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Latin roots. Arapova V.V.

Latin is the language of Ancient Rome (VI century BC – 5th century AD).

The overwhelming majority of Latin words began to penetrate into Old Russian, and then into Russian, when Latin was already dead tongue. They entered through intermediary languages, first through Old Church Slavonic, then through Polish, German, French, etc.

Among the words of Latin origin there are many scientific and political terms, in general words associated with “scientific” pursuits: aboriginal, abstraction, lawyer, axiom, alibi, audience, affix, vacuum, vein, deduction, dean, dictatorship, inertia, colleague, cone, conference, meridian, perpendicular, proportion, radius, rector, review, formula, constitution, manifesto, memorandum, plenum, revolution, republic, referendum, faction, etc. Words from other thematic groups: intelligentsia, chancellery, cooperation, culture, course, laureate , literature, maximum, minimum, motor, nation, innovator, revision, center, instance, etc.

From Latin language Quite a few personal names came up: August, Anton, Valentin, Valery, Victor, Ignatius, Innocent, Claudia, Konstantin, Maxim, Marina, Natalia, Pavel, Roman, Sergei, Felix, Julius, etc.

Signs of Latin words - final - e nt, -tor, -um, -ur (a), -yc *, -tion, etc.: document, docent, incident, monument, ferment; author, speaker, doctor, innovator, rector, equator; quorum, consultation, memorandum, opium, plenum, presidium, forum; reinforcement, dictatorship, censorship, etc.; degree, consensus, cone, corpus, sinus, status, tone; diction, intelligentsia, constitution, nation, reaction, section, faction, etc.

See also:

« Russian language And culture speeches" edited by Professor V.I. Maksimov. Recommended Ministry.P FOREWORD. Chapter I. Speech in interpersonal and social relationships.

Russian language And culture speeches. Speech and mutual understanding. On the process of mutual understanding in speech communication, certain features of use have a significant impact language V speeches.

Russian language And culture speeches. Culture speech communication. Under culture speech communication is understood as such selection and organization of linguistic means that contribute to the most effective achievement of goals in this area speech...

Russian language And culture speeches. Three main types of interaction between dialogue participants in Russian language.So, dialogical unity is ensured by the connection of various kinds of replicas (formulas speech etiquette, question - answer, addition, narration...

Russian language And culture speeches. Structure speech communications. Being an act of communication, speech always addressed to someone.

Russian language And culture speeches. Establishing (maintaining) business contacts .K communicative installationdefinition social and role status of communication participants, establishing social speech contact.

Russian language And culture speeches. Speech, her features.K speeches also include products of speaking in the form speech a work (text) recorded in memory or writing.

A significant place in the textbook is occupied by material related to culture speech communication and with the preparation of official documentation. The textbook aims to present modern views regarding Russian language And culture speeches V beginning of XXI V ...

V.D. Narozhnaya, L. Sadykova

Greco-Latin borrowings in

Russian language

The article discusses Greek-Latin borrowings in the Russian language. Words of Greek and Latin origin are relevant for modern discourse, as they serve as nominations of political, economic, legal and other realities that arouse increased interest among native speakers.

Keywords: language, words, borrowings, vocabulary, terminology

words borrowed from Greek and Latin

in the Russian language

The article studies words from Greek and Latin in the Russian language. Greek and Latin borrowed words are typical of modern discourse as they name political, economical, juridical and other phenomena, which arouse native speakers" interest.

Key words: language, words, borrowed words, vocabulary, terminology

Since ancient times, the Russian people have entered into cultural, trade, military, and political ties with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowings. In the process of use, most of them were influenced by the borrowing language. Gradually, borrowed words, assimilated (from Latin assimilare - “to assimilate, liken”) by the borrowing language, became among the words in common use and were no longer perceived as foreign. At different times, words from other languages penetrated into the original language. Currently, words such as sugar, beets, banya and others are considered Russian, although they were borrowed from Greek language. Such words as school (from Latin via Polish), pencil (from Turkic languages), suit (from French) and many others. The national identity of the Russian language did not suffer at all from the penetration of foreign words into it, since borrowing is a completely natural way of enriching any language. Role Latin borrowings in the formation and development of the cultural and historical layer of words is generally recognized in both Russian and foreign linguistics. Latinisms are the basis of the terminological fund of many languages. Words of Latin origin are also relevant for modern discourse, since they serve as nominations of political, economic, legal and other realities that arouse increased interest among native speakers.

In Russian borrowing foreign words the history of the people was reflected in different eras. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of economic, political and cultural relations Slavs with other peoples, as a result of the implementation of realities that are new to Russia, but already have names in other languages.

most significant influence on language Ancient Rus' was influenced by the Greek language

ka. Kievan Rus conducted a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Rus' (VI century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Kievites (IX century) and the spread of liturgical books translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic. Foreign words, entering the Russian language, are gradually assimilated by it: they adapt to its sound system, obey the rules of Russian word formation and inflection, to one degree or another losing the features of their non-Russian origin.

Borrowings from the Greek language began to penetrate into the original vocabulary during the period of pan-Slavic unity. Such borrowings include, for example, the words chamber, dish, cross, bread (baked), bed, cauldron, etc. Borrowings were significant in the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries. and later (the so-called East Slavic).

Among the borrowings from the Greek language, the most significant is the richly developed terminological system. Term - “(from Latin terminus - “border, limit”) a word or phrase that is the name of a special concept of any sphere of production, science or art” [Russian language...1979: 349]. The term has such features as consistency, the presence of a definition, a tendency towards monosemy, lack of expression, and stylistic neutrality. Terms are words in a special function, therefore words and terms are functionally differentiated. The nominative function of commonly used words differs from the nominative function of a term primarily in that the meaning of the term is strictly conceptual, i.e. informs about the concept, participates in the formation of the concept. The term, unlike commonly used words, is limited in the manifestation of syntagmatic properties. Word formation

Vocalistic means are used selectively in the formation of a term, and means that can give words an emotional and expressive coloring are not characteristic of the terminological system. The nominative function in terminology uses the properties of commonly used words in the national language.

Terminological vocabulary includes words or phrases used to logically precise definition special concepts or subjects in any field of science, technology, Agriculture, art, etc. Unlike common words, which can have multiple meanings, terms within a particular science are usually unambiguous. They are characterized by a clearly limited, motivated specialization of meaning. Greek borrowings, which have become words-terms, cover almost all areas of science and art. These include the following concepts:

Names of sciences: anatomy, biology, botany, grammar, geometry, geography, dialectology, zoology, history, logic, mathematics, mechanics, onomastics, optics, pedagogy, physics, philology, philosophy, etc.

Biology (autogenesis, aleurones, allelopathy, amitosis, anabiosis, anabolia, anaphase, bacteria, glycogen, homology, dialysis, diapause, diapedesis, lysosomes, carpology, metamerism, microscope, etc.);

Astronomy (satrograph, astrolatry, anagalactic, telescope);

Geology and mineralogy (silt, alexandrite, diamond, amethyst, anamorphism, anhydride, barite, hematite, hyacinth, glauconite, di-optase, emerald, calcite, cinnabar, malachite, mesolite, pyrite, rhodochrosite, sapphire, sphalerite, chrysocolla, chrysolite, chrysotile, etc.);

Geography (aklina, arctogea, horizon, phytoclimate, etc.);

Physics (acoustics, analyzers, anaphoresis, slide, slide projector, diascope, magnet, prism, etc.);

Mathematics and geometry (hypotenuse, leg, parallelogram, parallelepiped, pyramid, prism, rhombus, trapezoid, chord);

Chemistry (ammonia, amphoteric, analysis, atom, barium, glycocol, glycols, glycolysis, glucose, isomers, catalysis, carbolite, synthesis, fluorine, etc.);

Economics (anatocism, etc.);

Medicine (aorta, acrocephaly, aleukemia, allergy, anamnesis, artery, hygiene, glaucoma, glycemia, homeopath, diagnosis, diarthrosis, diaphragm, meningitis, pneumonia, symptom, scoliosis, pharmacology, pharmacist, phlegmon, surgery, etc.);

Psychology (autophilia, melancholic, phlegmatic, etc.);

Architecture (acroteria, architectonics, architect, architecture, graphics, etc.);

Music (agogy, baritone, range, melody, music lover, symphony, choir, choreography, etc.);

Linguistics (alphabet, aphorism, diacritic, dialect, dialogue, calligraphy, catalogue, lexeme, lexicon, lexicology, morphology, spelling, spelling, philology, phonetics, phraseology, syntax, etc.);

Literary studies (acmeism, anapest, hyperbole, dialogue, drama, comedy, lyric poetry, metaphor, monologue, ode, poetry, prologue, stanza, tragedy, trochee, reader, epigram, epigraph, epic, etc.).

Market terminology (acceptance, analogy, basis, dividend, identification, index, mortgage, oligopoly, oligarchy, oligopsony, ochlocracy, panic, paradox, parameter, policy, system, tactics, strategy, charisma, homologation, cycle).

The development of science and technology, the emergence of new branches of technology, is always accompanied by abundant appearance new terms. An international fund of scientific terminology is being created, which has been mastered by many European languages, including Russian. Scientific terms are often created from Greek roots, denoting concepts that were not yet known in the era.

xy of antiquity: cosmonaut (gr. kosmos - “Universe” + gr. nautes - (sea) - “swimmer”).

Terminology is one of the most mobile, fast-growing and rapidly changing parts of the national vocabulary (cf. just some of the names of new sciences and branches of production: automation, allergology, aeronomy, biocybernetics, bionics, hydroponics, holography, cardiac surgery, cosmobiology, plasma chemistry, speleology, ergonomics etc.).

Widespread scientific and technical terminology, its penetration into different areas life leads to the fact that in a language, along with the process of terminology of commonly used words, a reverse process is also observed - the mastery of terms in the literary language, i.e. their determinologization. For example, the frequent use of philosophical, art, literary, physical, chemical, medical, industrial and many other terms has made them words in common use, for example: anatomy, analysis, diagnosis, dialectics, etc. Often, when found in the context of common words, the terms are metaphorized and lose their special purpose, for example: the anatomy of love, the geography of heroism, sclerosis of conscience.

Borrowings from the Latin language began to penetrate into the Russian language in Peter's time and played a significant role in enriching the vocabulary, especially in the field of scientific, technical, social and political terminology. Most Latin words came into the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, especially through the Polish and Ukrainian languages, for example: school, auditorium, dean, office, vacation, director, dictation, exam, etc. Many words of Latin origin make up the group international fund terms, for example: dictatorship, declaration, constitution, corporation, laboratory, meridian, maximum, minimum, proletariat, process, public, revolution, republic, erudition, etc.

Borrowings from the Latin language include the following:

Aviation (avis - bird), aviator, aviation, etc.;

Watercolor (aqua - water), aquarium, water area, scuba, etc.;

Antique (antiquus - ancient), antiques, etc.;

Arena (arena - area, sand);

Auditor (audio - listen), audience, audience, etc.;

Vacancy (vaco - to be free);

Fan (ventus - wind), ventilation, etc.;

Verbal (verbum - word, verb);

Visit (visito - to visit), visa, etc.;

Vitamin (vita - life), vitalism, vital, etc.;

Vocal (vocalis - calls, vowels);

Herbarium (herba - grass);

Student (studeo - study hard), studio, study, etc.;

Table (tabula - board, table), time sheet, scoreboard, etc.;

Compasses (circus - circle, circus), circulation, circus, etc.;

Lawyer (jus - law, court), jurisprudence, justice, etc. [Dictionary foreign words, 1986].

Among Greek borrowings, a large group consists of words denoting minerals. Each mineral has its own biography. There are more than a hundred minerals, which were named in Greek for their amazing color and unique properties. This group includes the following definitions: diamond, amethyst, barite, beryllium, hematite, dioptase, emerald, calcite, malachite, pyrite, rhodochrosite, sphalerite, chrysocolla, etc. [Dictionary of Foreign Words, 1986]. Let us consider the etymology of some of the most interesting, in our opinion, names of minerals.

Diamond is a mineral whose name comes from the Greek adamas - “invincible, indestructible” [ShanskiI 1971:

25], the most wear-resistant, expensive, rare stone; usually colorless or painted in pale shades of yellow, brown, gray, green, pink, and very rarely black.

There is a whole legend associated with the name of hyacinth. The word is derived from the Greek gia-kinthos. It is believed that this mineral got its name from the hyacinth flower, with which the Greeks associated a legend about a beautiful young man - the son of the Spartan king Ebal, the favorite of the radiant god Apollo. One day Apollo threw a heavy disk towards the clouds. Hyacinth rushed to the place where this disk was supposed to fall, wanting to prove to his divine friend that he was not inferior to him in the art of throwing. But the god of the west wind, Zephyr, became inflamed with jealousy of the young man’s beauty and directed the disk directly at his head, mortally wounding him. Shocked by grief, Apollo grew a fragrant flower from his blood in memory of hyacinth [Milyukova, Maralieva 2007: 220].

Emerald is a talisman of mothers and sailors. Pregnant women wore emerald amulets, which after the birth of the child were immediately hung in his cradle. it gives joy and fun, spiritual harmony and hope, victory in battle, tact and generosity, talent and grace, eloquence without a shadow of falsehood and self-esteem, insight. he even bestows the ability of foresight.

Malachite - rare gem, it was used for small objects and exquisite decorations, and its name comes from the Greek malakhe - “mallow”. TO end of the XVIII V. With increasing production, malachite is used for larger interior items: vases, boxes, tabletops. they are decorated with thin plates of malachite.

In the old days, turquoise was often replaced with an equally brightly colored mineral blue color- chrysocolla. Its name is derived from the Greek words chrysos - “gold” and ^¡¡a - “glue” [Dictionary of Foreign Words, 1986: 550].

Thus, the word chrysocolla can be translated as “golden glue” (it is said that this mineral was used in ancient times for soldering gold). Chrysocolla received its other ancient name - Elat stone - from the mines of the legendary King Solomon, located near the Gulf of Elat in the Red Sea and the city of the same name, where in ancient times it was mined in fair quantities [Milyukova, Maralieva 2007: 221].

Interesting area borrowed words - names of Greek and Latin origin. Union Prince of Kyiv Vladimir with Byzantium in the 10th century. and the adoption of Christianity in Rus' inherited the names of Greek and Latin saints and entailed the naming of people with new Christian (calendar) names. All names of Russian people, “both pagan and Christian, were artificial and reflected the names of the everyday language” [Superanskaya 1962: 47]. For example, the name Evstolia translated from Greek means “well dressed”, Catherine - “purity”, “decency”, Alexander - “protector of people”, Alexey - “defender”, Irina

- “peace”, Evgeny - “noble”, Ksenia - “wanderer, foreigner”, Nikolai

- “victorious people”, Galina - “silence, calmness”, and many others. TO Greek names proper also include such masculine and female names, like Vasily, George, Zinovy, Hilarion, Plato, Stefan; Aglaya, Agrafena, Anastasia, Evdokia, Elena, Zinaida, Taisiya and others.

The following names came from the Latin language to the Russian language:

Augusta - sacred: an honorary title for the wife, mother, sister and daughter of the Roman emperor);

Aurora is the name of the goddess of the dawn;

Agnes - pure, immaculate;

Agrippina - derived from the Roman rho-

venerable name Agrippa;

Akulina - eagle-like, eagle-like; Virinea - green, portable. fresh, cheerful;

Dementius is a Roman generic name from domo - to tame;

Prov - honest;

Roman - Roman, Roman and many

others [Superanskaya 1962: 56].

Thus, Greekisms and Latinisms are an integral part of the Russian language picture of the world, they are closely related to many of its other elements and act as elementary units of cognitive processes, forming the worldview of a native speaker.

Literature

Milyukova N.N., Maralieva M.B. The role of minerals in Greek and modern culture// Role Greek civilization in the development of world culture: Materials of the International scientific conference dedicated to the 185th anniversary of Greek independence. - Bishkek-Athens, 2007.

Russian language. Encyclopedia / Ed. F.P. Owl. - M., 1979. Dictionary of foreign words / Ed. A.G. Spirkina. - 13th ed., - M., 1986. Superanskaya A.V. Borrowing words and practical transcription. - M., 1962. Shansky N.M. and others. Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1971.

Vorobyova Maria

To study Russian borrowings means to turn to interesting facts. How many Greek and Latin borrowings are there in the Russian language? Join the research.

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Latin and Greek borrowings in Russian

Vorobyova Maria

MOBU "Lyceum No. 3", 6 "B" class

School teacher

Babaskina Irina Evgenevna,

teacher of Russian language and literature

Orenburg 2012

1. Introduction 3

Purpose and objectives of the study.

2. Literature review on issues raised in educational and research work 4

3. Classification and methods of penetration of Latinisms and Greekisms into the Russian language. 7

4. Objects and methods of research 9

5. Research results 9

6. Conclusion 15

7. Practical significance of the study. 16

8. References 17

Purpose of the study:

I. At the lexical level, consider the functioning of Latin and Greek borrowings in the modern Russian language.

II. Raise your cultural level, expand your horizons of knowledge.

Tasks:

1. Acquaintance with the literature on the problems raised in educational and research work.

2. Identify ways of penetration of Latinisms and Greekisms into the Russian language.

3. Collection of lexical material and compilation of a working card index.

1. Introduction

For almost 20 centuries, the Latin language served the peoples of Europe as a means of communication; with its help, they became acquainted with and perceived Roman and Greek culture. He had a huge influence on the languages of European peoples, both in the field of grammar and especially in the field of vocabulary. Russia became familiar with the heritage of Roman civilization through books; as early as the 15th century, translations of Latin works became widespread in Rus'.

The Greek language played a huge role in the development of Slavic writing, Old Slavonic language. In addition, the cultural achievements of Greek civilization not only had a significant impact on Russian culture, but also almost completely laid the foundations of the Western European civilizational type. Language serves as a means of accumulating and storing culturally significant information.

We believe that this topic is relevant. In this work we analyzed only a small part of the vocabulary of Latin and Greek origin. This was painstaking but interesting work, because behind every word there is a whole story.

2. Literature review on issues raised in educational and research work.

In the process of its historical development human languages constantly entered into and continue to enter into certain contacts with each other. Language contact is the interaction of two or more languages that has some influence on the structure and vocabulary of one or more of them. The simplest case of language contact is the borrowing of a word from one language to another. As a rule, borrowing a word is associated with borrowing an object or concept denoted by this word.

Behind every word in any language there is a whole story. Language like the most important means our cultural and national identity can tell us a lot of interesting things. It influences the consciousness of the people who speak it no less than the people influence it.

Language, like people, can be flexible or conservative, or even “dead” like ancient Greek and Latin. “Language has its ancestor, who gave it life, favorable conditions he may find himself far from his progenitor, giving birth, like the Latin language brought by the Romans, to a whole family of noble offspring” (W. Stevenson).

Borrowing - the process as a result of which a word appears and becomes fixed in a language. Borrowing replenishes lexicon language. Borrowed words reflect the completeness of contacts between peoples. Thus, in the Germanic languages there is a vast layer of ancient Latin borrowings, in Slavic languages the oldest borrowings are from Germanic and Iranian languages. For example, the German word Arzt "doctor" comes from the Latin arhiator (Chief physician), etc.

When borrowing, the meaning of a word often changes. Thus, the French word chance means “ luck " or "you're lucky", while the Russian word " chance " means only "opportunity of luck." Sometimes the meaning changes beyond recognition. For example, the Russian word " idiot" comes from the Greek " private person", the word "barn" goes back to the Persian word meaning " castle" (it entered the Russian language through the Turkic languages). It also happens that a borrowed word returns in its new meaning back to the language from which it came. This is the history of the word " bistro" , which came to the Russian language from French, where it arose after the War of 1812, when parts of Russian troops found themselves on French territory - probably as a transmission of the replica “Quickly!”

The main flow of borrowings of foreign words comes through colloquial speech professionals.

Among the borrowings, a group of so-called internationalisms stands out, i.e. words of Greek-Latin origin, widespread in many languages of the world. These include, for example, the Greek words:philosophy, democracy, problem, revolution, principle, progress, analysis.In addition to ready-made Latin and Greek words, individual Greco-Latin morphemes are widely used in international scientific terminology: roots, prefixes, suffixes (many Greek morphemes were borrowed by the Latin language back in ancient times). Building elements of Greek origin include, for example:bio-, geo-, hydro-, anthropo-, pyro-, chrono-, psycho-, micro-, demo-, theo-, paleo-, neo-, macro-, poly, mono-, para-, allo-, -logy, -graphy-, super-, inter- , extra-, re-, or-, -izationetc. When constructing terms, international Greek and Latin elements can be combined with each other (for example: television, sociology), as well as with morphemes borrowed from new European languages, for example, speedometer (from the English Speed “Speed”).

Words of Greek origin in the Russian language are of two types - in accordance with the era and the method of their borrowing. The largest group consists of those Greek words that came into the Russian language through Latin and new European languages - this includes all international scientific terminology, as well as many generally significant words, such astheme, scene, alphabet, barbarian, department, Athens, date.Finally, in the Russian language there are single words borrowed from ancient Greek into its classic version, - for example, the philosophical term ecumene (lit."population "), going back to the same word " house", which is included in the words economy or ecology.

A particularly important role in the Russian language is played by borrowings from Church Slavonic, a closely related language in which worship was conducted in Rus' and which until the mid-17th century. simultaneously performed the function of the Russian literary language. These include: anathema, angel, archbishop, demon, icon, monk,monastery, lamp, sexton and others.

In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must take root in a new language, firmly enter its vocabulary- how many foreign words entered the Russian language, such asbread, mug, umbrella, sail, market, bazaar, station, tomato, cutlet, car, cucumber, church, tea, sugar andothers, many of whom turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign language origin.

3. Classification and methods of penetration of Latinisms and Greekisms into the Russian language.

Latinisms and Greekisms first began to penetrate the Russian language several centuries ago. The largest number of them came into our language in the 18th and 19th centuries. This is due to the general cultural influence of countries on Russia Western Europe and above all France, whose language is the closest descendant of Latin. Latinisms came to us directly from the Latin language, but could be borrowed indirectly - through other languages. Therefore, Latinisms and Greekisms are divided intodirect and indirect. The intermediary languages most often were French, English, German, Italian and Polish. So many European words were borrowed by the Russian language through Polish, for example, music (a word of Greek origin that came to the Russian language through Europe and Poland), the word market (Polish ryneh with the same meaning, which arose, in turn, from the German Ring- ring, circle ) etc. There are borrowings from a very long and complicated history, for example, the word"varnish" : it came into the Russian language from German or Dutch, into these languages from Italian, but the Italians most likely borrowed it from the Arabs, to whom it came through Iran from India.

Latinisms and Greekisms are classified into artificial and natural. Artificial Latinisms are words that arose as terms technical devices, art history or socio-political terminology. These words were created by individuals, mostly in modern times, and did not exist in living Latin.

Tracing paper. In some cases, one Latin and also Greek word served as a source for two borrowings in the Russian language. They arise by literal translation into Russian of individual significant parts words (prefixes, roots). A calque is, for example, the word“spelling” (gr. Orthos et grapho), adverb (lat ad t verbum). Derivational tracings are known from Greek, Latin, German, and French words.

Neologisms. Among neologisms recent years we observe vocabulary of Latin origin that came into the Russian language through in English. These are Latinisms in anglicized form. Word office (English Office, Latin Officum - service, duty), sponsor (English Sponsor, Latin Spondare - to solemnly promise, philanthropist, private person or any organization that finances something, someone).

4. Objects and methods of research.

The material for educational and research work is the etymological dictionary of the Russian language by the authors Shansky N.M., Ivanov V.V., Shanskaya T.V. This dictionary includes over 3000 words. In difficult cases we used Newest dictionary foreign words. By sampling from this dictionary, the author’s working card index was created, which contains 100 cards. Each card indicates the source (this dictionary), the title word (vocabula), the Latin and Greek word, origin, and translation into Russian. Latinisms and Greekisms are represented by words that actually function in the Russian language, as well as the latest borrowings (computer, counterfeiting, etc.)

Consideration of borrowed words can be done in different ways. We will look at the languages from which these borrowings entered the Russian language in different periods development and put it on cards. Borrowings occur at all language levels, but in our work it is most convenient to work with borrowed vocabulary, because at the same time, it was possible to obtain a fairly complete picture of interlingual interaction, based on dictionary data.

Our card index contains vocabulary: socio-political, economic, legal, religious, medical, vocabulary of education and education, philological, commonly used words and terms included in active vocabulary Russian language.

5. Results of our own research

Any research involves, first of all, the classification of the objects being studied. Having studied the theory of classification and methods of penetration of borrowings into the Russian language, we set ourselves the task of identifying the basis for the classification of our material.

Working with the card index, we were able to establish that it is possible various grounds for the classification of lexical Latinisms and Greekisms. We have chosen the following:

1) Direct borrowings

Direct ones are those that came into the Russian language directly from the source language (Latin).

In our card index of 100 words there are 40 direct borrowings.

Symposium, scholarship, incentive, university, board, presidium, session, nonsense, tomato, passport, decoration, carnival, physician, audience, maximum, index, stroke, president, pluralism, lecture, abstract, seminar, rector, professor, alibi, symbol, etc.

Stipendium lat. 1) soldier's salary. 2) cash scholarship

Stroke (insulto< лат) 1) скачу, впрыгиваю. 2) острое нарушение мозгового кровообращения.

October -October, octo - eight in Ancient Rome, the 8th month of the year after the reform of the calendar by Julius Caesar, the 10th month.

Session - session< лат происхождение от глагола “sedere” (сидеть), буквально - сидение.

Stimulus - stimulus< лат 1) остроконечная палка, которой погоняли скот. 2)в русском языке - поощрение, стимул.

Symposium - symposium< лат. 1) пир, пирушка. 2) совещание

Style - stulus< лат. палочка для письма у древних греков.

Lecture - lectio< лат. вид учебного занятия.

2) Indirect borrowing

Of the 100 words in our card index, 60 lexemes are indirect or indirect borrowings. We have established that the intermediary languages through which we came latin words The Russian languages are French, German, Polish, English, Italian. They passed difficult path, moving from language to language, and got into the Russian language through not one language, but two or three.

For example, a lawyer (Latin advocatus, German -Advokat)

Introvert (Latin - intro inside + vertere - English introvert - turn)

Classification (Latin - classis, German - Klassifikation)

Grosh (Latin - grossus, Polish - gross)

Bottle (Latin - buticula, Polish - butelka)

Bath (Latin - wannus, German - Wanne)

Public (Latin - publicum, Polish - publica)

Lady (Latin - domina, Polish - dama)

Board (Greek - discos, Lat. - discus, German - tisch)

Coin (Latin - moneta, through Polish language from Latin)

Patch( emplastrum.borrowed from it. language, in which pflaster goes back to Lat. emplastrum, adopted in turn from the Greek language)

Tomato (via French from Latin), in which pomidoro means "golden apples"

Russian word "Crystal" "(the obsolete form "crystal" was borrowed directly from Greek, and through the Latin language - crystallus, then through German Kristall it entered the Russian word in the form "crystal").

Student - borrowed at the beginning of the 18th century from it. language in which Studens is a student (from studio - studying, studying)

Exam - lat. origin, where amen - truth, ex - coming out - truth coming out, i.e. examination. IN church service Orthodox Christians often use the word “amen” - this means “in truth.”

Session - lat. The origin of “sessio” is from the verb sedere - to sit, literally - sitting.

Crib - formed using the suffix -ka, from shpargal - paper, borrowed from the Polish language. The Polish word “szargal” - old paper with writing on it - goes back to the Latin sparganum - diaper, which in turn was learned from the Greek language.

Stimulus - lat (a pointed stick used to drive cattle, and in Russian - encouragement, incentive - the internal form of the word was lost).

3) Artificial borrowing.

Artificial borrowings, as a rule, consist of 2 multilingual elements.

Biathlon (Latin Bi+ Greek athlon - competition) - cross-country skiing with rifle shooting (standing and prone) on several stages.

Sociology (Latin soci - society + Greek logos - concept, teaching) - the science of society.

Fluorography (Latin flour - flow + Greek grapho - writing) - method x-ray examination organs human body by transferring an image from a translucent screen to photographic film.

Futurology (Latin futurum - future + Greek Logos) - science, a field of scientific knowledge aimed at foreseeing the future.

Scuba (Latin Aquva - water, English lung - lung) - a device for scuba diving at great depths.

Supermarket (Latin super - over, English - market - market) - large (usually a grocery store)

Deodorant (French des + Lat odor - smell) - a means to remove unpleasant odors.

4) Traces and semi-traces

Humanity (Latin Humanus + Russian suf. ost)

Tolerance (Latin tolerantio - patience)

Creativity (Latin creo - I create, I create)

Erudition(eruditus - learning)

There are only 4 words in our card index, which are composed using the Russian suffix ost and the Latin root.

5) Neologisms

In the Russian language of modern times, Latinisms appear in an anglicized form. This vocabulary is associated with the latest achievements of science and technology.

There are 6 neologisms in our card index.

Computer English computer< лат.compulor - счетчик

Cursor English cursor< указатель <лат cursorius - быстро бегающий или cursor - бегун - вспомогательный, подвижный знак, отмечающий рабочую точку экрана компьютера.

Scuba - (at aqua-water + English lung - lung) - apparatus for scuba diving

Internet (inter-lat and eng -net) - world wide web.

Office (English officium - service, duty) - office

Sponsor (English sponsor and Latin spondare - philanthropist) - an individual or organization, a company that finances someone.

Our catalog contains Greekisms.

1) Direct borrowings

Direct borrowings from the Greek language. These are words related to various spheres of human activity, commonly used words, church vocabulary.

For example:

Bed - borrowing from Greek. Celebrated since the 17th century by the Greek Krabbation.

Alphabet - Alphaboetos is a compound word in Greek, made up of the names of the first 2 letters alpha and beta (“alphabet”).

2) Indirect borrowings

A large number of Greek words came to us through the French and German languages. This can be explained by the fact that Russian culture is historically connected with the culture of France and Germany. Many French Greekisms (plastic, cream, scandal) appeared in the era of enlightenment, when Russian art and the direction of scientific thought were formed under the influence of French philosophy. So, in our card index of indirect Greek borrowings there are 10.

Borrowings from the Greek language came to Europe, Russia, and Ukraine, usually through the Latin language, in a Latinized form. Carcinogen (Latin cancer - cancer, Greek genesis - origin)

Mausoleum (Latin - mausoleum + gr. - mausoleon) - the tomb of the Carian king Mausoleum.

Symposium (lat. - symposium, gr. - symposion) - feast

6. Conclusion

For us, the Latin language is, first of all, the language of science, culture, religion, and medicine. As a result of the study of lexical Latinisms and Greekisms, the following conclusions were made:

1. Many words are terms of various fields of science, so among them the vocabulary of medicine, legal, vocabulary of enlightenment and education, commonly used, stands out. All Latinisms and Greekisms function in modern Russian.

2. Classifying lexical Latinisms and Greekisms according to the method of borrowing, we determined that most of the studied words are indirect borrowings (60%). The intermediary languages are: in 20% of cases - French, equally in 15% - German and Polish, in 10% - English. A separate group consisted of 13% of Greek words borrowed into the Russian language through Latin. Direct borrowings from the Latin language accounted for 40% of the studied lexical units.

3. The bulk of Latinisms and Greekisms were borrowed from French and German; this can be explained by the fact that Russian culture is connected with the culture of France and Germany.

4. As a result of borrowings, the Russian language is replenished with international terms. International words are words that are found in many languages (artery, aorta, democracy, problem, revolution, principle, progress, analysis).

5. The national identity of the Russian language did not suffer at all from the penetration of foreign words into it, since borrowing is a completely natural way of enriching any language. The Russian language has retained its complete originality and has only been enriched by borrowed Latinisms and Greekisms.

Latin is “dead,” but its “death” was beautiful - it died for a thousand years and nourished most European languages, becoming the basis for some and giving hundreds and thousands of words to other languages, including Russian. This can be easily verified by reading the following text, in which words of Latin and Greek origin are highlighted in italics:

"The school principal hands over class certificates maturity of applicants, which then hand over exams in institutes. Rector of the university, deans of history, economics, legal and philological faculties read to undergraduate and graduate students lecture courses in classrooms and carry out special seminars.

7. Practical significance.

The practical significance of our research lies in the possibility of using the obtained material for extracurricular activities (competitions, olympiads and weeks in English and Russian, publishing wall newspapers, booklets, leaflets, memos) in order to improve the cultural level of schoolchildren. Teachers can also use the results of the study

Bibliography

1 Barlas L.G. Russian language. Introduction to the science of language. Lexicology. Etymology. Phraseology. Lexicography: Textbook, ed. G.G. Infantova. - M.: Flinta: Science, 2003

2 Large dictionary of foreign words. - M.: UNVERS, 2003

3 Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M., 1990
4. Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: 72,500 words and 7,500 phraseological expressions / Russian Academy of Sciences. Russian Language Institute; Russian Cultural Foundation; - M.: AZ, 1993
5. Shansky N.M., Ivanov V.V., Shanskaya T.V. Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language. Manual for teachers. - M.: “Enlightenment”, 1975

6. Ya.M. Borovsky, A.B. Boldarev. Latin language. 1961.

7. G.P.Savin. Basics of the Latin language and medical terminology. Moscow 2006.

8. D.E. Rosenthal. Handbook of the Russian language. year 2000.

A significant part of the vocabulary of the Russian language consists of Latinisms. Latin vocabulary penetrated into the Russian language for many centuries: in the ancient period, especially after the adoption of Christianity, through Greek-Byzantine mediation, and with the development of enlightenment in the 16th century. it also appears in the Church Slavonic language, which served as a literary language. The purpose of the research in this article is to trace some borrowings from the Latin language, analyze their etymology and indicate the semantic meaning in the modern Russian language. Being the official language of the Roman Empire, which occupied the 3rd century. AD vast territory, the Latin language turned out to be the only cultural language in its western part. It retained this meaning even after the fall of the Roman Empire. Until the XII - XIII centuries. Latin in many European countries remained the language of literature and artistic creativity, as well as the language of science, religion and official papers. Until the 17th century, diplomatic correspondence was conducted in Latin and legal documents were drawn up. The famous Code of Civil Law, compiled in the 7th century by order of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, played a large role in the formation of modern legal terms. Its simplicity and clarity allowed it to firmly establish itself in European countries. Most of the terms of the Code have survived to this day: justice (justitia, ae f - justice, legality), prosecutor (procurāre - take care), lawyer (advocāre - support, help), appeal (apellatio, onis f - appeal, complaint), etc. Until the 18th century, Latin was the language of science: students of the first European universities studied in it, scientists and philosophers wrote their works, and defended dissertations. It was through the educational system that existing cultural, social and tribal traditions were consolidated and maintained. Therefore, both scientific and administrative hierarchies were created in higher education institutions to make their work more efficient. All names of different levels currently used in the hierarchical ladder are borrowed from Latin and ancient Greek. University (universitas, atis f) means integrity, totality, association; faculty goes back to the Latin noun facultas, atis f - opportunity, ability; dean (decanus, i m) comes from military terminology - foreman, commander of a department of ten people; professor (professor, oris m) - public teacher, mentor, etc. Modern students know that it is customary to respectfully call the university Alma mater, which means “mother who nourishes knowledge”; that the anthem that is sung at the initiation ceremony is called "Gaudeamus" - "Let us rejoice", "Let us be merry". And that in the notes, when it is necessary to pay attention to key points, the sign “NB!” is placed in the margins. - Nota Bene!, literally meaning “Notice well!” Latinisms, along with words that came from the Greek language, form the basis of the scientific terminology of any field of knowledge. So, in technology we deal with tools (instrumentum, i n - tool), motors (motor, oris m - setting in motion), apparatus (apparatus, us m - equipment, equipment), structures (constructio, onis f - composition, construction,); in a chemical laboratory - with chemical elements (elementum, i n - primary matter), experiment (experimentum, i n - test, experience), reaction (reactio - re- against + actio, onis f - action), diffusion (diffusio, onis f - spreading, spreading); in mathematics - with the concepts of sum (summa, ae f - total), minus (minus - less), plus (plus - more), percentage (pro centum - per hundred), sine (sinus, us m - bending, curvature) and cosine (co - c, together + sinus), as well as the names of geometric figures: square (quadratus, i m - square), oval (ovum, i n - egg), etc. It is simply impossible to overestimate the importance of the Latin language. To this day, Latin occupies a huge place in biology and medicine. It is impossible to imagine the educational process in medical universities without knowledge of Latin in classes in anatomy and histology, professional terminology in clinical subjects. One of the most extensive areas of application of borrowings from the Latin language is names. Names of Greco-Roman origin came to Rus' at the end of the 10th century along with a new religion - Christianity. From that moment on, borrowed names began to actively displace ancient Slavic ones. Names are in many ways a reflection of the centuries-old culture of the ancient world. Many of them are epithets for the proper names of Roman gods. Thus, Margarita, translated from Latin as “pearl, pearl” (margarita, ae f), goes back to the epithet of the goddess Venus, who is the patroness of sailors. The name Marina is also associated with the epithet of this goddess, i.e. “sea” (marinus, a, um). The names Victoria and Victor are associated with the Roman goddess of Victory (Victoria). Roman is translated “Roman” from the adjective romanus, Maxim - “greatest” from maximus, a um, Constantine means “constant” - from constans, antis, (in mathematics there is the concept of “constant”, meaning a constant, unchangeable value). The same-root names Vitaly and Vitalina go back to the Latin noun vita, ae, f - life and are translated as “full of vitality”, hence “vitamins” - substances necessary for life. The name Sergei is related to the Roman family name Sergius, which possibly means "highly revered, high." And this is a scanty (miser, era, eram - poor, meager) number of examples of names that came from Latin. Another example of borrowings from Latin are the names of the months. Even in Ancient Rome, a solar calendar was developed, consisting of names associated with Roman gods, emperors and just numbers. It was adopted as the basis, and subsequently supplanted the ancient Slavic calendar, most likely for religious reasons. The word “calendar” itself - calendarium, i n is Latin and in ancient times designated the first day of each month (Calendae, arum f). For the Romans, the year began not in January, as it is now, but in March. The origin of the name of the first spring month of March is associated with the name of the Roman god of war - Mars, who was considered the father of Romulus, the legendary founder and first king of Rome. It was in this month, with the onset of warmth, that the Romans began military campaigns. May and June are similarly named after the Roman goddesses Maya and Juno, and January is named after Janus, the Roman god of all beginnings. April from the Latin aprilis - opening, originates from the verb aperīre - to open, and February - from Februa, orum n - the holiday of purification. Another example is the names of the months July and August, named, respectively, in honor of Emperor Julius Caesar and his successor, Emperor Augustus. Associated with numbering are September, October, November and December: September - septem - seventh, October octo - eighth, November - novem - ninth, December - decem - tenth. In astronomy, the names of the ancient Roman gods were fixed in the names of two planets with Latin roots. The first planet from the sun, Mercury is named after the Roman god of trade. The Latin root “merc” means “related to trade and profit” (mercatus, us m - market, mercator, oris m - merchant, merces, edis f - payment). The next planet, Venus, which is often called the evening or morning star, is named after the goddess of love and beauty. The Romans revered this goddess so much that the participle veneratus,a,um and the adjective venerabilis,e meant “honored, respected.” In medicine, the terms venereology are associated with this goddess - venerologia (venus,eris f - love, love pleasure from Venus Venus, goddess of love + logos teaching), i.e. the science of venereal diseases and their treatment and venereal phobia - venerophobia (venus,eris f + -phobia fear) - an obsessive fear of contracting a venereal disease. Latin roots have proven to be very tenacious, and continue to be used to denote new concepts and inventions that did not exist in ancient times. Thanks to Latin, well-known words appeared. For example, a bicycle (vēlōx, ocis fast + res, pedis m leg, foot), literally “swift-footed”. The Latin verb computāre (to count, consider, calculate), as well as the cognates computatio, onis f (counting, calculation) and computator, oris m (counting, calculating) clearly indicate through which language the word “computer” itself arose. Monitor - a device for visually displaying information on the screen - comes from monitor, oris m - one who reminds, adviser, overseer and monēre - to remind, to pay attention. In conclusion, I would like to note that Latin is found everywhere in the Russian language and the range of borrowed words is quite large. We would like to refute one common misconception that Latin is a dead language and no one speaks it. Yes, for a long time now there have been no people for whom Latin was their native language. And yet, paradoxically, many people speak it - including each of us.

medical term borrowed from Latin

In Russia, Latin became widespread with the reforms of Peter I. At first, it was used exclusively by scientists, diplomats and lawyers, but gradually Latin was Russified and became understandable to wider layers of society, and many Latin words firmly entered the Russian language and took root: literature, architecture, fashion, notary, lawyer and many other words are no longer perceived as foreign.

In modern society, Latin is extremely necessary not only for doctors, but also for entrepreneurs, lawyers, barristers and representatives of other professions. Persona non grata, status quo, terra incognita - this is just a tiny part of those Latin expressions and catchphrases that we come across almost every day. Moreover, without minimal knowledge of the Latin language, without understanding well-known Latin expressions, proverbs and catchphrases, it is no longer possible to imagine a modern intelligent person.

The original Russian medical vocabulary is rooted in the common Indo-European base language and the common Slavic base language, on the basis of which in the 7th - 8th centuries. the Old Russian language arose. Writing appeared in Rus' in the middle of the 10th century. in the form of Old Church Slavonic (Church Slavonic) language.

It is possible that the original custodians of medical knowledge among the ancient Slavic tribes, like many other peoples, were the magician priests. The common Slavic word Doctor, which has a common root with the words “grumble”, “speak”, originally meant a sorcerer, sorcerer, fortune-teller, soothsayer, who heals with charms, incantations and incantations. From the depths of centuries, words attested in ancient Russian handwritten monuments that belong to the common Slavic layer have come down to us: thigh (diminutive “thigh, tibia”; hence “tibia”), thorn, side, eyebrow, hair, vospa (smallpox), head, throat , breast, hernia, lip, tooth, face, forehead, urine, nose, nail, fetus, kidney, cancer, hand, spleen, heart, crown, ear, etc.

We can consider Old Russian words that are common to the Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages, as well as words that belonged to one of them, but were firmly included in the Russian literary language, for example: pregnant, infertility, twins, illness, pain, sick, pus, shin, larynx, thirst, stomach, bile, conception, health, vision, intestines, skin, bone, medicine, medicinal, treatment, treat, brain, callus, muscle, nostril, smell, touch, swelling, poisoning, groin, liver, hymen, shoulder, sole, lower back, navel, erysipelas, mouth, cramp, body, jaw, skull, neck, ulcer, etc. Modern terminology includes such ancient names as nuchal ligament1, duodenum, epigastrium (the Church Slavonic and Old Russian word “neck” referred to neck, and the Church Slavonic words “finger” and “belly” meant “finger” and “stomach” respectively).

Many ancient Russian names of diseases and their symptoms have long gone out of use, and identifying them with modern terms is difficult. Such names include, for example, asthma (asthma), goldenrod (jaundice), kamchyug (arthritis), bloody womb (dysentery), epileptic illness (epilepsy), burning stomach (anthrax), leprosy (leprosy, lupus and some other lesions). skin), itching (scabies), shaking (malaria).

Some of the ancient Russian words used in the modern medical dictionary have changed their meaning. So, for example, the word “callus” in ancient times meant enlarged lymph nodes or an ulcer, the word “joint” meant a part of the body or an organ, as well as a joint in the modern sense, the word “gland” could mean a tumor (“gland merli People"). The Old Russian word “belly” had several meanings: life, property, animal. The word “eye”, which originally meant “ball (shiny)”, was used only in the 16th-17th centuries. acquired modern meaning along with its synonym - the common Slavic word “eye” and finally supplanted the latter only in the 18th century. In the literary monuments of the 16th century. The word “back” first appears as a synonym for the ancient word “ridge” in the monuments of the 17th century. - the word “lungs” instead of the ancient name “ivies”, the word “cough” appears for the first time.

Many original Russian names that existed in the language of Old Russian empirical medicine and were recorded in all kinds of “Healing books”, “Herbal books” and “Vertograds”, did not survive in the language of scientific medicine and gave way to other names, most often of Greek-Latin origin.

Greekisms of anatomical and physiological content are found sporadically already in the early monuments of ancient Russian writing. The penetration of Greekisms after the adoption of Christianity by Russia (10th century) was facilitated both by direct contacts with Byzantium and its culture, and by the growth in the number of translated Church Slavonic works. The latter were often compilations of passages from the works of Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen and Byzantine doctors.

Latin vocabulary was also initially borrowed through the Greek-Byzantine medium, although to an extremely insignificant extent. It began to actively penetrate into the XV-XVI centuries. thanks to the Polish language. In the 17th century In connection with the progress of enlightenment in Ukraine, Latinisms began to be borrowed directly from works in Latin. Perhaps the very first of these works, Vesalius’s “Epitome,” which is the author’s brief extract from the work “On the Structure of the Human Body,” was translated in 1657-1658. prominent Russian enlightener Epiphanius Slavinetsky. It is assumed that the translation was supposed to serve as a textbook on anatomy for students of the school of Russian doctors, allegedly opened in 1654-1655. under the Pharmacy Order. Although the translation of E. Slavinetsky is lost, it can be assumed on the basis of his other work, “The Complete Greek-Slavic-Latin Lexicon,” that he created certain prerequisites for mastering the terminology of Western European medicine of that era. E. Slavinetsky used only two ways of translating terms - the use of original Russian equivalents and tracing [for example, he translated the term polyphagia (from the Greek poly- many and phagein) with the word “multiple eating”] and almost did not use borrowings.

A significant step in the comprehension and mastery of Greek-Latin vocabulary by Russians, including medical content, was made by a remarkable lexicographer of the early 18th century. F.P. Polikarpov. His “Trilingual Lexicon, that is, Slavic, Hellenic-Greek and Latin treasures” (1704), consisting of 19,712 articles, contains a significant number of names of diseases and medicinal herbs in Greek, Latin and Russian. The large number of synonyms he cites indicates a wide range of literary medical sources used. Each article begins with a Russian name, which most often represents either a Russian equivalent (stone disease, smallpox, erysipelas, okovrach or ochnik, etc.), or a descriptive designation; Borrowings and Latinisms (apoplexy, dysentery, doctor, etc.) are used less frequently.

After the first graduations of the Greco-Latin Academy, in 1658 in Moscow, classicism began to be borrowed directly from the works of ancient authors and on a much wider scale than before. Particular attention was paid to teaching scientific anatomical and surgical terminology in Latin at the First Hospital School, established in 1707 on the orders of Peter I and led by N. Bidloo.

During the Peter the Great era and after it, throughout the entire 18th century, hundreds of scientific Latinisms were poured into the actively developing Russian literary language, both directly from Latin works and through Western European languages. At the beginning of the 18th century. The following words are widely used: medic, medicine, medicine, medicine, pill, pharmacist, recipe, sangva (Latin sanguis blood), urine (Latin urina urine), febra (Latin febris fever). In the middle of the 18th century. the words abscess, ampulla, amputation, tonsillitis, vein, consultation, constitution, contusion, muscle, nerve, ophthalmologist, patient, dissector, pulse, respiration (breathing), retina, relapse, section, scalpel, scurvy appear in the literature, temperament, fiber (vein), fistula, etc.

M.V. made a huge contribution to the substantiation of principles and the development of Russian scientific terminology. Lomonosov (1711--1765). A brilliant expert on classical languages, he repeatedly emphasized their importance for the needs of education and for the progress of terminology in Russia. M.V. Lomonosov took part in the review of the first anatomical atlas, translated from German by A.P. Protasov (1724-1796), who laid the foundations of scientific anatomical terminology in Russian.

Russian doctors-translators of the 18th century. belongs to the creation of Russian scientific medical terminology. It was truly a feat of scholarship and patriotism. Russian translators had to overcome significant difficulties in conveying through their native language the names of abstract concepts developed by Western European languages, including the classicisms and neoclassicisms mastered by the latter.

The shortcomings of terminology were especially acutely felt by Russian medical teachers. Teaching medical disciplines in Russian was possible only if domestic terminology was developed. Therefore, many outstanding Russian doctors became both translators and philologists. Among them, first of all, we should mention the chief physician of the St. Petersburg Admiralty Hospital M.I. Shein (1712-1762), who created the earliest summary of Russian anatomical terms in Russian literature.

Translators were able to cope more easily with the names of diseases and symptoms, because for them there were often equivalent designations that existed in the language of traditional medicine. The situation with scientific anatomy was more difficult, since many anatomical formations, for example, pleura, pancreas, trochanter, did not have Russian names at all. In such cases, descriptive compound terms were often created instead of a single Latin (or Latinized Greek) word. So, M.I. Shein created the Russian equivalent for the word diaphragma, “abdominal obstruction.” Along with this, translators resorted to tracing. A.P. Protasov introduced the name Clavicle, which is a tracing paper from the Latin word clavicula (from clavis key).

In the process of formation of domestic terminology, there was almost not a single foreign language term for which several equivalents in Russian were not proposed by different authors. Not all of them have stood the test of time and have been replaced by terms of Greco-Latin origin, including neologisms.

The first dictionaries of medical terms in Latin, Russian and French were compiled by the first Russian professor of “midwifery art” N.M. Ambodik-Maksimovich (1744-1812). In 1783, his “Anatomical and Physiological Dictionary” was published, containing about 4000 titles, and Russian ones were extracted, according to the author, “from various printed, church and civil, also new, old and handwritten books”, and also represented “his own handmade” creativity. The next issue - "Medical-Pathological-Surgical Dictionary" (1785) - collected "the names of diseases and their symptoms in the human body, as well as devices, operations, dressings used in surgery to perform certain manipulations."

Russian medical vocabulary was presented in the first academic dictionary of the Russian language - “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” (1789-1794) - with more than 600 words. Folk common Russian names were included, as well as borrowed scientific terms of Greek-Latin origin. The words were accompanied by very complete, carefully worded definitions. The medical part of the dictionary was compiled by leading Russian scientific doctors A.P. Protasov and N.Ya. Ozertskovsky (1750--1827). In this dictionary, in particular, the term Inflammation was first recorded, created by Shein in 1761 as a tracing paper from the Latin word inflammatio (from inflammo to set fire, set on fire, ignite).

A major contribution to the creation of Russian anatomical terminology was made by the founder of the Russian anatomical school P.A. Zagorsky (1764-1846), who wrote the first Russian anatomy textbook (1802), where he introduced Russian equivalents of a number of Latin terms. E.O. was heavily involved in the development of domestic anatomical terminology. Mukhin (1766-1850), who also created an anatomy course in Russian.

The “Medical Dictionary” compiled in 1835 by A.N. can be considered a qualitatively new stage in lexicographic processing, clarification and systematization of the rapidly growing Russian medical terminology. Nikitin - founder and first secretary of the Society of Russian Doctors of St. Petersburg. This was the first medical dictionary in Russia in which terms were interpreted. Medical community of the first half of the 19th century. highly appreciated Nikitin’s work “for his deep knowledge of the Russian language and extensive acquaintance with Russian medical literature,” which made it possible “to present the nomenclature fully assembled without innovations and in such a form that henceforth it could serve as a model of Russian medical terminology.”

Throughout the 19th century. Russian medical vocabulary continued to be actively replenished with terms that had an international distribution, the predominant mass of which were classicisms and neoclassicisms, for example Abortion, alveolus (Alveolus of the lung), Ambulatory, Bacillus, Vaccine, hallucination (Hallucinations), Dentin, Immunization, Immunity, Heart attack, Infection, Cavern, Carbuncle, Lymph, Percussion, Pulp, Reflex, Exudate, etc., preserved to this day.

At the same time, among Russian doctors there were also extreme purists who objected to borrowings and neologisms, defending the original Russian common vocabulary, which they endowed with a special medical meaning. This point of view was held, in particular, by V.I. Dal (1801-1872) - doctor by profession, creator of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”. However, none of the replacements he proposed remained in the language of Russian medicine.

Most Russian doctors defended terms that were well established in professional usage, regardless of whether they were internationalisms of Greco-Latin origin or their Russian equivalents. They also realized the importance of preserving the Latin termini technici, i.e. standard, international not only in meaning, but also in form, according to the Latin transcription of names. In 1892--1893 The Encyclopedic Medical Dictionary by A. Vilare was published in translation from German. The preface to the Russian edition of the dictionary stated that “over the past decades, Russian medical terminology has developed significantly and strengthened among practical doctors, however, it is not yet at such a height that it excludes the use of Latin names.” It defended the advantage of the Latin terms generally accepted at that time such as auto?digestio, abrachia, acromegalia, epilepsia, and expressed an objection to the corresponding Russian names “self-digestion”, “armless”, “giant growth”, “eppileptic”, etc. It is interesting that the further fate of these terms turned out to be different: Self-digestion, and not autodigestio, was fixed in the language, and the remaining terms were preserved in the form of borrowing, without being accompanied by Russian equivalents (Abrachia, Acromegaly, Epilepsy).

Modern Russian medical terminology, based on linguistic origin, forms of writing, functions performed at the national or international levels, can be divided into the following main groups:

1) original Russian names;
2) borrowed classicisms, assimilated to varying degrees, adapted to the sound and morphological system of the Russian literary language; the overwhelming majority of them actually perform the function of internationalisms, i.e. terms that have received cross-linguistic distribution in at least three languages from different language groups (for example, in Latin, French, English, German, Russian, etc.);
3) original Western Europeanisms, which actually perform the function of internationalisms;
4) Latin termini technici.

In the second half of the 20th century. medical vocabulary continues to be enriched with internationalisms. In modern Russian medical terminology, internationalisms and their Russian equivalents (including tracings of a foreign language term) act as synonyms. In some cases, the Russian equivalent is preferably used, for example, Lice instead of pediculosis (Pediculosis), Prurigo instead of Prurigo, Ossification instead of Ossification, Diarrhea instead of Diarrhea, Dwarfism instead of Dwarfism, Incarceration instead of Incarceration, Eversion of the eyelid instead of Ectropion. In other cases, internationalisms are preferred, such as Puncture rather than Puncture, Malignancy rather than Malignancy, Favus rather than Scab, Palpation rather than Palpation, Enucleation rather than Enucleation, Gynecophobia rather than Misogyny. In many of the above cases, the preferred use of a borrowed word is explained by the fact that its Russian equivalent is also used in the general literary language in a broader or different meaning. Sometimes the Russian equivalent gives way to internationalism, since it is easier to form derivative words from the latter, for example Placenta (placental) - Children's place. Often such synonyms are practically equal, for example: Bleeding, Hemorrhage and Hemorrhage (hemorrhagic), Myopia and Myopia (myopic), pancreas and pancreas (pancreatic), Blood transfusion and Hemotransfusion (hemotransfusion).

Many terms of Greco-Latin origin, including neoclassicisms, penetrate into Russian terminology through Western European languages. Often they were able to gain the actual status of internationalisms, appearing almost simultaneously in two or more languages, and it is often difficult or impossible to find out in which Western European language a particular term, marked with the stamp of classical or neoclassical origin, first appeared. Many terms, having originally appeared in English, French or German linguistic form, undergo simultaneous or subsequent formal romanization; however, this process can also develop in the opposite direction: from a term Latinized in form to its nationally adapted analogue.

Sometimes a clear indication that classicism or neoclassicism was borrowed through Western European languages is provided by phonetic features that are not characteristic of classical languages. Thus, the presence in some words of the sound [w], which was absent in classical languages, indicates that the word was borrowed from German (Sciatica, neoclassicisms Schizophrenia, schizothymia, etc.). Under the influence of the phonetic system of the French language, the term Senestopathie (French cеnestopathie) arose, derived from the Greek words koinos (general), aisthзsis (sensation, feeling) and pathos (suffering, disease).

Under the influence of Western European languages, in some Latinized words of Greek origin the sound [c] that was absent in the Greek language appeared, for example: Cyst (Latin cysta, from Greek kystis), Cyanosis (Latin cyanosis, from Greek kyanфsis).

The artificial (neoclassical) nature of a number of terms is indicated by the components of different languages, mainly Greek and Latin; for example: Vagotomy (Latin anat. nervus vagus vagus nerve + Greek tomz incision), Coronary sclerosis (Lat. anat. arteria coronaria coronary artery + Greek sklзrфsis hardening, sclerosis), Rectoscopy (Latin rectum rectum + Greek skopef to consider , research). “Hybrids” are formed similarly: Appendicitis, Gingivitis, Duodenitis, Conjunctivitis, Retinitis, Tonsillitis, etc. (to the Latin anatomical terms appendix - appendage, gingiva - gum, duodenum - duodenum, conjunctiva - connective membrane of the eye, retina - retina, tonsilla - tonsil, added the Greek suffix -itis, used to denote inflammation). The Greek prefixes Hyper-, Hypo-, Peri- and others are often combined with the Latin base: hyperfunction, hypotension, perivisceral, perivascular. There are also Greek-Russian “hybrids”: Allochondrium, leukovsus, Rechegramma, etc.

Such “hybridization” is quite natural within the framework of medical and biological terminology, where Greek and Latin roots and word-forming elements have grown into the fabric of national languages over many centuries and formed an international foundation in them. Therefore, the “hybrid” word “acidophilic” (Latin acidus sour + Greek philos loving, inclined) is just as legitimate as the monolingual word “thermophilic” (Greek thermos heat, warmth + Greek philos).

Original Western Europeanisms, i.e. There are relatively few words that arose from the lexical and word-formation material of Western European languages in Russian medical vocabulary. Their active implementation has been noted only since the end of the 19th century. and especially in the 20th century. They are presented mainly in terminology related to medical technology, surgical techniques, genetics, physiology, hygiene, and are much less common in the nomenclature of diseases. Thus, Anglicisms include, for example, Attachment, Blockade, Doping, Inbreeding, Clearance, Crossingover, Pacemaker, Site, shunt (arteriovenous shunt) and “hybrid” terms Aerotank, dumping syndrome, rant disease (Runt disease), Westing- syndrome. Borrowings from the French language include, for example, Absence, Midwife, Bandage, Bougie, Influenza, Drainage, Probe, Cannula, Whooping Cough, Cretinism, Curette, Patronage, Pipette, Raspator, Tampon, Teak, Yaws, Chancre, the “hybrid” term Culdoscopy . Examples of borrowings from the German language include boron (dental boron), Bugel, Klammer, Kornzang, Resort, Reiters, Spatel, Shub, “hybrid” words Abortzang, Rausch-narcosis, etc.

Some nosological terms of Italian origin have become internationalisms: Influenza, Malaria, Pellagra, Scarlet fever. The term Sigwaterra comes from the Spanish language, and Croup from the Scottish language.

There are individual words borrowed from Eastern and African languages: the Japanese word Tsutsugamushi, the African tribal word - Kwashiorkor, the Sinhala word - Beriberi. Sex therapists use some words of ancient Indian origin, for example, Vikharita, Virghata, Kumbitmaka, Narvasadata. The names of some medicinal substances were borrowed from the tribal languages of the American Indians: ipecac, curare, quinine.

A traditional feature of medical and biological terminology continues to be the use of termini technici - terms graphically and grammatically designed in Latin. The identity of their understanding by different specialists in all countries makes termini technici an indispensable means of internationalizing terminology.

Large groups of termini technici are united in modern international nomenclatures and have an officially approved international status. These include nomenclatures of morphological and biological disciplines: anatomical, histological and embryological nomenclatures, codes of botanical and zoological nomenclature and a code of bacterial nomenclature. In the International Pharmacopoeia, the Latin name of the drug is indicated as the main, reference name.

Termini technici have a different status, relating to the dictionary of clinical medicine, denoting diseases, pathological conditions, symptoms, syndromes, etc. In most cases, they actually perform the function of international designations, but their use is optional. The “International Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death” does not contain international Latin names as mandatory. In the USSR, most of these termini technici are used only in conjunction with their Russian equivalents, for example Hernia, Urticaria, Herpes Zoster, Cholecystitis. At the same time, some termini technici of this type are used in domestic medical terminology as preferred terms. These include, for example, Caries sicca, Carcinoma in situ, Partus conduplicato corpore, Situs viscerum inversus, Spina bifida, Status typhosus, Tabes dorsalis, plow vara (Coxa vara).

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