cheboksary, Novosibirsk, Tomsk, Irkutsk, Vladivostok, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature - IUCN (IUCN) is the world's largest international environmental organization, which includes 82 states, 111 government agencies, more than 800 non-governmental organizations and over 10,000 scientists and experts from more than 180 countries. IUCN was founded in October 1948 at a conference held in Fontneblo, France.

The main task of IUCN is to provide support to all countries of the world in the protection and preservation of the environment. The headquarters is located in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer status at the UN General Assembly.

At the initiative of IUCN and largely due to its persistent efforts, such important international conventions as the African Convention for the Protection of Nature and Natural Resources of 1968 were adopted; Agreement for the Conservation of Polar Bears, Oslo, 1973; Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Washington, 1973; Convention for the Protection of Nature in the South Pacific, 1976; Convention on the Protection of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Bonn, 1979, etc.

The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) was founded in 1961. Its activities are aimed at preserving the biological diversity of our planet, at building a world in which man will live in harmony with nature. The Fund gained fame and financial independence 10 years after its inception. In 1971, the foundation's president, Prince Bernard of Holland, personally approached the 1,000 most influential and famous people world with a request to support the Foundation and transfer 10 thousand dollars to the management of the Foundation. The capital thus collected became the foundation of the fund.

For more than forty-five years of its existence, the foundation has become an influential and powerful organization and operates in more than 130 countries around the world. The Foundation has 28 national chapters and 5 associate members worldwide, as well as over 5 million individual members. The network of experts includes more than 3500 people.

The secretariat of the Fund is located in Switzerland, from where the coordination of the organization's activities is carried out.

The World Wildlife Fund annually carries out over 1200 environmental projects, drawing the attention of millions of people to the problems of environmental protection and their solution.

More than half of all funds come to the Fund as charitable donations from organizations and individuals. Since its inception, WWF has provided funds for about 11,000 projects in 130 countries around the world.

The first projects of the World Wildlife Fund in Russia began in 1988, and in 1994 its Russian representative office was opened. Since then, the Fund has successfully implemented more than 150 projects in 40 regions of Russia and invested more than $30 million in the work to preserve and increase the natural wealth of our country.

The main programs implemented by the World Wildlife Fund in Russia:

· Forest Program - conservation of the biological diversity of Russian forests based on the transition to sustainable forest management and protection;

· Marine Program - sustainable use of marine resources and protection marine fauna and flora;

· Climate program- prevention of climate change and adaptation to its consequences;

· Work on specially protected natural areas- creation in priority ecological regions of systems of protected natural areas (reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, etc.) that guarantee long-term conservation of biological diversity;

· Security rare species- projects for the conservation of species of animals that are on the verge of extinction: the Far Eastern leopard, the Amur tiger, bison, snow leopard, the Siberian Siberian Crane;

An international non-governmental organization (Wetlands International) was created in 1995 by merging the International Bureau for the Study of Wetlands and Waterfowl, which has been carrying out conservation projects in Africa, Europe and the Middle East since 1954, with sister organizations active in Asia and America.

Wetlands International is currently headquartered in the Netherlands and has 15 affiliates involved in the methodological support, implementation and financing of wetland conservation projects in 120 countries.

The main activities of Wetlands International are:

inventory and monitoring of wetlands;

monitoring of populations of waterfowl and near-water birds;

promotion of international environmental conventions;

development of strategies and planned actions for the conservation of wetlands and water birds;

creation of specialized scientific advisory groups;

preparation of methods and curricula on inventory, monitoring, - environmental management and restoration of wetlands;

holding meetings and conferences;

publication of information materials.

The Russian program Wetlands International coordinates projects on the inventory of wetlands, the study and protection of waterfowl and shorebirds, the rational use of natural resources and other areas of work carried out in the Russian Federation, countries Central Asia and Transcaucasia.

3. Problems of legal regulation of environmental protection in the Russian Federation

Until now, many global problems related to the protection and preservation of the environment have not been resolved. According to a number of UN experts - poverty and excessive consumption of resources - the two main troubles of modern mankind - continue to have a negative impact on the environment. The level of awareness and actions taken are disproportionate to the current state of the environment, which continues to deteriorate.

As a result anthropogenic activities habitat habitats of plant and animal species has decreased significantly. The areas of lowland forests and marshes have undergone the most significant reductions. Relatively untouched areas of these habitats remain only in some Scandinavian countries and Eastern European countries.

Distribution areas of many large mammals species such as the polar bear, wolf, lynx and bison are now only modest remnants of their former habitats, while species such as the tarpan and saiga, for example, have disappeared altogether. About 260 species of vertebrates in Europe are currently endangered. On the other hand, species whose existence is directly associated with agricultural landscapes, such as the lark and the hare, have benefited from human activities. Similarly, species such as the gull and the common kite have increased in numbers due to their distribution in the city's dump sites.

The most important role, both at the global and local levels, is played by forest ecosystems, which serve as providers of environmental services for all living things in general, and humanity in particular (soil formation, soil and water conservation, air and water purification, nitrogen cycle, maintenance of biological diversity, climate change mitigation, carbon sequestration and storage), as well as sources of economically valuable products - industrial wood, wood fuel, non-wood materials such as fibre, food and medicines.

In Canada, according to the list of endangered species of wild flora and fauna, 352 species are at risk of imminent or final extinction. In the United States, 1231 species of wild flora and fauna are classified as threatened or threatened with extinction.

In order to preserve biological diversity in North America, protected areas have been created. Canada has signed and ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity. Active efforts are being made in the country to pass a federal law on endangered species of wild flora and fauna. The US has not yet joined the Convention on Biological Diversity, but the country has a tough Endangered Species Act.

According to the FAO definition, forests cover an area of ​​about 3,866 million hectares, which is almost a third of the entire land surface of our planet. About 81 percent of forest area is concentrated in only 15 countries. These countries can be ranked in descending order of forest area as follows: Russian Federation, Canada, Brazil, USA, Democratic Republic of the Congo, China, Indonesia, Mexico, Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela, India, Australia and Papua New Guinea. The first three countries account for about 49 percent of the area of ​​all forests.

Some countries, especially those with extensive forest cover (Finland, France, Germany and Sweden), consider forests in the same context as landscapes and biodiversity and take forestry management more responsibly. Other states where the area of ​​forest land is small (eg Ireland or Spain) are interested in the rapid growth of forests for commercial purposes or for the protection of watersheds. Sustainable forest management remains a challenge in many European countries.

Deforestation has been particularly intense over the past 30 years. By the time of the Stockholm Conference, most of the Earth's forest cover had already been destroyed. The main causes of forest degradation as a result of anthropogenic activities can be called the excessive consumption of wood by the woodworking industry and as a fuel, the use of other forest products. Forests are also affected by natural factors such as pests, diseases, fires and extreme climatic events.

According to the FAO, Europe's forest cover is increasing by about 1 percent per year, while Africa's forest area is declining by about 0.7 percent per year.

Boreal forests have been expanding their range since 1990 as a result of natural regeneration, artificial regeneration and the introduction of improved forestry practices. The only exception here is our country, where, according to FAO data, large-scale clear-cutting and irrational use of forests are carried out.

About 96 percent of forests are of natural origin. In terms of forest land area, Canada is the third largest country in the world after the Russian Federation and Brazil, and the United States is the fourth country. And in the United States, forest area increased by about 1.7 percent.

Trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora.

As for Russia, it is currently the planet's largest ecological storehouse. The natural ecosystem of Russia is 2.2 times larger than the natural ecosystems of such countries as the USA, Canada, Australia, and Brazil.

The central document establishing the strategy of the Russian state in the field of the environment is the Environmental Doctrine of the Russian Federation, approved by the Government of the Russian Federation on August 31, 2002.

The doctrine is not a normative legal act, but its significance lies in the fact that it is a fundamental document that defines the state environmental policy of the Russian Federation, its goals, directions, tasks and principles for the long term.

As stated in the preamble of the Doctrine, the current environmental crisis threatens the possibility of sustainable development human civilization. Further degradation of natural systems leads to the destabilization of the biosphere, the loss of its integrity and the ability to maintain the quality of the environment necessary for life. The world community and governments have not yet coped with the tasks proclaimed at the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Overcoming the crisis is possible only on the basis of the formation of a new type of relationship between man and nature, in accordance with the adaptive abilities of natural systems, excluding the possibility of destruction and degradation. natural environment.

Among the main global factors of destabilization of the natural environment, the Doctrine includes:

Growth in consumption of natural resources while reducing their reserves;

an increase in the population of the planet with a reduction in habitable territories;

Degradation of the main components of the biosphere, including the reduction of biological diversity, and the resulting decrease in the ability of nature to self-regulate and ensure the existence of human civilization;

Possible climate change and depletion of the Earth's ozone layer;

Increasing environmental damage from natural disasters and man-made disasters;

Insufficient level of coordination of actions of the world community in the field of solving environmental problems and regulating globalization processes for the transition to sustainable development;

Ongoing military conflicts and terrorist activities.

The environmental doctrine takes into account the recommendations of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), subsequent international forums, decrees of the President of the Russian Federation "On the Concept of Transition of the Russian Federation to Sustainable Development" (dated April 1, 1996 No. 440 ) and “On the Concept of the National Security of the Russian Federation” (dated December 10, 1997 No. 1300 and dated January 10, 2000 No. 24).

The strategic goal of the state environmental policy is to preserve natural systems, maintain their integrity and life-supporting functions for the sustainable development of society, improve the quality of life, improve the health of the population and the demographic situation, and ensure the country's environmental security.

Also, the basic law in the field of protection and conservation of the environment in Russia is the Federal Law of January 10, 2002 No. 7-FZ "On Environmental Protection", which defines legal framework state policy in the field of environmental protection, ensuring a balanced solution of socio-economic problems, maintaining a favorable environment, biological diversity and natural resources in order to meet the needs of present and future generations, strengthening the rule of law in the field of environmental protection and ensuring environmental safety.

The scope of the law is limited to the territory of the Russian Federation, as well as the continental shelf and exclusive economic zone RF. Of practical importance are the provisions of Chapter VII Federal Law of January 10, 2002 No. 7-FZ "On Environmental Protection", which establishes requirements in the field of environmental protection in the implementation of economic and other activities.

According to the Federal Law of January 10, 2002 No. 7-FZ “On Environmental Protection”, the Russian Federation carries out international cooperation in the field of environmental protection in accordance with the generally recognized principles and norms of international law and international treaties of the Russian Federation in the field of environmental protection.

Besides Russian legislation on environmental protection also includes such laws as “On Fishing and Conservation of Aquatic Biological Resources” of 2004; "On the turnover of agricultural land" 2002; “On Special Ecological Programs for the Rehabilitation of Radiation Contaminated Sites of the Territory”, 2001; "On the Protection of Atmospheric Air" 1999; "On the protection of Lake Baikal" 1999; "On the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population" 1999; "On Ecological Expertise" 1998; "About the Animal World" 1995; "On Specially Protected Natural Territories" 1995, etc.

Along with the laws, a large practical value they also have by-laws in the field of environmental protection - Decrees of the President of the Russian Federation: dated 04.02.1994 No. 236 “On the state strategy of the Russian Federation for environmental protection and sustainable development”; dated January 17, 1997 No. 11 “On the Federal Target Program “World Ocean”; dated 04/20/1995 No. 389 "On additional measures on Strengthening Control over Compliance with Environmental Safety Requirements in Spent Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing, etc. Bolshoy specific gravity among the by-laws are Decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation, from which it is possible to single out: dated 20.03.2006 No. 150 “On approval of the Regulations on the state forest protection of the Russian Federation”, etc.

A serious role in environmental protection is also played by bilateral agreements of the Russian Federation devoted to certain aspects of the problem under study. Today, Russia has concluded intergovernmental agreements with Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, India, Spain, Canada, China, the USA, France, Japan and other countries.

It should be noted that today there is not a single more or less significant universal international treaty in which the Russian Federation would not take part.

CONCLUSION

characteristic feature recent decades is the increasing role of the international treaty, its transformation in essence into the main source of international environmental law. Another important trend in the process of development of international legal customs is their development into contractual norms regulating relations between subjects of international environmental law, which, due to some circumstances, have not concluded an agreement with each other.

International non-governmental organizations, taking into account the ever-increasing role of public opinion, the strengthening of civil society in most countries of the world, the close relationship of non-governmental and intergovernmental organizations, today play a very significant role in protecting and preserving the environment, and this role is growing every year.

One can talk a lot about the problems of the global ecological crisis and its legal regulation in international law. Problems most often do not stop, the nature around us must be monitored and controlled by states and their citizens in order to provide objective conditions for the life and health of mankind.

The worlds of animals and plants are closely interconnected and depend on each other. The most important problems today are not only the protection and protection natural conditions for the life of animals and plants, but also the control of human activities such as smuggling and illegal extermination and hunting of animals, especially wild animals that are on the verge of extinction.

No matter how tough the legal acts and actions of international organizations for the protection of flora and fauna, there is no absolute body for control and supervision over the implementation of the requirements of international environmental law.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Normative legal acts

1.UN Charter 1945

.World Charter for Nature. Resolution of the UN General Assembly of October 28, 1982

.Rio Declaration on Environment and Development of June 14, 1992

.Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity of January 29, 2000

.Convention for the Conservation of Animal Resources of the Southeast Atlantic. Concluded in Rome on October 23, 1969.

.International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas. Concluded in Rio de Janeiro on May 14, 1966.

.Protocol to the International Fisheries Convention in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean. Signed in Washington on July 15, 1963.

.Protocol to the International Convention "On the Regulation of Whaling", signed in Washington on December 2, 1946. Signed in Washington on November 19, 1956.

9.Constitution of the Russian Federation. 2003

10. Federal Law of January 10, 2002 No. 7-FZ “On Environmental Protection” //<#"justify">Special scientific literature

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.Kadomtseva A.E. Ecological safety as an interstate problem of the modern development of civilization // Bulletin of the Saratov State Academy of Law. - Saratov, 1999, No. 1.

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.Public International Law: textbook 4th edition, ed. K.A. Bekyasheva. - M., 2006.

.Legal support of environmental protection and environmental safety: Study.-pract. allowance / C.JI. Baidakov. G.P. Serov. - M., 2003.

.Chernichenko S.V., Theory of international law. In 2 volumes - M., 1999.

.Shishkina N.V. Environmental law. - Novosibirsk, 2002.

In almost all ecosystems, animals predominate over plants in terms of the number of species, although their biomass is many times smaller. In undisturbed natural ecosystems, each living animal occupies its specific niche and performs a specific job.

In ecosystems that have been exposed to human influence or formed with his participation, the number of individual phytophages (herbivorous insects) often gets out of control and causes great damage to plants and the work of the entire well-coordinated system. For example, outbreaks of mass reproduction of oak green leafworm or gypsy moth. Trees that have lost their leaves and needles are colonized by longhorn beetles, bark beetles, May beetle larvae, etc., and then by saprophages (bark beetle larvae, etc.). There is a change of some communities, others and there are unproductive, unprofitable systems for humans. The role of animals in ecosystems is great. It includes: processing of plant litter and dead organic matter (corpses, excrement); participation in soil formation processes. For example, earthworms process the entire mass of soil to a depth of 20 cm; marmots on an area of ​​1 hectare bring to the surface up to 100 m 3 of earth or more, and a mole - up to 500 kg. Many animals distribute the seeds of plants, contribute to their renewal, pollinate them. Predators regulate the number of phytophages, are orderlies and heal the populations of many species. The division of animals into useful and harmful is very relative: even generally recognized pests are not always dangerous for natural ecosystems. For example, when an oak tree is partially damaged by a green leaf roller, the subsoil environment of the forest changes dramatically, more light, heat, and precipitation penetrate the soil. As a result, the decomposition of plant litter proceeds much faster.

The rational use of wild animals is of great benefit to humans: they serve as food, are used for the production of clothing, as medicinal raw materials, etc. Meat products are provided by 20 species of wild ungulates, especially elk, roe deer, reindeer, saigas, wild boars, 7 species of upland game : hazel grouse, black grouse, capercaillie, ptarmigan, etc. The skins of sables, black-brown foxes, beavers, ermines, squirrels, etc. are highly valued in the foreign and domestic markets. stocks of fur-bearing and other animals were sharply reduced. The sable, sea otter, river beaver, fur seal, muskrat, as well as the polar bear, the Ussuri tiger, and among ungulates - bison, sika deer, saiga, wild ass, etc. were on the verge of complete extermination. The number of elk, roe deer, and wild boar has sharply decreased.

Due to the deterioration of lichen-moss fodder lands and uncontrolled shooting, there was a reduction in the area and number of herds reindeer. The felling of mature coniferous plantations has led to a reduction in the number of squirrels. The deterioration of living conditions has led to a decrease in the number and prey of hares - hare and hare. Their main value is meat (the weight of hare in Bashkortostan reaches 7 kg), skins, as well as wool for making felt fabrics.

The rational use of wild animals is not limited to their fishing. Well-organized and timely accounting of the number of animals, determination of their optimal density, management of population dynamics and the establishment of scientifically based numbers and terms of shooting make it possible to rationally use wild animals and at the same time keep them in wild nature for future generations of people.

Work continues on the domestication of animals. For example, an elk can become an early maturing meat and dairy and pack animal. In the saddle, an elk can carry 80-20 kg, and harnessed to a sleigh - up to 300-400 kg. Moose cows are well milked and give 450 liters of milk with 10% fat content for lactation. Work is underway and opportunities are being studied to domesticate the eland, musk musk ox and some other species.

Many species of birds are successfully bred: pheasants, gray partridges, quails, ostriches, wild ducks, etc. Some birds are released into the wild to run wild. Birds are widely used in pest control in agriculture and forestry.

The number of hazel grouse, capercaillie, partridge and other species is reduced mainly in exploited forests, where birds are deprived of leks and nesting sites. Due to the continuous plowing of the steppes and the destruction of island forests, pegs and shrubs, the number of valuable species of steppe game - bustards, little bustards, quails, as well as waterfowl is decreasing.

Restoration of the number of game birds can be achieved by a long-term ban on hunting, the fight against poaching and a set of biotechnical measures.

About a million species of insects are known on Earth. There is no such diversity in any other class of animals; insects are usually divided into beneficial and harmful.

There are a lot of harmful insects. Herbivorous insects (phytophages) and bloodsuckers are especially harmful. Phytophages feed on woody and shrubby plants. They are classified into forest and agricultural pests. Bloodsuckers cause great harm to humans and animals, feeding on their blood, they carry infectious diseases. These are the bed bug, malarial mosquito, blood-sucking midges (gnats), various types of lice, ticks, gadflies, horseflies. A large group of insects destroy stocks and destroy human dwellings. So, kozheedy beetles feed on lard, ham, bread, fish and other products. They also damage the skin and tissues.