Foreign trade policy, tariff methods of regulation. Tariff methods of trade regulation

MT is a system of mutual trade relations of all countries of the world, which grew on the basis of MRT and developed on this basis of a multilateral system of trade and political regulation, including national components (a set of foreign trade all countries of the world).
Tariff and non-tariff restrictions
Tools government regulation international trade
1. tariff - a system of customs tariffs that makes it difficult to import into and export from the country certain goods, based on the use of a customs tariff. Customs tariffs are a tool of customs policy in the field of customs regulation of the country’s economy, used to implement the goals of trade policy and representing a set of rates customs duties taxable goods, systematized in accordance with the commodity nomenclature of foreign economic activity. Import and export customs tariffs are separated.
2. non-tariff - a set of methods of state regulation of foreign economic activity, aimed at influencing processes in the field of foreign economic activity, but not related to customs and tariff methods of state regulation.
Often these also include financial methods - subsidies, lending, dumping. Certain trade policy instruments are more often used when it is necessary to limit imports or boost exports.
In accordance with international agreements, non-tariff methods are used as an exception to general rule free trade in following cases:
1. Introduction of temporary quantitative restrictions on the export or import of certain goods caused by the need to protect the national market
2. Implementation of a permitting procedure for the export or import of certain goods that may have an adverse impact on the security of the state, the life or health of citizens, the property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property, the environment, the life or health of animals and plants.
3.Fulfillment of international obligations
4. Introduction of an exclusive right to export or import certain goods
5. Introduction of special protective, anti-dumping and countervailing measures
6.Protection of public morals and law and order
7.Protection of cultural property
8.Providing national security
Goals of customs policy: integration of the country into the ME; protection and stimulation economic development countries; strengthening the balance of payments and trade; growth in state budget revenues; strengthening trade and political positions; countering discriminatory actions by foreign states/groups;
These include: quotas, licensing, voluntary export restrictions, export subsidies, administrative and technical barriers, etc.
Quotas for foreign trade supplies mean limiting export and/or import supplies by the number of goods (quantitative quotas) or their total value (cost quotas) for a specified period of time. Quotas are allocated: The general quota is determined for state needs; Natural quota - associated with limited throughput oil pipelines, terminals in ports, etc.; Exceptional quota - is introduced in special cases related to ensuring the national security of the state, protecting the domestic market, and fulfilling international obligations. Tariff quota is permission to import a certain amount of goods into a country duty-free or at reduced rates; Export quota limits the number of products allowed for export. Import quotas limit the amount of products allowed to be imported.
Licensing is a restriction in the form of obtaining the right or permission (license) from authorized government bodies to carry out specific export and/or import operations. The license itself may establish the procedure for the import or export of goods. The license may also contain permission to import (export) a certain volume of goods.
A quota imposed by an exporting country rather than an importing country is called a voluntary export restriction. An export subsidy is a provision by a government or government agency of a country financial assistance enterprises and economic sectors on its territory to support domestic exporters and indirect discrimination foreign importers.
TARIFF METHODS (customs tariffs, the purposes of which are to obtain additional financial resources(usually for developing countries), regulation of foreign trade flows (more typical for developed countries) or protection of national producers (mainly in labor-intensive industries).
Customs duty is a mandatory fee collected by customs when goods move across the customs border.
Types of duties:
Import duties, Export duties. The goal is to obtain additional currency to replenish the state treasury. Export duties are applied to raw materials for which a country has a monopoly advantage, or in cases where the state seeks to limit the export of a given product.
Customs duty rates are associated with various foreign trade regimes:
A minimum rate (called the reference rate) is set on goods originating from countries with which there is a most favored nation (MFN) trade agreement. The maximum is for countries with which there is no MFN agreement. The preferential or preferential rate is the lowest and is established for goods originating from a number of developing countries. In addition, according to global foreign trade rules, there is a group of poor countries whose agricultural products and raw materials are not subject to customs duties at all.
Tariff regulation of individual states is regulated by international law, primarily GATT/WTO.
The value of the actual rate of customs protection turns out to be greater, the higher the difference between the values ​​of duties on the finished product and raw materials and the greater the share of raw materials included in the finished product.

2.4 Balance of payments

4.2. BALANCE OF PAYMENT INDICATORS AND METHODS FOR CLASSIFICATION OF ITS ITEMS

The compilation of the balance of payments as a reflection of the country's international payments is intended to fulfill both accounting and analytical tasks, which are closely related to each other. The range of participants in foreign economic transactions is diverse: individual countries and their groupings, national, foreign and transnational corporations, companies and banks, various national and international organizations and institutions, individuals, government currency authorities, etc. This leads to the need to record and process a large number of data coming not only from national, but also from foreign sources. Hence, the main requirement becomes the unity of content and methods of calculating homogeneous indicators. The recommendations contained in the Guidelines of the International currency board(IMF) on compiling the balance of payments.

Today, these recommendations form the basis for compiling the balance of payments of IMF member countries. At the same time, individual countries introduce into the rules for compiling balances of payments elements determined by the characteristics of their economy, foreign economic situation, and the adopted national accounting system. Therefore, a comparison of balance of payments indicators of individual countries always contains a certain amount of conditionality and inaccuracy, which cannot be avoided. For this reason, the conclusions arising from such comparisons indicate, first of all, the scale of the analyzed phenomena, the main directions of ongoing processes and their consequences, but cannot claim absolute completeness and accuracy of assessments.

Different definitions of the balance of payments. Let us turn to the definition of the balance of payments in foreign economic literature. An analysis of the definitions carried out in various works shows that they all move towards a pragmatic interpretation of the balance of payments as a form of statistical presentation of data on the country’s foreign economic activity.

In the fundamental work of American economists, we should not forget that Wasserman and Ware on the problems of the balance of payments give the following definition: “The balance of payments can be defined as a statistical representation of economic transactions that took place during a given period between residents of a given country and representatives of the rest of the world, i.e. e. another country, group of countries or international organizations.” The IMF guidelines say: “The balance of payments is a table of statistical indicators for a given period, showing: a) transactions in goods, services and income between a given country and the rest of the world; b) change of ownership and other changes in the monetary gold owned by a given country, special rights borrowings (SDR), as well as financial claims and obligations in relation to the rest of the world and c) unilateral transfers and compensating entries that are necessary to balance in an accounting sense those transactions and changes that are not mutually covered. In conjunction with such instructions, it is recommended to include in the balance of payments not only data on completed transactions, but also artificially compiled indicators for balancing transactions.

French official publications give the following definition: “The balance of payments of a country is a regularly compiled statistical statement, the content of which will reflect in the form of estimates the movement of the totality of real and financial flows between residents and non-residents during a certain period.” In one of the studies of the balance of payments of Germany, its definition is formulated as follows: “Usually, the balance of payments is understood as a systematized statistical representation, divided into certain headings, in the form of a balance sheet of all economic transactions that took place during a certain period between domestic and all foreign economic entities.”

The concept of a resident. Since it is extremely important to separate a country’s foreign economic transactions from internal economic transactions, when compiling the balance of payments, the concepts of a resident and a transaction, a transaction subject to accounting, become important. Foreign economic transactions are carried out by specific organizations, firms or individuals, who, from the point of view of international payment relations, are either residents of a given country or non-residents. This seemingly simple question transforms into complex problem In modern conditions, when the international interweaving of capital is intensifying, the activities of TNCs have acquired enormous scope, labor migration is occurring on a large scale and other similar processes are operating in the world economy.

The IMF manual gives the following definition: “A country’s economy is considered as a set of economic units that are more closely associated with a given territory than with any other territory. The balance of payments of a given country will reflect either the transactions of these economic units with the rest of the world, if these economic units are considered residents of this country, or the transactions of these economic units with a given country, if the economic units are considered non-residents with respect to this country. Due to the use of a double entry system, the IMF Manual further states, in the event of an error there will be no imbalance, but a distorted view of the transactions may result. To avoid it, it is necessary to develop a universal definition of a resident and its correct application everywhere.

In the United States, all government agencies, national companies and citizens permanently residing in the country are considered residents. For American citizens living abroad (other than government employees), their classification as U.S. residents depends on the length of their stay outside the country and other factors. Foreign branches of American corporations and subsidiaries are considered foreign firms for the United States. Similar practices occur in other leading countries.

In Germany, residents from the perspective of the balance of payments are considered “individuals and legal entities, enterprises, etc., for whom the center of their economic interests is located in a given country, regardless of their nationality.” By virtue of this, residents in Germany include not only persons of German origin, but also foreign entrepreneurs who have settled in Germany.

In accordance with the French methodology, the term “resident” means individuals of French nationality who have been in France or abroad for less than two years, as well as foreigners who have been in France for more than two years, with the exception of foreign employees. Legal entities in France are also considered residents, with the exception of diplomatic and consular representatives working in France.

In the Russian Federation, in accordance with the Law “On Currency Regulation and Currency Control” of October 9, 1992, residents will be:

A) individuals who have permanent residence in the Russian Federation, incl. temporarily located outside its borders;

b) legal entities created in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, with a seat in the Russian Federation;

c) enterprises and organizations that are not legal entities, created in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, with a location in the Russian Federation;

d) diplomatic and other official missions of the Russian Federation located outside its borders;

e) branches and representative offices of residents specified in subparagraphs b) and c) located outside the Russian Federation.

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6. Bugayan I.R. Macroeconomics. Rostov-on-Don, 2008.

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Tariff methods trade regulation

Tariff methods for regulating international trade

Today, no state can achieve internal economic equilibrium (for example, full employment or price stability) without using foreign economic measures, and, in particular, foreign trade regulation.

Trade Policy Instruments , used by the state to regulate international trade, are divided into:

– tariff (based on the use of customs tariff);

– non-tariff (quotas, licenses, subsidies, dumping, etc.).

Tariff methods of trade regulation

Tariff means are the oldest method economic regulation foreign trade. They are primarily aimed at protecting the domestic market (domestic producers) from foreign competition. Their basis is customs duties , summarized in customs tariffs .

Customs duty- a special type of payment in the form of an indirect tax levied by the state when goods are imported into or exported from the country. Payment of customs duty is prerequisite carrying out the import or export of goods. This tax is ultimately paid by consumers of the goods as it is included in the selling price.

Economic role customs duties is that they create a cost barrier that increases the price of imported goods and thereby protects certain sectors of the economy from competition from foreign companies. If foreign suppliers are unwilling to reduce the prices at which they import goods in order to maintain their export market, then the demand for imported goods will decrease and the volume of their supply will decrease.

Domestic manufacturers producing products that compete with imports certainly benefit from the introduction of customs duties. The subsequent increase in prices on the domestic market stimulates the growth of production of domestic goods. Consequently, through the targeted application of duties, the state stimulates the development of certain sectors of the economy.

Meanwhile, the losers from rising prices are consumers who are forced to reduce consumption due to increased costs for the purchase of goods.

Customs duties, along with protectionist and regulatory functions, also perform a fiscal function. They are one of the most natural means of replenishing the state budget.

The application of customs duties is carried out within the framework of the customs tariff.

customs tariff- this is a list of goods subject to customs taxation, systematized according to a certain characteristic or characteristics, against each of which one or more rates of customs duties are indicated.

Thus, the customs tariff consists of two main elements – rates of customs duties and a system of classification of goods (product nomenclature), which is specially created for the purposes of regulating and accounting for foreign trade activities.

Customs duty rate – this is the size, the amount of customs duty.

Product nomenclature is a classifier of goods that is used for the purposes of state regulation of exports and imports and statistical accounting of foreign trade operations.

There are two types of customs tariffs - simple And difficult.

Simple (single-column) tariff provides for each product of a certain nomenclature a single rate of customs duty, which is applied regardless of the country of origin of the goods. Single-column tariffs are applied in cases where the main purpose of introducing customs duties is to increase state budget revenues, and not to implement an effective trade policy.

Complex (multi-column) tariff provides for the application of different (two or more) rates of customs duties to the same product depending on its country of origin.

Effective tariff protection is achieved through the policy of applying low rates of import duties on imported raw materials, semi-finished products, components and high stakes import duties on final products. Thus, incentives are created for the import into the country, first of all, of necessary raw materials and materials. At the same time, barriers are created to the import of finished goods and products high degree processing, which stimulates the development of the domestic manufacturing industry.

The variety of customs duties applied may be classified depending on the:

– direction of movement (movement) of goods;

– method (procedure) for establishing (collecting) duties;

– country of origin of the goods;

– the nature of the action and purposes of applying duties.

Depending on the direction of movement (movement) of the goods There are export, import and transit customs duties.

Import, or entry, duties are levied on goods imported into the country.

This is the most common type of duty they play decisive role in the tariff regulation system. In most cases, imported goods have domestic analogues and compete with the latter. Import duty rates on such goods are determined taking into account the emerging relationships between world and national costs and prices.

Export or export duties are levied on goods produced within the country and exported outside its borders.

When applying export duties, they mainly pursue the goals of limiting the export outside the country of goods necessary for the national economy (to more fully saturate the domestic market, protect economic security), curbing the export of raw materials and primary processed products and stimulating the export of high-tech goods, highly processed products, replenishing the country's budget revenues.

Export duties are considered contrary to the nature of market relations, since they restrain the export from the country of goods that are in demand on the world market. In most countries of the world, especially in economically developed countries, export duties are applied much less frequently than import duties.

Transit duties are charged for the transportation of foreign goods through the territory of a given country to other countries (in transit). Considering the fact that all states, as a rule, are interested in increasing the transit of goods through their territory, because this brings in considerable income; this type of duty is used extremely rarely and mainly for fiscal purposes. They are not available in Russia.

By method (procedure) of establishing (collecting) Customs duties are divided into ad valorem, specific, mixed (combined).

Ad valorem duties are set as a certain percentage of customs value goods (for example, 20% of the customs value of the goods).

Strength ad valorem duties are that they maintain the same level of protection of the domestic market regardless of fluctuations in product prices, only budget revenues change.

Weak side such duties is the need for customs assessment of the value of the goods, which may fluctuate depending on many factors, such as currency exchange rates, inflation rates, and the level of internal taxation.

Specific duties are established in the form of a specific (hard) monetary amount per unit of measurement of the quantity of goods (weight, volume, piece, etc.) (for example, 10 dollars per 1 ton).

The amount of a specific duty depends not on the cost, but on the quantity of the imported or exported product. In Russian practice, specific customs duty rates are set in euros.

Mixed or combined duties- these are duties, when establishing the amount of which, both principles applied for ad valorem and specific duties are combined. At the same time, a duty is charged, calculated as a percentage of the customs value and per unit of physical measure of the goods.

Depending on the country of origin of the product customs duty rates are divided into the following groups: minimum (basic, or marginal), maximum (general, or general), preferential.

Minimum bid customs duty is applied when importing goods originating from countries to which this country provides most favored nation treatment in trade and political terms.

Most favored nation treatment– the extension to the country to which such a regime is granted of any concessions granted to any third country. The principle of most favored nation treatment makes it impossible to provide one individual country (group of countries) with a more favorable trade regime than other trading partners. Russia has bilateral agreements on the provision of most favored nation treatment with almost 130 countries of the world.

Maximum bet Customs duty is applied when importing goods originating from countries to which the country has not granted most favored nation treatment, or if the country of origin of the goods is unknown.

Preferential rate Customs duty applies to the import of goods that originate from developing countries. For goods originating from least developed countries, a zero customs duty rate is applied.

Depending on the nature of the action and purpose of use, in addition to the duties that are introduced as part of the customs tariff, there are special types of duties: special, seasonal, anti-dumping, compensatory.

Special – duties that are applied to protect the economic interests of the Russian Federation.

Seasonal – duties that are used to quickly regulate international trade in seasonal products, primarily agricultural. They operate at certain times of the year or have different magnitudes at different times of the year. They are used within the framework of the customs tariff.

Anti-dumping duties that are applied when goods are imported into a country at a price lower than their normal price in the exporting country, if such import causes damage to local producers of such goods or interferes with the organization and expansion of national production of such goods.

Anti-dumping duty- a temporary fee in the amount of the difference between the sales prices of goods in the domestic and foreign markets, introduced by the importing country in order to neutralize the negative consequences of dishonest price competition based on dumping.

The anti-dumping duty rate is usually determined as the difference in the price at which the product is actually sold (should have been sold) in the market of the exporting country, and the price at which it is actually sold in the market of the importing country. If a product is produced only for export and is not sold on the market of the exporting country, then its price on the domestic market of the importing country is compared with its price on the domestic market of any third country.

Countervailing duties are duties imposed on the import of those goods in the production of which subsidies were directly or indirectly used, causing damage to manufacturers of similar products in the importing country.

Listed species duties are established for a certain period and are applied to goods imported into the Russian customs territory in order to protect the economic interests of the Russian Federation. The introduction of special types of duties is not related to the import tariff in force in the country. Special types duties are an element of non-tariff methods of regulating foreign trade. They apply regardless of the previously discussed types of duties, i.e. are established additionally, in addition to the customs duty rates given in the customs tariffs. The values ​​of the introduced rates of customs duties are purely individual, since they depend mainly on the damage caused to the importing country. They can be several times higher than the maximum bet level.

A practical tool for the policy of protectionism is customs regulation of foreign trade. Exist two main groups of protectionist methods: customs tariff and non-tariff. Customs tariff methods involve the establishment and collection of various customs duties for foreign trade activities. Non-tariff methods, of which there are up to 50, are associated with the establishment of various bans, quotas, licenses and restrictions in the field of foreign trade activities. In fact, the foreign trade policy of any country is based on a combination of these two groups of methods.

Customs tariff methods of regulation

The most common and traditional way is customs duty.

Customs duty is an indirect tax that is levied on goods imported or exported from the customs territory, and which cannot vary depending on two factors: general level taxation and the cost of services provided by customs.

Since customs duty is an indirect tax, it affects the price of the product. In customs practice, only movable tangible property is called goods.

Customs territory- this is the territory in which control over exports and imports is carried out by a single customs agency. The boundaries of the customs territory may not coincide with the border of the state. For example, with customs unions of several states. Or when, due to geographical conditions, the establishment of customs control is not possible or convenient. The boundaries of the customs territory are established by the government of each country.

Customs duty has two essential features. Firstly, it can only be seized by the state. And therefore it goes to the state (federal), and not the local budget. Secondly, import duty applies to goods of foreign origin. And the export duty (albeit an atypical type of duty) applies to goods domestic production. Due to this important issue in customs practice is correct and precise definition country of origin of the goods. Schematic diagram The customs tariff is as follows:

The product code is determined according to the globally accepted harmonized system of description and coding of goods (HS). According to the method of calculating duties, they can be: 1) ad valorem; 2) specific; 3) combined.

Ad valorem duties are set as a percentage of the customs value of the goods. Specific - depending on the units of measurement of goods (per 1 ton, per 1 piece, per 1 cm 3, etc.). Combined combines ad valorem and specific calculation methods. Customs duty rates are associated with various foreign trade regimes. A minimum rate (called the reference rate) is set on goods originating from countries with which there is a most favored nation (MFN) trade agreement. The maximum is for countries with which there is no MFN agreement. The preferential or preferential rate is the lowest and is established on goods originating from a number of developing countries. In addition, according to global foreign trade rules, there is a group of poor countries whose agricultural products and raw materials are not subject to customs duties at all.

The higher the tariff level, the more reliably it protects national firms. But in order to understand who is personally protected by the tariff, it is necessary to consider the structure of production.

A tariff on a product of any industry is protection, but only in relation to the company producing it in the country. It also protects the income of workers and employees employed in these firms and creating “added value”. In addition, the tariff protects the income of industries that supply raw materials to the industry.

Thus, a tariff on a product (for example, refrigerators) supports not only the firms that produce them, but also the workers of the firms and suppliers of parts. This complicates the task of measuring the impact of a tariff on the firms producing the good. The position of firms producing goods is also affected by tariffs on imported goods that represent cost elements for them (firms), for example, imported components.

Therefore, a complete model of the interaction of supply and demand is required, simultaneously covering several industry markets. To simplify the model, another measurement method is used. This method quantifies the impact of the entire tariff system on the value added per unit of output produced by a given industry. At the same time, the production of the industry and related industries, as well as prices, do not change.

Thus, the actual level of the protective tariff (the effectiv rate of protection) in a particular industry is determined as the amount (in %) by which the added value per unit of product created in this industry increases as a result of the functioning of the entire tariff system.

The actual level of the protective tariff in a particular industry may differ significantly from the tariff paid by the consumer of the “nominal level of the protective tariff”.

The effective customs duty rate characterizes two basic principles that underlie the overall effect of protectionism:

• industry income or added value will be exposed to trade barriers, not only those erected on the way to imports, but also those operating in the market for raw materials and supplies of the industry;
• Moreover, if the final products of an industry are protected by a higher tariff than its intermediate products, the actual protective tariff will exceed its nominal level.

Customs tariffs remain the most important instrument of foreign trade policy, but their role over the past decades gradually weakens. In the post-war period, a significant reduction in tariff barriers was achieved during multilateral negotiations within the GATT framework. Thus, the weighted average level of import customs tariffs in industrialized countries decreased from 40-50% in the late 1940s to 4-5% at present, and as a result of the implementation of the agreements of the Uruguay Round of GATT negotiations (see Chapter 9) it amounted to about 3%. However, the degree of government influence on international trade has actually increased over the years, which is associated with a significant expansion of the forms and measures of non-tariff trade restrictions. It is estimated that there are currently at least 50 of them. Industrialized countries are especially active in using non-tariff measures to regulate trade. By the beginning of the 21st century. On average, 14% of goods imported by the EU, the US and Japan were subject to major non-tariff restrictions: import quotas, voluntary export restrictions and anti-dumping measures. Being less open than customs duties, non-tariff barriers provide more possibilities for arbitrary actions by governments and create significant uncertainty in international trade. In this regard, before the World trade organization The task is to gradually abolish quantitative restrictions, i.e. carry out so-called tariffization (replacing quantitative restrictions with tariffs that provide an equivalent level of protection).

Non-tariff measures used in foreign trade policy are diverse, and their role as customs tariffs are reduced does not decrease, but increases. The most common are those aimed at directly restricting imports:

• quotas;
• licensing;
• voluntary export restrictions;
• technical limitations;
• anti-dumping legislation.

Of particular importance are quotas and licensing of imports and exports.

Quotas

This is limiting the size of imports using the so-called global, individual, seasonal and other types of percentage restrictions.

Global quota which accounts for two thirds of all cases, sets a limit on the volume of imports in value or physical terms for a certain period. The total amount of imports allowed under the quota is not broken down by country.

Individual quota provides for the amount of imports in relation to specific countries or a specific product (its manufacturer). As a criterion for the distribution of individual quotas, reciprocal obligations of states to import goods from a given country are taken into account. Such obligations are secured by trade agreements and take on the nature of bilateral quotas on a contractual basis.

Seasonal quotas set limits on the size of imports of agricultural goods at certain times of the year. Import restrictions without taking into account the time period are represented by unspecified quotas.

Quotas are introduced to balance foreign trade and regulation of supply and demand in the domestic market, fulfill international obligations and achieve a mutually beneficial agreement in intergovernmental negotiations.

Licensing

This non-tariff measure in international trade is very diverse. Licensing represents a restriction in the form of obtaining the right or permission (license) from authorized government bodies to import a certain volume of goods. The license may establish the procedure for importing or exporting goods.

Licensing is interpreted in international practice as a temporary measure, which is carried out on the basis of strict control of certain commodity flows. It is practiced in cases of temporary restriction of unwanted volumes of imports. In modern foreign practice, general and individual licenses are mainly used.

General license - a permanent permit for a company to import certain goods from the countries listed therein without limiting the volume and value. Sometimes the license indicates goods prohibited for import. General licenses with lists of goods are regularly published in official publications.

Individual license is issued as a one-time permit for one trade operation with a specific type of product (sometimes two or three types, but of the same product group). It also contains information about its recipient, quantity, cost and country of origin of the goods. It is personal, cannot be transferred to another importer and has a limited validity period (usually up to one year).

An integral element of licensing is contingent those. establishment by the state of centralized control over the calling and importation by limiting the range of goods within established quantitative or cost quotas for a fixed period of time. Currently, GATT/WTO provisions allow the introduction of quantitative restrictions on imports in the event of a sharp imbalance in the trade balance.

Voluntary quantitative restrictions

Since the early 70s, a special form of quantitative import restriction has become widespread - voluntary export restrictions, when it is not the importing country that sets the quota, but the exporting countries themselves undertake obligations to limit exports to a given country. Several dozen similar agreements have already been concluded limiting the export of cars, steel, televisions, textiles, etc., mainly from Japan and the newly industrialized countries to the USA and EU countries. Of course, in reality such export restrictions are not voluntary, but forced: they are introduced either as a result of political pressure from the importing country, or under the influence of the threat to apply more stringent protectionist measures (for example, initiating an anti-dumping investigation).

In principle, voluntary quantitative restrictions are the same quota, but imposed not by the importing country, but by the exporting country. However, the consequences of such a measure to restrict foreign trade for the economy of the importing country are even more negative than when using a tariff or import quota. An example is the voluntary restriction of Russian exports of unrefined uranium and steel to the United States.

Technical barriers

Among the measures of non-tariff restrictions in foreign practice are: special requirements to imported goods, installed to ensure safety and protection of the natural environment, the role of which has increased significantly today. They require compliance with customs formalities - technical standards and norms, requirements for packaging and labeling of goods, sanitary and veterinary control standards. In themselves, these formalities are necessary and neutral, but they can be formulated in such a way that they either become a barrier to the entry of certain goods or serve the purpose of discrimination against certain countries.

One part of the technical barriers is a ban or restriction on the import of goods and materials that pollute the environment (chemicals, pesticides, coal and high-sulfur oil). Another part includes expanding protectionist measures for industrial equipment, Vehicle and other types of products, the operation of which leads to air and atmosphere pollution. Finally, the latter is related to the quality of goods, and these technical barriers protect the interests of consumers, protecting them from damage caused by a defect in the product and from possible harm during use, which applies primarily to the import of household electrical appliances, medical drugs and devices, food products, children's goods. Many countries have adopted laws that impose severe sanctions on suppliers of imported goods, which are required to inform the buyer in the instructions, labeling or labeling of all possible risks associated with the consumption of the product.

To protect national producers, the state, while limiting imports, is taking measures aimed at encouraging exports. One of the forms of stimulating domestic export industries is export subsidies, those. financial benefits provided by the state to exporters to expand the export of goods abroad. Thanks to such subsidies, exporters are able to sell goods on the foreign market at a lower price than on the domestic market. Export subsidies can be direct (payment of subsidies to a manufacturer when it enters a foreign market) and indirect (through preferential taxation, lending, insurance, etc.).

Features of industry protection of national producers

Even the most overwhelmingly practice very strict agricultural protectionism; It is significant that in prosperous Western European countries the level of customs taxation of imported agricultural goods is now higher than in Russia. Already at the stage of creation and in the first years of the GATT - an organization designed, as is known, to ensure the liberalization of world trade - these countries agreed that their agricultural sector remained largely outside its competence. In all other serious situations, when national interests and/or national legislation came into conflict with international trade norms, these states, as a rule, found opportunities for a compromise solution. As a result, a considerable number of goods and industries were removed from the framework of “free” (with the same reservations) international trade. Many of them received government support in the form of trade restrictions or subsidies, but only for a relatively short period of time, which was necessary for domestic firms to undergo structural restructuring and adapt to the demands of the world market, and then again entered into open competition - this is the so-called educational protectionism. Others are still under government protection.

The most protected industry is agriculture. In addition to generous subsidies for production, including in countries with very favorable climatic conditions for the development of this sector of the economy, imports are limited on a fairly large scale and exports of agricultural goods are subsidized (Table 8.3).

Table 8.3. Internal support structure Agriculture, %

“Green basket” measures to support national agricultural producers under WTO provisions include the creation of state food reserves; direct payments to producers not related to agricultural production; insurance; compensation for losses from natural disasters; payments under environmental protection programs; payments under regional assistance programs for agricultural producers, etc.

The “yellow basket” measures include targeted support for agricultural producers, payments based on the area of ​​farmland; subsidies for inputs; preferential loans.

Blue box measures include measures that encourage a reduction in agricultural production (for example, in EU countries).

For more than three decades, the textile and clothing industries have been under the care of the state. Based on agreements on voluntary quotas by exporters of their supplies, the United States limited the import of products from these industries from 28 countries, the EU from 19, Canada from 22, Norway from 16, Finland from 7 and Austria from 6 countries. Later, Russia suffered from these restrictions imposed by the EU, despite the rather modest size of its supplies of relevant products.

IN privileged position Ferrous metallurgy has been in Western Europe for a long time, and this has already affected the interests of Russia. The United States, protecting its producers from dumping and subsidized exports, until 1993 practiced limiting the import of ferrous metals and rolled products on the basis of the same voluntary commitments they received from 17 countries, and since 1993, when this system was abolished, they introduced anti-dumping and countervailing duties on imports of these goods from approximately the same number of countries. Thus, only the form of protection has changed, and not its essence.

At various times, Western countries introduced restrictions on the import of cars, stainless steel, machine tools, aircraft, consumer electronics, chemicals, shoes, and leather goods.

Countervailing duties as a measure of non-tariff regulation are applied to those imported goods, the production and export of which are subsidized by the exporting state, since this type of duty neutralizes export subsidies. Non-tariff regulation measures also include monetary and financial restrictions related to foreign exchange control and balance of payments regulation. Additional (in addition to duties) import taxes and import deposits also contribute to the restriction. Import deposits - This is a form of deposit that the importer must pay to his bank before purchasing a foreign product in the amount of a portion of its value.

Dumping

A common form of competition is dumping, when an exporter sells its goods on a foreign market at a price lower than normal. Usually we're talking about on sale at a price lower than the price of a similar product in the domestic market of the exporting country. Dumping can be, firstly, a consequence of government foreign trade policy, when the exporter receives a subsidy. Secondly, dumping can result from a typical monopolistic practice of price discrimination, when an exporting firm, which occupies a monopoly position in the domestic market, with inelastic demand, maximizes its income by raising prices, while in a competitive foreign market, with sufficiently elastic demand, it achieves the same result by reducing prices and expanding sales volume. This kind of price discrimination is possible if the market is segmented, i.e. It is difficult to equalize prices on the domestic and foreign markets through the resale of goods due to high transport costs or government-imposed trade restrictions.

Anti-dumping measures boil down to collecting compensation from the exporter for damage to the national industry and the manufacturer, usually in favor of the latter, often in the form of an additional duty. To establish dumping, two main criteria are used: price, or cost, and economic damage.

Anti-dumping duty rate is established in each specific case individually. Such a duty is not assigned automatically: it is levied only after an investigation to confirm the fact of dumping and, what is important, to identify economic damage to the entrepreneur of the importing country.

Temporary anti-dumping duties are a kind of warning about the possibility of taking more severe measures against the exporter. Permanent look like the most serious measure, the application of which leads to significant losses for the exporter, and possibly to his complete withdrawal from the market.

Along with the listed anti-dumping measures, one is also used when the exporter undertakes to comply with the minimum price level (“normal value”) or to limit the quantity of goods supplied.

However, the problem of anti-dumping measures in world practice continues to be quite complex, and the methods of combating them remain insufficiently effective. Thus, among the dozens of anti-dumping and countervailing claims filed annually with the US Department of Commerce and the International Trade Commission, there are cases of inconsistent verdicts, rules that are easy to circumvent, and inaction of authorities in implementing decisions. This leads to undesirable economic consequences. For example, Mexico, which has not created its own television technology, for a long time supplied 70% of imported televisions to the American market at reduced prices only because it bypassed customs duties on color picture tubes introduced by the United States to combat dumping of goods from Japan, Korea, Singapore and Canada.

Claims from Western countries against those responsible for dumping pose a great threat, primarily by introducing quantitative restrictions on such exporters.

An extreme form of government restriction of foreign trade is economic sanctions. These include trade embargo - the introduction by a state of a ban on the import into or export of goods from a country, usually for political reasons. But economic sanctions against a country can also be of a collective nature, for example, when they are imposed by decision of the UN.

Introduction

1 Methods of state regulation of foreign trade

1.1 Tariff methods of regulation

1.2 Non-tariff methods of regulation

2 Regulation of foreign trade in the European Union

3 Features of regulation of foreign trade activities in the Republic of Belarus

Conclusion

List of sources used

Application

INTRODUCTION

State regulation of foreign economic activity has taken various forms throughout history; At the present stage, the forms and methods of influencing international trade vary significantly depending on what foreign trade policy the country adheres to - liberal or protectionist. The degree and instruments of government influence on the economy and, in particular, on foreign trade, play a critical role in positioning the country in the global economic community.

The purpose of this work is to reveal the concept of state regulation of foreign trade and establish its role in the modern world. Objectives: to consider tariff and non-tariff methods of regulation, features of government intervention in foreign trade in the European Union and the Republic of Belarus.

The structure of this work includes three sections, each of which solves one of these problems.

The object of study of the work is the methods and degree of government intervention in foreign trade activities. The subject of the study is theoretical coverage of possible regulatory instruments and comparison of existing approaches to this problem in the European Union and the Republic of Belarus.

In the process of writing the first section of this work, we mainly used teaching aids and theoretical articles. When creating the second and third sections, we mainly used articles on this topic, as well as monographs on the problem of state regulation.

METHODS OF STATE REGULATION

FOREIGN TRADE

Tariff regulation methods

With the development of the world economy and international economic relations, the instruments of foreign economic policy of states have developed and become more complex, having now turned into a comprehensive system of mechanisms for implementing state regulation of foreign economic activity (FEA).

Within the framework of foreign trade policy as a component of foreign economic policy, two groups of instruments are distinguished: the customs tariff system and a set of non-tariff regulation measures.

A customs tariff is a set of rates of customs duties applied to goods moved across the border, systematized in accordance with the commodity nomenclature of foreign economic activity.

Customs duties are indirect taxes levied by governments for protectionist or fiscal purposes on goods as they cross borders. There are several classifications of duties. First of all, according to the object of taxation there are:

import - duties that are imposed on imported goods when they are released for free circulation on the domestic market of the country. They are the predominant form of duties used to protect domestic producers from foreign competition;

export - a tax levied on export goods when they are released outside the customs territory of the state. This type of duty is most often introduced either in order to increase gross income or to create a shortage of this product in world markets, thereby increasing world prices for this product. In developed countries, export duties are practically not applied; The US Constitution, for example, even prohibits their use.

transit duties, which are levied on goods crossing the national territory in transit. They hinder the flow of goods and in most countries of the world are considered extremely undesirable and disrupt the normal functioning of international relations.

Any tax on an imported or exported product may be levied in one of the following forms of duty:

ad valorem - a duty defined by law as a fixed percentage of the cost of an exported or imported product, with or without taking into account transport costs;

specific - a tax defined as a fixed amount of money for each unit of goods (unit of measurement);

mixed duty - a combination of ad valorem and specific taxes.

Ad valorem duty can be calculated and established only after determining the customs value of the goods. Calculation of the customs value of goods is not always objective, primarily due to the lack of formalization of this procedure. For example, the customs value of goods imported into the United States is calculated on the basis of the FOB (free on board) price, which includes, in addition to the price in the country of origin, the cost of delivering the goods to the port of departure, as well as the cost of loading it onto the ship. Customs value of goods in Western European member countries European Union will be determined on the basis of the CIF (cost, insurance, freight) price, which includes, in addition to the price of the product itself, the cost of loading onto the ship, transportation from the port of destination, payment of ship freight and insurance of the goods. This method of determining the customs value of goods increases the customs duty by 5-7%. The special duty is very simple to apply, however, the level of protection of national producers with its help decreases during the period of inflation and increases during the period of deflation, remaining constant in both cases for the ad valorem duty.

There are also special duties that are applied by a country either unilaterally to protect against unfair competition from trading partners, or as a response to discriminatory actions by other countries. The most common special duties are seasonal (used to quickly regulate international trade in seasonal products), anti-dumping and countervailing duties (imposed on the import of those goods in the production of which subsidies were used). The introduction of a special tariff usually becomes a last resort, which countries resort to when all other means of resolving trade disputes have been exhausted.

The customs tariff can be established on the basis of the principle of tariff autonomy or by agreement. In accordance with the principle of tariff autonomy, the country independently fixes the tariff and can change it on its own initiative. Convention duties are established on the basis of a bilateral or multilateral agreement.

The vast majority of countries in the world have tariffs with constant rates, however, variable rates are also used - tariffs, the rates of which can change in cases established by the government. Such tariffs are used, for example, in Western Europe as part of the Common Agricultural Policy. Countries can use a tariff quota - a type of variable customs duties, the rates of which depend on the volume of imports of goods: when importing within certain quantities, it is taxed at the basic intra-quota tariff rate, when exceeding a certain volume, imports are taxed at a higher above-quota tariff rate.

The undoubted trend of the modern world economy is its liberalization, expressed primarily in the reduction of obstacles to the free movement of goods and services. Thus, since the late 40s, tariffs on the import of industrial goods into developed countries have decreased by 90% - to an average of 4%. . Processes are growing international integration, manifested in the creation and strengthening of interstate trade and economic blocs - the EU, ASEAN, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, the Andean group. However, against this background, it is easy to notice the opposite phenomenon - the “double standards” of developed countries in relation to developing ones. Developed countries, declaring the inviolability of the principles of free trade and demanding their strict implementation from others, in practice increase tariffs on imports of those goods in which developing countries could have a comparative advantage - products of labor-intensive industries and agriculture. It is estimated that developing countries lose up to $50 billion annually as a result of tariff policies pursued by developed countries. When entering the world market, the former face tariffs four times higher than those paid by the latter. Consequently, reducing the level of customs duties does not at all mean the elimination of regulation.

2. Non-tariff methods of regulation

The degree of government influence on foreign trade in last years increased largely due to non-tariff restrictions. These restrictions, due to their hidden nature, enable governments to act almost uncontrollably. Therefore, the WTO opposes quantitative restrictions on trade and advocates replacing them with tariffs.

Non-tariff methods of regulation are the most effective element of the implementation of foreign trade policy for the following reasons:

o firstly, non-tariff methods of regulation, as a rule, are not associated with any international obligations, and, therefore, the scope and methodology of their application are completely determined by the national legislation of the country;

o secondly, they make it possible to take into account the specific situation in the global economy and apply adequate measures to protect the national market within a certain period, which is more convenient in achieving the desired result in foreign economic policy;

o thirdly, the use of non-tariff methods does not entail an additional tax burden for foreign trade entities. However, they are associated with other costs for participants in foreign trade (for example, paying a fee for obtaining a license), which undoubtedly affects the final price of goods offered to the consumer.

Non-tariff methods of trade regulation include quantitative, hidden and financial methods.

Quantitative restrictions are the main non-tariff method of trade policy and include quotas, licensing and “voluntary” export restrictions.

The most common form of non-tariff restrictions is quotas - a restriction on the quantity or value of the volume of products allowed to be imported into a country (import quota) or exported from it (export quota) for a certain period. The state implements quotas by issuing licenses for the import or export of a limited volume of products and at the same time prohibits unlicensed trade.

Licensing can be an independent instrument of government regulation; in this case, the license is issued in the form of a one-time, general, global or automatic license. The main methods for distributing import licenses are a competitive auction and a system of explicit preferences. The most beneficial for the country and the fairest way to distribute licenses is an auction. An open auction sets a price for import licenses that is approximately equal to the difference between the importer's price and the highest domestic price at which the imported product can be sold. However, in reality, auctions are rarely held openly and licenses are distributed on a corrupt basis. Under a system of explicit preferences, the government assigns licenses to certain firms in proportion to the size of their imports over the previous period or in proportion to the size of the pattern of demand from national importers.

“Voluntary” export restrictions are imposed by the government, usually under political pressure from a larger importing country, which threatens to impose unilateral restrictive measures on imports. In essence, “voluntary” export restrictions are the same quota, only set not by the importer, but by the exporter. Often, exporting countries find workarounds, namely: switching to categories of goods that are not subject to restrictions; form enterprises abroad.

Along with quantitative methods of trade policy, various methods of hidden protectionism currently play a significant role. By some estimates, there are several hundred hidden methods by which countries can unilaterally restrict imports or exports. The most common ones are:

· technical barriers - requirements for compliance with national standards, for obtaining quality certificates for imported products, for specific packaging and labeling of goods, and much more;

· internal taxes and fees - hidden methods of trade policy aimed at increasing the domestic price of imported goods and thereby reducing their competitiveness in the domestic market;

· public procurement policy – ​​a requirement from government agencies and enterprises to buy certain goods only from national firms, even though these goods may be more expensive than imported ones;

Other examples of covert trade restrictions include requirements for local content or “market economy status”.

Financial methods of regulating trade include subsidies, export credits and dumping. They are aimed at reducing the cost of exported goods and, consequently, increasing their competitiveness.

Export subsidies are benefits and budget payments to exporters to expand the export of goods. The government may also subsidize import-competing industries. Thanks to subsidies, exporters can sell their products on the foreign market cheaper than on the domestic market. However, an increase in exports reduces the number of goods on the domestic market and leads to an increase in domestic prices, and after this, demand decreases. In addition, subsidies increase budget expenditures; As a result, the country's losses exceed its profits.

Hidden subsidies to exporters are expressed through the provision of tax benefits, preferential insurance conditions and various types of export credit.

A common form of competition is dumping, which consists in promoting goods to foreign markets by reducing export prices below the normal price level existing in these countries, or even below costs. Dumping may result from the foreign trade policy of the state if the exporter receives a subsidy.

Both export subsidies and dumping are considered unfair competition under WTO rules and are prohibited. National anti-dumping laws in many countries allow the application of anti-dumping duties if intentional dumping is detected.

The most severe form of foreign trade restriction is economic sanctions. An example is a trade embargo, that is, a ban on the import or export of any goods into or out of a country. An embargo is usually imposed for political reasons - sometimes even despite the fact that it causes damage to the initiating country itself.

A special regime of customs tariff regulation is General system preferences. Its essence lies in the provision by industrialized countries of unilateral tariff benefits when importing goods from developing countries. The system is designed to promote economic growth in developing countries.

Tariff and non-tariff methods of government influence on foreign trade are widely used by many countries. To justify these methods, proponents of protectionism cite a number of evidence, many of which, however, can be refuted.

Proponents of protectionism believe that limiting imports is necessary to support domestic producers and preserve jobs, which should ensure social stability. But on the other hand, by limiting competition, conditions are created for the preservation of inefficient production. It is usually said that protectionism is necessary to protect young industries that need time to fully mature and strengthen their position in the market. However, it is quite difficult to identify truly promising industries from the point of view of creating new comparative advantages for the country. In addition, protectionism reduces incentives to improve efficiency, and as a result, industry development may be delayed.

Protectionist policies are often implemented to supplement budget revenues; This practice is popular in countries that have not yet developed an effective tax system. But budget revenues will depend on the price elasticity of demand for imports, and, therefore, the more elastic the demand, the more government revenues will increase when protection is weakened.

To others negative consequence Protectionism is a natural situation when such a policy pursued by one country causes a response from others, which increases market fluctuations in the world market.

Tariff measures result in an increased tax burden on consumers, who are forced by tariffs to purchase both imported and similar local goods at higher prices. Thus, part of consumers' income is redistributed to the state treasury and their disposable income decreases.

Countries, by reducing imports through tariffs and maintaining employment in import-competing industries, indirectly reduce their exports. Because of the tariff, foreign partners receive less revenue from their exports, which could be used to purchase goods exported by the country.

The most common form of state regulation of foreign trade activities is the tariff, however, currently there is an increase in the importance and emergence of new various forms of non-tariff restrictions on imports and promotion of exports. Despite the fact that the consequence of any customs protection is a decrease in the overall welfare of the nation, all countries of the world apply certain trade restrictions. Meanwhile, under certain conditions, the use of a tariff may be a more effective measure than economic passivity. It is important to find the optimal import tariff for the state, consumer and manufacturer.