Labor: its significance in social development and human life. The concept of “labor”, characteristic properties of labor and its types

Work is an activity aimed at human development and the transformation of natural resources into material, intellectual and spiritual benefits. Such activity can be carried out either under coercion, or out of internal motivation, or both.

Sociological functions of labor:

Socio-economic function consists in the impact of labor subjects (workers) on objects and elements natural environment(resources) with the aim of converting them into objects to satisfy the needs of members of society, that is, into material goods and services.

Productive function is to satisfy people's need for creativity and self-expression. Thanks to this function of labor, new objects and technologies are created.

Social structuring function labor lies in the differentiation and integration of the efforts of people participating in the labor process. On the one hand, assigning different functions to different categories of participants in the labor process leads to differentiation and the creation of specialized types of labor. On the other hand, the exchange of results of labor activity leads to the establishment of certain connections between different categories of participants in the labor process. Thus, this function of labor contributes to the creation of socio-economic ties between different groups of people.

Social control function labor is due to the fact that labor organizes a complex system of social relations, regulated through values, norms of behavior, standards, sanctions, etc., which constitute a system of social control of labor relations. This includes labor legislation, economic and technical standards, charters of organizations, job descriptions, informal norms, a certain organizational culture.

Socializing function labor is associated with the fact that work expands and enriches the composition of social roles, patterns of behavior, norms and values ​​of workers, which allows people to feel like full participants public life. This function gives people the opportunity to acquire a certain status, a sense of social belonging and identity.

Social development function labor is manifested in the impact of the content of work on workers, teams and society as a whole. This is due to the fact that as the means of labor develop and improve, the content of labor becomes more complex and updated. This process due to the creative nature of man. Thus, there is an increase in requirements for the level of knowledge and qualifications of employees in almost all industries modern economy. The function of employee training is one of the priority functions of personnel management in a modern organization.

Social stratification function labor is a derivative of social-structuring and is associated with the fact that the results various types labor are rewarded and valued differently by society. Accordingly, some types of work activities are recognized as more, and others - less important and prestigious. Thus, labor activity contributes to the formation and maintenance of the dominant value system in society and performs the function of ranking participants in labor activity according to ranks - steps of the stratification pyramid and the ladder of prestige.

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that labor activity determines a number of interrelated social and economic phenomena and processes in modern society. The study allows us to identify the most effective ways to manage an organization.

Main categories of labor science

• complexity of work;
• professional suitability of the employee;
• degree of worker independence.

The first sign of labor content is complexity. It is clear that the work of a scientist is more difficult than the work of a turner, and the work of a store director is more difficult than the work of a cashier. But to justify the measure of remuneration for various types of labor, their comparison is required. To compare complex and simple labor, the concept of “labor reduction” is used. Labor reduction is the process of reducing complex labor to simple ones to determine the rate of remuneration for labor of varying complexity. With the development of society, the share of complex labor increases, which is explained by an increase in the level of technical equipment of enterprises and requirements for the education of workers.

• the employee performs such functions of mental work as planning, analysis, control and coordination of actions;
• concentration of active thinking and purposeful concentration of the employee;
• consistency in making decisions and actions;
• accuracy and adequate reaction of the employee’s body to external stimuli;
• fast, agile and varied labor movements;
• responsibility for work results.

The second sign of labor content is professional suitability. Its influence on labor results is determined by a person’s abilities, the formation and development of his genetic inclinations, successful choice of profession, conditions for the development and selection of personnel. Special methods for determining professional suitability play a significant role in professional selection.

The third sign of labor content is degree of employee independence- depends on external restrictions, related to the form of ownership, and internal, dictated by the scale and level of complexity of the work. Reducing restrictions in decision making while increasing the level of responsibility means greater freedom of action, creativity and the possibility of an informal approach to solving problems. The independence of an employee acts as a criterion for the level of self-awareness of a developed personality, his measure of responsibility for the results of his work.

Nature of work as a category of labor science represents the relationships between participants in the labor process, which affect both the employee’s attitude towards work and labor productivity. From the point of view of the nature of labor, a distinction is made between, on the one hand, the work of an entrepreneur and, on the other hand, hired, collective or individual labor. The work of an entrepreneur is different high degree independence in decision making and its implementation, as well as high measure responsibility for results. Wage labor- this is the work of an employee called upon, under the terms of the agreement, to perform official duties in relation to the employer.

Modern labor science

Modern science on labor includes a number of basic disciplines:

1. traditionally includes problems of labor productivity and efficiency, labor resources, labor market and employment, income and wages, workforce planning, problems of labor regulation.
2. Personnel economics examines the behavior of employees when they perform job responsibilities. The discipline studies the influence of various factors on labor productivity.
3. Occupational medicine— studies work-related factors that can cause injury, illness or other harm to a worker’s health.
4. Physiology of labor explores the functions of the human body in the labor process: the physiology of the motor system, the development and training of labor skills, performance and its regulation, sanitary and hygienic working conditions, the severity of labor.
5. Labor psychology explores the demands on the human psyche associated with his attitude to work.
6. Personnel Management studies the problems of workforce planning, selection, training and certification of personnel, labor motivation, management styles, relationships in work teams, and management procedures.
7. Sociology of labor studies the impact of workers on society and vice versa - society on the worker.
8. Pedagogy of labor How science views issues of employee training.
9. Ergonomics studies the organization of the process of adapting means of labor to the characteristics, capabilities and limits of the human body.
10. Labor management studies the basics of designing workplace labor processes. Issues such as identifying personnel needs, recruiting and selecting personnel, engaging employees, releasing them, developing, controlling personnel, i.e. are considered. management, coordination and communication of work structuring, remuneration policies, participation in success, personnel cost management and employee management.
11. Safety explores a complex of problems related to ensuring safe work activities.
12. Labor law analyzes a complex of legal aspects of labor and management. This is especially important when hiring and firing, developing reward and punishment systems, solving property problems, and managing social conflicts.

Fundamentals of modern labor economics

Labor Economics— studies economic patterns in the field of labor relations, including specific forms of manifestation of the essence of labor, such as organization, payment, efficiency and employment.

Object studying labor economics is labor - purposeful human activity aimed at creating material wealth and providing services.

Subject of labor economics- socio-economic relations that develop in the labor process under the influence of various factors - technical, organizational, personnel and other nature.

Purpose Labor economics are studies in the field of human resource management.

home task labor economics - the study of the essence and mechanisms of economic processes in the sphere of labor in the context of human life and society.

Ways to improve work efficiency

One of the most important elements increasing the efficiency of human labor activity - improving skills and abilities as a result of labor training. From a psychophysical point of view, industrial training is a process of adaptation and corresponding changes in the physiological functions of the human body for the most effective performance of a specific job. As a result of training, muscle strength and endurance increase, the accuracy and speed of working movements increase, and physiological functions are restored faster after finishing work.

Rational organization of the workplace

Rational organization (ensuring a comfortable posture and freedom of labor movements, using equipment that meets the requirements of ergonomics and engineering psychology) ensures the most effective, reduces fatigue and prevents the risk of occupational diseases. Besides, workplace must meet the following requirements: availability of sufficient work space; sufficient physical, auditory and visual connections between man and machine; optimal placement of the workplace in space; permissible level of harmful production factors; availability of means of protection against hazardous production factors.

A comfortable working posture of a person during work ensures high efficiency and productivity. A comfortable working position should be considered one in which the employee does not need to lean forward more than 10-15 degrees; bending back and to the sides is undesirable; The main requirement for a working posture is an upright posture.

The formation of a working posture in the “sitting” position is influenced by the height of the working surface, determined by the distance from the floor to the horizontal surface on which the labor process is performed. The height of the working surface is set depending on the nature, severity and accuracy of the work. A comfortable working posture when working “sitting” is also ensured by the design of the chair (size, shape, area and inclination of the seat, height adjustment).

High performance and vital activity of the body are supported by a rational alternation of periods of work and rest.

Rational work and rest regime

Rational work and rest regime- this is the ratio and content of periods of work and rest in which high labor productivity is combined with high and stable human performance without signs of excessive fatigue for a long time. This alternation of periods of work and rest is observed at different periods of time: during work shift, day, week, year in accordance with the operating mode of the enterprise.

The duration of rest during a shift (regulated breaks) depends mainly on the severity of the work and the conditions of its implementation. When determining the duration of rest during working hours, it is necessary to take into account the following production factors that cause fatigue: physical effort, nervous tension, pace of work, working position, monotony of work, microclimate, air pollution, air ion composition, industrial noise, vibration, lighting. Depending on the strength of the influence of each of these factors on the human body, the time for rest is set.

The intra-shift work and rest regime should include a lunch break and short rest breaks, which should be regulated, as it is more effective than breaks that occur irregularly, at the discretion of the employee.

Short rest breaks are designed to reduce fatigue developing during work.. The number and duration of short-term breaks are determined based on the nature of the labor process, the degree of intensity and severity of work. The reference points for establishing the beginning of rest breaks are the moments of decreased performance. To prevent its decline, a rest break is scheduled before the body becomes fatigued. In the second half of the working day, due to deeper fatigue, the number of rest breaks should be greater than in the first half of the shift. Physiologists have found that for most types of work the optimal break duration is 5-10 minutes.. It is this break that allows you to restore physiological functions, reduce fatigue and maintain a working attitude. With deep fatigue, it is necessary to follow both the line of increasing the number of breaks and increasing their duration. But short breaks lasting more than 20 minutes disrupt the already established state of work.

Rest can be active or passive. Leisure recommended for work taking place in unfavorable working conditions. The most effective form of active recreation is industrial gymnastics. Active rest speeds up the recovery of strength, since when changing activities, the energy expended by a working organ is restored faster. As a result of industrial gymnastics, the vital capacity of the lungs increases, the activity of the cardiovascular system improves, and muscle strength and endurance increase.

Tinder fungi got their name because they are quite long-lasting. historical period They made tinder - a material that only needs one spark to ignite.

Polypores are the raw material for making tinder

People have long ago found the answer to the question of how to make tinder from tinder fungus. Mushroom tinder is still very popular. In addition to such useful practical qualities, tinder fungi have extensive use in medicine.

Applications of tinder from polypores

The tinder fungus gained the greatest fame and popularity due to its properties of rapid ignition when hit by a spark. In the past, making fire in the field, fishing, hunting or hiking was quite problematic. There were no matches or lighters at that time. Tinder was a great solution to this problem. Even in our time, its relevance has not been lost. Matches may become damp and your lighter may run out of fuel. A spark is quite easy to obtain in any conditions. To do this, two pieces of jagged iron or two stones of granite or basalt origin are enough, which, when struck against each other, give off a spark.

Tinder doesn't require special conditions storage, it is enough to pack it in a plastic bag with a zipper and put it in the inner pocket of your clothes. Due to its small size and low weight, the mushroom tinder will not create any discomfort when worn. After preparing the base for the fire, you need to use a flint to strike a spark on the tinder, fan the fire and put the tinder into the kindling of the fire. Once fanned, the tinder will produce a steady flame within a few minutes, sufficient to ignite the fuel to start a fire.

Having such a wonderful device made from the tinder fungus, you can warm up and dry yourself by the fire even in rainy weather or during snowfall.

Tinder does not require special storage conditions; you can always carry it in your pocket

Tinder preparation process

The process of preparing tinder does not require special equipment or high technology. You can make tinder from the tinder fungus at home using available items. There is a fairly simple recipe for making tinder from this mushroom.

In order to make tinder, you will need the following materials:

• one large tinder fungus or several medium mushrooms;
• old unnecessary pan;
• any type of stove, camp grill or barbecue;
• charcoal for barbecue;
• ash collected from the fire pit;
• wooden hammer or shovel shaft.

When preparing tinder, you need to decide in advance how to make sure that this process does not cause unnecessary trouble to others. The fact is that when the tinder fungus is cooked, it gives off a not entirely pleasant smell. After cooking, the pan is no longer suitable for further use in the kitchen due to the formation of persistent scale on its walls, which is almost impossible to remove. Therefore, in order to avoid an unpleasant conversation about damage to property, it is necessary to acquire a pot that has been written off as unnecessary in advance. The cooking process itself should be carried out in the fresh air, in the courtyard of the house or in a nearby forest plantation. To avoid open flames and the associated fire hazard, heating the pan can be done on a grill or barbecue using charcoal as fuel.

Cooking tinder in a kettle outdoors

Tinder Manufacturing Technology

How to make good, reliable tinder? The tinder making process consists of the following steps:

1. Processing (cleaning) of tinder fungus.
2. Preparing a solution for boiling tinder.
3. Directly cooking the tinder part of the mushroom.
4. Mechanical processing of welded tinder.
5. Impregnation of tinder with coal dust.
6. Drying tinder.

It is necessary to make tinder without skipping a single step, otherwise all efforts will be wasted!

When processing tinder fungi, it is necessary to separate the hard outer skin and tubular components from them. The resulting core is cut into palm-sized pieces. After this, a solution is prepared. The pan is filled one third with ash and filled with water. If possible, keep stones out of the pan. large pieces ash, leaves and branches. The resulting substance is mixed until smooth and thick. Next, the prepared parts of the tinder fungus pulp are placed in the resulting solution, and the pan is placed on the fire. Boil the contents of the pan for at least 1.5 hours. During boiling, the tinder fungus becomes soft and saturated with ash. Then, after cooling, the chopped tinder is removed from the pan and the water is drained. In this case, the layer of ash that has settled at the bottom must be left. It will be useful in making the tinder more flammable.

The tinder, cooled in air, is subjected to mechanical processing. This processing is reminiscent of cooking chops, only a wooden hammer with a smooth surface is used. If you don’t have such a hammer on your farm, then a thick, heavy and smooth stick will do just fine. The beating process is carried out until the pieces of tinder become thin and soft. Then the beaten tinder is placed in a pan with ash, and the pan is shaken vigorously several times. This is necessary for the tinder to absorb the smallest particles of ash. Saturation with ash suspension should be carried out throughout the day, shaking the pan periodically.

The final step in preparing tinder is drying it. The tinder is removed from the pan and laid out to dry. Moisture cannot be squeezed out of them. You need to dry tinder on a surface that provides uniform air flow to all sides. To do this, you can use fine mesh, lattice, hay, straw or egg trays. When the tinder is somewhat dry, you need to carefully knead it with your hands until it becomes soft and pliable to the touch, like an ordinary rag. If individual pieces did not yield to this procedure and remained hard, then they will be of no use. You can safely throw them away. After kneading is completed, the tinder should be sent for final drying. When they are dry, they need to be placed in airtight packaging.

It is also important to know how to make tinder easy to light. Sparks must be applied to the side, velvety parts of the tinder, which are formed when individual pieces break. So the tinder will immediately begin to smolder.

1. The concept of labor

At first glance, the answer to the question of what is considered work is obvious, because each of us encounters this concept every day. However, in the literature there is no clear and unambiguous definition of the concept of labor.

In everyday language, the word “labor” has several meanings, as reflected in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” S.I. Ozhegova:"1) expedient human activity aimed at creating, with the help of production tools, material and spiritual values ​​necessary for people’s lives; 2) work, occupation; H) effort aimed at achieving something; 4) result of activity, work, work" 1 .

The Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary gives a slightly different interpretation of the concept of “labor”: this “expedient human activity aimed at modifying and adapting natural objects to satisfy one’s needs” 2 .

In the economic literature of the pre-perestroika period, the definition of labor given by K. Marx was widespread. Labor - “this is a process that takes place between man and nature, i.e., the purposeful activity of man, during which he, through his own activity, mediates, regulates and controls the exchange of substances between himself and nature, creates the necessary use values” 3 .

Based on Marx’s definitions, expanded interpretations of labor are given. For example, "...First of all, labor- this is the expedient activity of people to create goods and services, which must be effective, rational, and economically organized; secondly, it is one of the main conditions for the life of not only an individual, but also society as a whole, a factor in the functioning of any organization (enterprise); thirdly, it cannot be considered as a commodity, since the commodity is not itself, but the labor service, and, finally, in the labor process a system of social and labor relations is formed, which form the core of social relations at the level

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1 Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1985, p. 707.

2 Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. - M., 1981, p. 136.

3 Marx K, Engels F. Op. - 2nd ED., vol. 23, p. 188.

national economy, region, firm and individual" 4 . This is a rather cumbersome definition, which shows the features of labor as an object of research and study.

B.M. Genkin offers the following definition of labor: " Labor is the process of transforming natural resources into material, intellectual and spiritual benefits, carried out and (or) controlled by a person either under coercion (administrative, economic), or through internal motivation, or both." 5 . He highlights methods of attracting people to work, including non-economic.

Neoclassicists (for example, Marshall, Jevons) considered labor to be any effort made to achieve any result, and at the same time emphasized the painful, forced side of labor, in addition to the direct pleasure from the labor process itself.

“any mental and physical effort made partly or wholly for the purpose of achieving some result, other than the pleasure derived directly from the work itself. (Initially, this definition belongs to Jevons, although, as Marshall notes, the latter includes only painful efforts in the understanding of labor. See: A. Marshall. Principles of Economic Science. - M., 1993. - Vol. 1. - P. 124).

In essence, it identifies labor activity and the work process - the expenditure of effort, or energy, by a person.

A universal understanding of labor according to K. Marx. In analyzing the essence of labor, Marx follows the principle ascent from the abstract to the concrete, from the universal to the particular and particular. Only with this approach is it possible to consistently identify both the most general aspects (attributes) that are always inherent in labor and characterize it at various stages of human history, as well as its special features at each historical stage, and, finally, the specificity of specific types and forms of labor.

Following this methodological principle, Marx originally considers labor as a “non-historical”, universal category (“labor in general”) and defines it as “primarily a process... in which a person, through his own activity, mediates, regulates and controls the exchange of substances between himself and nature”, as “a universal condition of exchange substances between man and nature, eternal natural condition human life" (Marx K. Capital. Volume one // Marx K., Engels F. Works. T. 23. - P. 188, 195). Here, labor is characterized as a way of human existence, a way of human life that is different from other living beings..

Essential for understanding the essence of labor is that labor characterizes the process man's transformation of nature(the surrounding world and one’s own nature) from the point of view the necessary participation of the person himself as a subject of labor who has consciousness and will. In a broad sense, work is expedient, materially transforming objective human activity. Material-transforming objective activity is a process during which a person, transforming nature, acts as an active subject, making the natural phenomena he masters the object of his activity.

Based on this abstract general understanding of labor, Marx fixes its most essential and necessary moments, somehow expediency, universality and permanence, versatility, creative character. Labor as a universal condition for the exchange of substances between man and nature is an integral condition of human life. It is the basis of life and development! person. The history of mankind shows that thanks to work, man stood out from the animal world. influence environment and by changing it, people, prompted by ever-increasing needs, develop their ability to work, enrich their knowledge, and expand the scope of their work activity.

Objective conditions of existence encourage a person to work. Labor in this sense does not depend on any specific form of organization of social life, i.e. it, as the relationship of man to nature, is the same for all social forms, for all methods of production, for any social system.

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4 Labor economics and social and labor relations/ Ed. G.G. Melikyan and R.P. Kolosova. - M., 1996, p. 10.

5 Genkin B.M. Economics and sociology of labor. - M., 1998. p. 7.

Substance of labor. In the economic literature on labor issues one can sometimes find such a concept as "substance of labor" In general the term "substance" means, firstly, the essence, that which underlies; secondly, that which exists on its own and does not depend on anything else. 6 Back in the 20s of the 20th century, speaking about the substance of labor, A.A. Bogdanov pointed out that this is the cost of the human brain and nerves. muscles, sense organs, blood and energy in the labor process. 7 Some modern authors believe that the substance of labor is the energy consumed by the human body in the process of labor in a certain purposeful form, that the interpretation of the substance of labor as the expenditure of human organs is scientifically untenable and it is high time for economists to part with such ideas long ago. Energy, of course, is spent through human organs over time, but this does not give reason to represent one or the other as a substance of labor. 8

Elements of labor. Mandatory elements of labor are labor and means of production.

Work force- this is the totality of a person’s physical and spiritual abilities that are used by him in the labor process. This is the main one productive force society. 9 There are other interpretations of the concept" work force". Often this term is used to refer to the economically active population or workers employed in an enterprise or firm.

Means of production consist of objects of labor and means of labor.

Objects of labor- these are products of nature that undergo certain changes and turn into use values. Objects of labor include the earth and its subsoil, flora and fauna, raw materials and materials, energy and information flows, etc.

Means of labor- these are tools of labor (machines, instruments, equipment, tools, etc.), with the help of which a person acts on objects of labor, as well as other means of labor (industrial buildings, communications, etc.).

Labor process- there is a process of association and consumption work force and means of production in order to create new use values. The labor process is carried out in a certain environment, which is characterized by different working conditions. Moreover, the labor process is not just a mechanical connection of its basic elements, but their organic unity, and the decisive factor

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6 SEE: Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. P. 1294.

7 SEE: Economics and sociology of labor. - Izhevsk, 1997, p. 42.

8 Economics and sociology of labor, p. 45.

9 Marx K., Engels F. Soch. - 2nd ed., vol. 23, p. 178.

The factor here is the person. In the process of labor, a person, with the help of means of labor, carries out pre-planned changes in the subject of labor. The result of the labor process is product of labor.

Attributes of labor as an activity. Work is a human activity that has the following properties:

1) awareness of actions. This means that before starting to work, a person will create a project in his mind, i.e. mentally imagine the result of labor. For example, as a commodity producer, he determines what products, in what quantities and when should be produced. Unconscious, instinctive actions are not labor. To illustrate this, Karl Marx compared the actions of an architect and the actions of a bee. The worst architect, noted K. Marx, differs from the best bee from the very beginning in that before he builds a cell from wax, he has already built it in his head. The bee performs its actions instinctively;

2) expediency of actions. After a project has been created, a person thinks through a model of action, and then begins to implement previously developed intentions. In our example, this means how these products should be produced, using what resources, using what technology;

H) effectiveness of actions. Any activity ends with a certain result, but work is characterized not just by a result, but by a socially useful result, and therefore work must also have the property indicated below;

4) social usefulness of actions. People produce goods not alone, not in isolation from each other, but together, united in work collectives or on the basis of more or less strong contacts with each other. They produce these benefits for themselves and for society;

5) energy consumption of actions. This is manifested in the fact that a certain physical and mental energy is spent on work activities ( Job).

The difference between “Labor” and “work”. They are not equivalent or identical concepts. Labor by its nature is a social activity due to its creative role in the life of society and human involvement in social results. Specific work activity is at the same time an activity during which people enter into certain connections and relationships with each other. Labor is inherent only to man as a social being. Work is a concept that has a more physical meaning. It can be performed by a person, a machine, or an animal. Labor has a temporal characteristic and is measured by working time (but here we already have reduction to work). Work is measured in natural units - kilograms, meters, pieces, etc.

Characteristics of a person as a subject of labor. Any human activity is based on his legal capacity, performance And ability to work. Capacity (ability to act) characterizes human activity from the qualitative side. In the process of labor, a person is capable of limitlessly creating material and spiritual values, setting various goals for himself and achieving them different ways. The endless variety of all this is a consequence of the complex structure of the human body. Thus, legal capacity is This is a person’s ability to “qualitatively different types of purposeful activities, the ability to realize their infinite variety.

However, a person cannot solve assigned tasks without using his ability to work, i.e. the ability to perform an action or work. If the body did not have such an ability, then all its performing and creative functions would remain unfulfilled. This can be compared to illumination, when the image is instantly lost as soon as the electric current stops flowing to the bulbs, although the connection diagram of these bulbs remains the same.

Efficiency characterizes the quantitative side of a particular human activity. Thanks to it, it becomes possible to perform the action itself and obtain its result in quantitative terms.

In turn, performance itself is characterized by various indicators. Economic indicators include the number of products produced for each hour of work (hourly labor productivity), average time (per hour or half an hour of work) per unit of production, the number of defective products by hours of work, etc. In addition to economic indicators, performance is also characterized by changes in physiological functions, such as a change in heart rate, speed of visual reaction after each hour of work, etc.

Efficiency is not a constant value, but changes during different periods of working time (day, day, week) under the influence of a number of factors: the nature of the work, the employee’s length of service, his habit of working systematically, the degree of mastery of work skills, etc. The graphical representation of individual types of work corresponds their curves of changes in performance during the working day. There are several types of such curves. However, most jobs during the working day are characterized by a typical performance curve, which has three phases: the workability phase (I), the sustained performance phase (II) and the fatigue phase (III) (Fig. 1).

The first phase is characterized by low levels of performance. During this period, the activity of all physiological organs and systems of a person is restructured in accordance with the actions he performs. Coordination of movements gradually improves, their accuracy and speed increase, perception improves, the optimal working posture is selected, and the functioning of the respiratory and circulatory systems is established at the required level. According to Academician A. A. Ukhtomsky, during this period the formation of " working dominant", those. setting up various nerve centers that regulate the activity of physiological

systems, to the form of activity and to the speed of nervous reactions that are necessary for the longest work activity. The duration of this phase can range from several minutes to one and a half hours.

Rice. 1. Typical performance curve

After completion of the work-in phase, the human body enters the so-called stable working state. During this period, a person achieves maximum results with minimal time investment. This condition is for most types of professional activity, except for work associated with excessive stress or taking place under exceptional conditions. can be maintained for several hours, usually two to three hours.

After this, a decrease in the level of performance is observed: the person’s attention is scattered, movements slow down. the number of errors increases. All this indicates increasing fatigue. Fatigue is a set of physiological processes that arise as a result of prolonged and intense work and lead to a temporary decrease in performance. The state of fatigue is usually accompanied by a characteristic sensation, which is designated by the word "fatigue". Fatigue goes away during rest, if the duration is sufficient. Usually, at the time when fatigue sets in and rest is needed, a lunch break is timed.

After a lunch break, the human body again goes through these three phases. But now the start-up phase ends faster than at the beginning of the working day, the steady-state phase is usually shorter in duration and lower in

level than before lunch, and the period of fatigue is longer, and it increases with greater depth than before lunch.

Due to the established daily periodicity of life activity in different periods of time, the human body reacts differently to physical and neuropsychic stress, and its performance fluctuates in a certain way during the day. In accordance with the daily cycle, the highest level of performance is observed in the morning and afternoon hours from 9 to 20 hours. In the evening hours, a person’s performance is still at a high level. At this time of day, a person has great potential to ensure productivity with minimal fatigue. At the same time, work in the evening hours begins with a certain layer of fatigue caused by previous wakefulness and everyday stress. Night work, disrupting the biological rhythm, contradicts physiological laws and is unnatural for humans. In fluctuations in performance during the day, there are two minimums (about 2-3 a.m. and 3 p.m.) and two maximums (about 8-9 a.m. and 6 p.m.).

A person’s performance during the week is also not stable. In the first days of the week it increases, reaching highest level on the third day (Wednesday), then gradually decreases, falling sharply by the sixth day - Saturday.

The concepts of “work capacity” and “work capacity” should not be confused. Work ability reflects the ability to participate in work in general. If a person is able to work, he is able to work. In turn, loss of ability to work means that a person is completely unable to perform work or that work is contraindicated for him due to health reasons.

A person begins his life being completely helpless. Over time, he matures, develops physically and spiritually, gains strength, knowledge, and skills. From a dependent he turns into a worker and becomes able to work. By old age, the ability to work is lost. You can temporarily lose your ability to work (in whole or in part) as a result of illness or injury. Premature loss of ability to work, as well as a decrease in working capacity, reduces the labor resources of society and negatively affects labor productivity.

Classification of types of labor. There are different types of work, and all their diversity can be classified according to the following criteria: by the content of labor, by the nature of labor, by the results of labor, by the material elements of labor used and varying degrees fate, a person, by methods of attracting people To labor.

Labor process , from the point of view of labor content, there is the interaction of a person with tools and objects of labor, a kind of repetition of labor cycles, each of which ends with the production of a specific product. The following functions are distinguished in this process: 1) logical, associated with determining the goal and preparing the labor process: 2) performing, those. activation and direct impact on the subject of work; 3) registration and control function, those. surveillance technological process, the progress of implementation of the planned program; 4) regulation function, those. correction, clarification of a given program.

1) simple and complex work. According to K. Marx’s definition, simple labor" is the expenditure of simple labor power, which on average the bodily organism of every ordinary person, not distinguished by special development, possesses" 10 . This is work that does not require special professional training from the worker; unskilled labor and complex labor are “only raised to a power or rather multiplied simple labor." One hour of complex labor, as a rule, contains several hours of simple labor, therefore skilled workers create more value per unit of time than unskilled ones;

2) reproductive and creative labor. Reproductive labor is labor reproduced, known in advance, not containing creative beginnings, and creative is constructive work, an activity in the process of which something qualitatively new, unique, original, and unique is created. The results of creative work depend on the abilities for this type of creativity, passion for the work, its importance, conditions, etc.;

3) functional and professional work. At each enterprise (firm), groups of workers are formed, depending on their role in production and in accordance with the functions that they perform. each function is associated with one or another aspect of the activity necessary for the normal operation of the enterprise. The tasks solved by each functional group are quite specific. Such work is usually called functional.

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10 Marx K., Engels: F. Soch. - 2nd ed., T. 23, p. 53.

Functional labor is labor that differs in the composition and nature of the functions performed (for example, production, engineering, management, scientific, etc.). Within each group, labor differs according to individual professions and specialties (for example, process engineer, design engineer, organizational engineer, standards engineer);

4) mental and physical labor. Physical labor is the expenditure of physical energy. Mental labor is expressed in the fact that the idea of ​​creating one or another use value arises in the human brain, a person thinks through a plan for the implementation of this idea, and makes sure that his plan is realized in the process of physical labor. The division of labor into mental and physical is quite arbitrary. This convention was noted by S. G. Strumilin: “We usually contrast two types of labor: physical and mental. And physiology, by its definition, tells us that there are no sufficient grounds for such a opposition. Work-this is a single neuromuscular process, no muscular work is conceivable without the corresponding activity of the neuro-cerebral pathways and centers, and, conversely, any, even the most abstract, mental work is inevitably accompanied by muscular activity, even in the form of very weak,delayed reflexes". 11 Therefore, we can only talk about the predominance of mental or physical functions in work.

The nature of labor shows how labor manifests itself, what its features, characteristics, distinctive properties and features are. It depends on the connection of the worker with the means of production and determines the social nature of labor. Currently, changes are taking place in the nature of work due to improvements in industrial relations as a result of the denationalization of socialist property and privatization, expanding the scope of economic management methods, creating new forms of management that focus on efficiency and quality, real material and moral interest of workers, turning them into true owners. At the same time, it is the deep socio-economic differences in the content and functions of labor, the presence of routine, monotonous, unskilled, heavy manual labor, its harmful conditions for a long time that will hinder the development of the creative abilities of a significant part of workers, interfere with the harmonious development of the individual, the education of a conscious and creative attitude towards work.

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11 Strumilin S.G. Selected works. vol. 3: Problems of labor economics. - M., 1964, p. 9-10.

Depending on thenature of work differentiate:

1) concrete and abstract work. As a special purposeful human activity aimed at modifying and adapting objects of nature to meet his needs, labor appears in a certain useful form, and its result is various use values. The labor aimed at their creation is called concrete labor. Bringing various specific types of labor to an identical and commensurate form presupposes the need to abstract from qualitative features, to reduce individual types of labor to simple labor costs, to labor costs in the physiological sense - to the costs of physical, nervous and other energy. This impersonal, homogeneous and commensurate labor is called abstract labor. Concrete labor creates use value, and abstract labor creates the value of the commodity;

2) hired labor and self-employment. Wage labor is a relationship that arises between the owners of the means of production and workers who are personally free, but do not have the means of production and sell their forthcoming labor (their labor power) in exchange for a certain value in the form of wages. Wage labor is labor alienated from itself, since the wealth it creates is opposed as someone else's wealth. At the same time, the hired worker is the owner of his labor power, and as the labor force develops, the personal property of the worker and his family also increases. At the same time, an entrepreneur who has opened his own business creates an opportunity to apply his labor, which can be called self-employment, and the nature of this labor will be qualitatively different from the nature of hired labor. It is this kind of work that provides an opportunity for the development of a person’s initiative, promotes a careful, masterful attitude towards property, the formation of such qualities as independence, entrepreneurship, and the manifestation of creative abilities;

WORK

Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2010 .

expedient activity of people, which has as its content the transformation, development of natural and social forces to satisfy the historically established needs of man and society; it is "...first of all, a process that takes place between man and nature, a process in which with his own activity he mediates, regulates and controls between himself and nature. He opposes the substance of nature as nature. In order to appropriate nature in a form suitable for his own life, he brings into play the natural forces belonging to his body: arms and legs, head and fingers. By influencing and changing external nature through this movement, he at the same time changes his own nature. He develops the forces dormant in it and subordinates the play of these forces to his own power" (K. Marx, see K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 23, pp. 188–189). T. attracted attention since ancient times and was considered in a variety of aspects (see Practice).Consistently scientific technology as a determining force of social development is the merit of Marxism (see Historical materialism), which considers technology as the main form of life activity of human society , the initial condition of his existence, which determines the way a person relates to the world. “...In history and history, I am nothing more than the education of a person by human labor...” (Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., vol. 3, 1929, p. 632). T. determined the separation of society from nature. It underlies all other aspects of social life, including various spiritual life.

Every process of transformation includes three moments: the purposeful activity of a person, transformation, and the tools of transformation. Labor is a consciously carried out process of human influence on an object of transformation with the help of pre-created tools, as a result of which the object of transformation is transformed into a product of transformation. The result of the process of technology is determined by the source material of the object of technology, the nature of the tools of technology, as well as a predetermined goal and the method of its implementation. The purposefulness of human T. distinguishes it from the instinctive actions of animals. The goal precedes in time and regulates the process of T. “At the end of the labor process, a result is obtained that was already in the mind of a person at the beginning of this process, that is, ideally” (Marx K., see Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 23, p. 189).

T. played a decisive role in the origin of man. Considering the role of T. in the process of transition from the ape to man, Engels emphasized that man is obliged to T. in the separation of the functions of the fore and hind limbs, in the formation of specifically human organs of speech and the brain, and in the development of all cognitive abilities. abilities. By transforming objects in the process of transformation, a person comprehended their inner nature. , mastered the logic of their existence. Cognition and so on initially related to each other. Consciousness is an integral ideal T: in it it arises and develops, in it it is embodied and objectified (see Ideal). What appears in consciousness as , in T. is objectified as a materialized form. Characterizing the relationship between subject and object in the process of transformation, production, Marx noted that if, on the one hand, “...is the appropriation of objects by subjects, then, on the other hand, it is to the same extent the formation of objects, the subordination of objects to a subjective goal , the transformation of objects into results and embodiments of subjective activity..." (K. Marx, ibid., vol. 46, part 1, p. 478).

As an expedient human activity, technology began with the manufacture of technology tools, the production and use of which is “...specifically characteristic feature of the human process of labor..." (K. Marx, ibid., vol. 23, p. 191). In the mediation of the goals of T. by the use of an increasingly ramified system of means, tools are the moment of the direct relationship between a person and the object of T., they represent are the artificial organs of the subject, through which he interacts with the object. The form and function of tools embody historically developed generalized methods of labor actions of people. The presence of this social and at the same time ideal content distinguishes the tools of human technology from the “tools” of animals. Definition .tools dictate to a person the method of their use, the form of influence on the object of T.: the higher the level of development of tools, the greater their “demands" on a person. From the stone ax to modern logical automata - these are the tools of T. Mastering the skills of using tools of T represents the process of introducing an individual to the norms of culture.

T. in modern conditions are characterized by significantly increased mediation of human interaction with the subject of technology (wide penetration of science into the production process - see Scientific and technological revolution), saturation of production with mechanisms and tools such as, for example, information control devices. If earlier T.’s tools were, as it were, a continuation and strengthening of human hands, now cybernetic. devices continue and enhance the work of the human brain (see Cybernetics). Labor functions people are increasingly transformed towards creativity, management and control.

In the process of T. people enter into a definition. connections and relationships among themselves - production relations, the nature of which also determines the nature of production. Labor is an inherently social activity, based on the cooperation of people (see Division of labor). T. connects its participants with each other and mediates their mutual relations. In history human society The character of T., its incentives, and societies changed significantly. its implementation, the attitude towards it on the part of various social groups and classes. Having arisen in its original form in the conditions of the primitive human herd, T. in the course of its history rose to communist. forms where it acts as the primary and determining need of every person (see Communist labor).

Being the decisive form of self-affirmation of a person in the world, T. also has a moral and aesthetic. . T. how characterizes the main human existence in the world. Aesthetic T. is expressed in a feeling of joy, in enjoying the play of the physical and mental powers of a person who conquers nature and society.

Lit.: Marx K., Capital, vol. 1, Marx K., Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 23, ch. 5; Engels F., Dialectics of Nature, ibid., vol. 20; Plekhanov G., On the question of the development of a monistic view of history, M., 1949; Noiret L., Tools of labor and its significance in the history of human development, trans. from German, X., 1925; Ladygina-Kots N. N., Constructive and instrumental activity of higher apes (chimpanzees), M., 1959; Bakhta K., On the question of the structure of primitive production, "Questions of History", 1960. No. 7; Ogurtsov A.P., The problem of T. in Hegel's philosophy, "Scientific works of the Moscow Technological Institute of Light Industry", 1960, collection. 15; Semenov Yu. I., The Emergence of Human Society, Krasnoyarsk, 1962; Boginsky Ya. Ya., Levin M. G., Anthropology, 2nd ed., M., 1963; Guryev D.V., Was labor preceding consciousness?, “VF”, 1967, No. 2.

A. Spirkin. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

WORK is a purposeful human activity, considered 1) from the point of view of the exchange of man with nature - in this case, in work, a person, with the help of tools, influences nature and uses it to create objects necessary to satisfy his needs; 2) from the angle of its socio-historical form. In this case, it appears in social utopias as a transitory form of activity. Labor is “...an eternal natural condition of human life, and therefore it is not dependent on any form of this life, but, on the contrary, is equally common to all its social forms” (Marx K; Engels F. Soch., τ. 23, p. 195).

Labor played decisive role in the process of human formation. Thanks to him, the functions of the hands and organs of speech developed, a gradual transformation of the animal’s brain into a developed human brain occurred, human senses improved, and the range of his perceptions and ideas expanded. As an expedient activity, labor began with the manufacture of tools and, due to the division of labor, became private, one-sided, alienated and monotonous. Mandatory aspects of the labor process are purposeful activity, or labor itself, objects of labor and means of labor. In the process of labor, people enter into certain relationships with each other - production relations, the nature of which determines the social nature of labor, because with a change in forms of ownership, there is a change in the ways of connecting labor power with the means of production. In conditions of commodity production, labor has a dual character. On the one hand, it is concrete labor (for example, a mechanic, a tailor, etc.) and creates the use value of a product. At the same time, each product embodies human labor in general, regardless of its qualitative differences of various types, abstract labor that creates the value of the product. Dual character labor reflects objectively existing

Work

expedient material social instrumental activity aimed at meeting the needs of the individual and society. In the process of transformation, man mediates, regulates, and controls the exchange between himself and nature. By changing the natural conditions of his life in the process of transformation, a person changes his own nature and develops his creative powers and abilities. T. represents both a way of alienating man from nature and a form of connection between human society and nature. In historical materialism, materialism is viewed as a unique substance of history, as a fundamental way of human life, as a “cell” of the entire variety of forms of human relationship to the world. In the process of purposeful labor activity, a person (subject of T.), with the help of the T. tools created by him, transforms the object of T. into the Product he needs. The product of technology is determined by the specifics of the object (material), the level of development of tools, the purpose and method of its implementation. In the goal, the product T. exists ideally in the human head before it is created. Although the goal organizes the process of technology, subordinating the will of the acting subject, the main criterion for the development of technology is the tools of technology. In them, the level of development of material production and the type of social division of technology are objectified (expressed in objective material form). In addition, in the process of technology, special relations between people are relations of production. Since T. is a social, collective activity, there is a need for means of organizing it. Articulate speech and language became such an organizing and controlling means. The further development of society largely depends on the improvement of the tools of technology and production relations. These characteristics of T. significantly distinguish the nature of human activity from the instinctive behavior of animals, which allowed Marx and Engels to consider T. as a kind of “creator” of human history and create a “labor hypothesis” of the origin of man and society (anthroposociogenesis). The problem of the emergence of a person who thinks, speaks, and is capable of working together with his own kind was considered by Engels in his works “Dialectics of Nature” and “The Role of Labor in the Process of Transformation of Ape into Man.” Engels suggested the existence of a complex pendulum-like movement from biological to qualitatively new, social patterns and back in the process of anthropogenesis. Due to change natural conditions life, the future person began to use more often natural objects(stones, sticks) in their objective activities; he was forced to straighten up for better orientation in the changed terrain; seek protection from the cold as climate changes. These natural prerequisites stimulated the development of simple labor skills, which, in turn, led to changes in the structure of the hand. Freed from participation in movement, the hand became an organ and at the same time a product of T. The hand as a biological organ lost its natural specialization, which created conditions for improving its non-specialized skills, for expanding the range of objects through which one can influence nature. All this leads to the fact that man was able to act “by the standard of any species” (Marx). The development of society and man is now directly related to the improvement of the tools of technology. The production of tools of technology is a collective process, which is its most important defining feature. Animals can use natural objects in their own actions, but they never make tools of technology with the help of tools of technology. Even the most primitive tools of technology consolidated and transmitted to other individuals instinctively loose “patterns of activity.” Ideal, historically developed, generalized methods of labor activity are fixed in the tools of technology, their form and functions. The tools of technology force a person to act according to the logic of the universal scheme of technology. In the process of learning, mastery of the tools of technology becomes the most important means socialization of individuals, introducing them to cultural norms. The tools of technology were the first objective, material “abstractions,” which influenced the processes of formation and development of thinking itself. In the process of collective activity, people have both a “need to say something to each other” and a subject of “conversation,” i.e., they have something to say to the other. Need created its own organ. The monkey's larynx changed its structure - this became the biological prerequisite for the emergence of speech. The pendulum-like movement from biological to social, from social to biological is accelerating. Causes are almost impossible to separate from effects. As a result, natural biological patterns fade into the background, a person acquires social form, biological evolution is completed and from now on man lives according to new, social laws, he even eats and drinks “like a human being.” Social selection comes into force, which is manifested in the improvement of the process of technology and the transfer of labor skills to subsequent generations. T. becomes a regulator of man’s relationship with nature, a process that separates man from nature and connects him with it. Forms of communication, speech, and thinking that become more complex in the process of transformation lead to the emergence of a new type of organization of life—society. Language does not simply record (for memorization) certain meanings of objects, it actively participates in the process of generating these meanings. Thus, a new, supra-biological, proto-social integrity arises. T. connects participants in joint activities into a community and mediates their communication. The further development of man is represented by the development public relations and cultural forms of their preservation and development. In the process of creating forms of culture, cultural ways of self-regulation of social life, a person creates himself as its subject and creator, that is, as a social person. In T. and through T. all human needs are satisfied. T. becomes the main way of self-affirmation of a person in the world. Production, therefore, is a fundamental, essential feature of man and society. In T., the physical and spiritual qualities of a person are improved, and human cultural needs are formed. Thus, in T. not only consumer products are created, but also the actor himself, the subject of T. - a person. In this regard, we can rightfully say: “Labor created man.” An animal only uses nature and makes changes in it only by virtue of its presence. Man forces nature to serve his purposes and thereby dominates it. The process of progressive development of humanity was reflected in the development of forms of technology from primitive, imposed by external necessity, to freely creative ones. Although the “labor” hypothesis explains many aspects of anthroposociogenesis, modern scientists, including domestic ones, consider it insufficient. One of the significant arguments is that genetics denies the inheritance of acquired characteristics. This situation stimulates scientists to search for new versions of the emergence of man.

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