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How do animals protect themselves from predators? Adaptive behavior of animals

found in North America, Western Europe and the USSR.

A predator is an animal that kills other animals and feeds on them, and its actions themselves are called predation. Domestic cats are also predators; they catch mice; The life of predators is a cat-and-mouse game known throughout the world, it is repeated constantly and everywhere in ecosystems, millions of animals participate in it, each in its own way.

Lions, pumas, wolves, eagles, hawks, herons, crocodiles, sharks, pikes are undisputed predators. Toads and frogs are also predators, although not as obvious. Predators and all insectivorous birds. And tiny shrews. And a wasp carrying a caterpillar to its larva. And water beetle larvae sucking a tadpole. And the tadpole itself. Even a whale that feeds on marine zooplankton is a predator. Man is no exception, a universal predator, possessing cunning, dexterity, and the greatest destructive power.

Production range.

There is an upper limit to the size of prey - a predator cannot cope with very large animals; and the lower limit - there is no point in hunting small fry or spending time and effort on them. Between these limits lies the predator's prey range. A predator may be tempted by game of inappropriate size only during periods of hunger, when there are very few animals in its range. Thus, European buzzards and golden eagles feed on the chicks of small songbirds when hares, rabbits, partridges and voles (their usual prey) become very scarce.

It happens that a predator hunts only one species from its prey range for some time: when this species has multiplied greatly and has become easily accessible. For example, white storks that follow swarms of locusts in Africa; skuas hunting lemmings in Alaska; short-eared owls that settle in areas where voles are infested, or herons and otters that feed exclusively on frogs during their mass emergence from ponds at the end of summer.

Harrier chicks in a defensive position. Defending themselves from the enemy, they fall on their backs and fight off with their clawed paws.

Doesn't the predator get tired of the food that is available in abundance, which it feeds on day after day? Watching the European tit, you come to the conclusion that it is annoying. This bird, similar to the North American chickadee, was studied by Luke Tinbergen in pine forests Holland while feeding chicks. These tits served as food different caterpillars. When the caterpillars had just appeared, the tits did not eat them very willingly for the first few days. Then they suddenly attacked them greedily. Tinbergen decided that tits gradually developed a specific visual image of new prey. Simply put, their eyes were getting used to the sight of new food. There were more and more caterpillars, and then the appetite of the tits began to weaken, as if this food had become boring to them. Since then, any type of caterpillar has made up only half of the tit's diet. This observation shows that tits prefer mixed food, even if it takes more work and time to find it.

In the case described above, the tits had so much food that they could be picky. But in general, it is difficult for tits, wagtails and our other birds to feed their chicks. Parents have to fly up to the nest almost every minute, and they cannot acquire large families, if there is no abundant food near the nest. The predator does not always go and kill the game as soon as he gets hungry. Sometimes he will be lucky, and sometimes not.

Hard and easy ways.

Not all predators are equally dexterous and agile. One male short-eared owl will miss fourteen times before he dries, another will miss only four. Some crows in a nesting flock perform parental duties much better than their relatives: they are the best breadwinners, that is, the best hunters and the best providers.

hunts mainly lowland animals: antelopes and zebras. A lion with several relatives forms a family called a “pride”. Lionesses, unlike lions, do not have a mane; they are smaller and more graceful.

The predator's mistakes and failures can be explained by his youth and inexperience. But we must also take into account the sensitivity of the victim, because the sensitivity of prey animals is just as important property, like the swiftness of predators. Even for an experienced, adult predator, life is not at all so simple, and he may miss, not catch up with the prey, especially if the prey has rich life experience. A fox may be left with a handful of feathers in its mouth instead of a bird, or with the wriggling tail of an escaping lizard. Lions often do not kill large ungulates, but only wound them. Many adult salmon caught by fishermen show signs of teeth or claws. This means that salmon once managed to escape from the mouth of a predator - a seal.

Why did the predator kill this particular animal this time and not some other animal? The short answer is: it just happened. A prey of suitable size appeared at the right moment in an accessible place and fell into the predator’s paws. Not only the presence of the victim is necessary - it must be reachable. This depends on many things: the animal’s ability to camouflage, its age, state of health, speed of legs and its position in the group. Other factors that apply individually to the predator also play a role; firstly, the weather: rain, frost, deep snow, wind strength and direction; then sounds: the noise of a forest, a nearby river or waterfall; as well as the predator's ability to withstand competition.

loves to build nests under the shade of hedges and in dense bushes.

What the prey tastes like is not the main factor; it plays a role only if the predator has a very real choice. The fox, apparently, prefers pheasant to rat, but she will not scour half the night in search of a delicacy when rats are swarming under her feet. Sometimes a predator kills an animal that is not at all to his taste: in the heat of the hunt, he mistakes the pursued game for something he would gladly eat. A cat, for example, kills shrews, but does not eat them. She apparently mistakes them for mice and discovers the mistake when it is too late. The shrews, once making a mistake, more mistake do not repeat and do not kill “tasteless” game, remembering its smell. No one knows how often mammals make such mistakes and how quickly they learn to recognize inedible animals. Shrews are generally inedible due to their unpleasant odor to all mammals, although some will eat them if nothing else is available. But what is poison for one person, the proverb says, is honey for another. Hawks and owls will not miss the opportunity to catch a shrew and eat it with pleasure.

Predator feeding a certain type, occurs with individuals of this species in a wide variety of situations. A pursued animal can run into a thicket, where it is not visible, or, conversely, into open forest, where it is more difficult to hide and where it is within greater reach of a predator. It is easier for an experienced adult animal to escape from a pursuer than for a young and inexperienced animal, because an adult animal knows better the tactics of the pursuer, the terrain and possible ways to escape.

The very young and the very old, those maimed by predators, the sick or hungry are easier prey than healthy animals in in full bloom strength An important factor is the position of the animal in the group: among the animals there are their own parties, they graze on the worst pastures, where there is little food and there is no good shelter from enemies. The age and experience of the predator, that is, the speed of its legs and cunning, also matter.

These factors play a role wherever there is a predator-prey relationship, but in different situations one or another factor or even a group of factors can become of great importance.

Prey selection.

What all situations have in common: the predator attacks the one who is easier to grab at the moment. If there are two species of prey animals and both are equally accessible, the predator hunts both species, and the number of victims will be proportional to the number of animals of each species. If one species is easier to hunt, the predator will prefer that species until the situation changes. Good example this is the Scottish marten. She subsists on voles and wood mice; voles suffer from it more than wood mice, although there are fewer voles in its territory. Wood mice were caught in the traps placed there more often, which means it was easier for the marten to catch voles. This may be explained by the fact that wood mice are more careful, they run and jump well, while voles are slow and not so nimble.

The European mole is another example of such selectivity. Moles feed mainly on earthworms. When there are a lot of worms, the mole catches them in abundance, cripples them and stores them for future use. Such mole warehouses have been studied many times; As a rule, one species of earthworm predominates in them, although a large number of other species of earthworms are found on its lands. Why this happens is still unknown. It can be assumed that the mole stores the type of worm that is easier to catch.

on the hunt. A wolf pack usually includes a male, a female, wolf cubs, and sometimes two or three more wolves join them.

Predators also choose within a given species, and do not rush in pursuit of the first animal they come across. North American wolves, hot on the heels of caribou herds, kill calves, old deer, sick and wounded animals. The Zambian hyena dog hunts hartebeest antelopes, but is very selective. Most of all, it kills calves that are less than a year old; There are slightly fewer yearlings, even fewer old animals, and very few healthy adults. Lions kill age groups in proportion to their numbers in the herd - also a kind of selectivity. Hyenas hunting antelope in the Serengeti kill only calves - another form of selectivity.

The European sparrowhawk and peregrine falcon, as observations have shown, often kill those birds that stand out from the flock in some way. Five of the twenty-three birds killed by the hawk turned out to be some kind of deviation from the norm. One day, a sparrowhawk snatched a lame blue tit from a flock of twenty-six healthy tits. In Germany it was recorded: out of seventeen domestic pigeons caught by a peregrine falcon, fifteen were either somehow different from other pigeons or were strangers in the flock. In Poland, a hawk was seen snatching a white dove from a flock of doves and a dove from a flock of whites.

Rivalry.

Man, bystander and predator himself (addition from the site: if this person the owner of an animal-type psyche, which is a violation, because after all, Man is predestined from above to have a different type of psyche, different from that of an animal) , is inclined to consider wild predators who hunt game that he himself needs as his rivals. General hostility to predators (addition from the site: among the “humanoid predators”) is explained precisely by this; the above examples, the number of which can be multiplied, show that such an attitude towards predators is hardly fair. As a rule, it is not the quantity of game that depends on the number of predators, but vice versa. A loaf of bread can only feed a certain number of mouths.

In Scotland for last years The number of partridges has sharply decreased. This phenomenon has been studied and interesting findings regarding predation have been obtained; the most important: predators are not to blame for the disappearance of the Scotch partridge, the reason for this is the behavior of the partridges.

valuable game birds. It is found on heather heaths and mountain slopes. The partridge needs dense, well-leafed heather both for food and for shelter. The best territory is captured by the most aggressive male. Humans artificially maintain the habitat necessary for partridges by periodically burning out old heather.

A bird living in a certain area; it feeds on heather, lives and breeds on heather heaths. The male owns a certain territory, which he defends from other males. The most aggressive males have the best territories, the less aggressive ones have worse territories, and so on; eventually all the land is divided between the married couples. Birds that were unable to capture any territory become “outcasts”, contenting themselves with the worst marginal lands: bare slopes, floodplain meadows, areas with poor cover, where there is little food and it is difficult to hide from enemies. These outcasts are six times more likely to become victims of predators, and many die from starvation or disease. Some move to other places in search of territory; the number of eaters is decreasing, and now the heathland can feed everyone. An ecologist would say that this competition for territory is a kind of buffer between the bird population and the amount of food.

In August, partridge hunting begins, and the entire system of dividing territories is disrupted. Young broods are equally threatened by wild predators and humans. Human predation causes great damage to the partridge population, although humans do not always exterminate the entire annual offspring, that is, they do not kill as much as they could. And in the fall, when the birds re-divide the territory, outcasts again remain, for whom no good land was found.

Once again, wild predators kill many more outcasts. And again, many die, and many go to other places. Some still remain, taking advantage of the territory, which for one reason or another found itself without an owner. Scottish partridges regulate their population themselves, and a careful approach to heather lands does not require the extermination of predators, but concern for the protection of vegetation.

"Fixed capital" and interest on it.

The predator feeds on its victims without reducing their numbers: it regulates their numbers. The predator lives, so to speak, not at the expense of fixed capital, but at the expense of interest on this capital. A mole, which feeds almost exclusively on earthworms, does not have any noticeable effect on the number of worms living in its territory. And the stoat, which hunted rabbits while they were found in Europe, did not pose a threat to the population of these rodents. The barn owl, which lives in Palestine, in the Levant, has half its diet made up of voles: the number of all voles eaten, however, is relatively small; barn owls not only do not touch the “fixed capital”, which is a population of 25,000 voles, but they hardly even spend the interest on the capital. In the same way, all the cats in the world cannot do anything about the mouse population, which is still prosperous to this day.

Owl hunts all night, from dawn to dusk; its food is small rodents: voles, mice, rat pups. It happens that an owl will catch and eat a small bird. Owls do not build nests; they live in hollows and abandoned nests of other birds: crows, magpies or kestrels.

And yet it happens that a small predator causes serious damage to the population of its prey. A tiny weasel, for example, has access to the holes of mice and voles, and, once in such a hole, it can cause real devastation among its inhabitants. Americans McCabe and Blanchard report that weasels, finding themselves in an area where there were many deer mice, walked through their burrows and destroyed almost all of the mice.

Insectivorous birds can sometimes delay the reproduction of insects, but in the case of European tits, described by Tenbergen, the birds of prey ate most of the caterpillars when there were not so many of them. Birds, as a rule, cannot cope with hordes of insects. The fact that birds at some stage can inhibit the reproduction of insects is very important for humans. In Germany, this has long been understood; there are small houses everywhere in the forests, like birdhouses, in which tits make their nests. Feathered lodgers help people to protect the forest - biological protection instead of chemical.

What about large predators? Do they control big game populations? In some cases there is no doubt, as evidenced by the facts, albeit still few. A striking illustration of this is the history of the black-tailed deer that live on the Kaibab Plateau. At the beginning of the 20th century, a herd of black-tailed deer numbering 4,000 heads lived on the Kaibab Plateau in Arizona. They shared this habitat with predators: wolves, cougars, coyotes, lynx and a few bears. Herds of domestic animals - sheep and cattle - also grazed here. The deer population did not grow or decrease under these conditions, remaining from year to year within 4,000 heads. This area, however, could support a much larger herd of deer; No one had any doubts: predators were to blame for the low number of deer. And in 1906 the territory was declared state reserve. To increase pasture for deer, grazing was prohibited livestock; Hunters were invited to fight predators. Over the course of a decade, 600 pumas were shot. In sixteen years, 3,000 coyotes were exterminated. By 1926, wolves were completely destroyed. The number of deer began to grow, at first slowly, then faster , by 1920 the deer herd had grown to 60,000 head, and by 1924 to 100,000 head. This monstrous figure turned out to be fatal. The plateau could not support so many black-tailed deer. They multiplied threateningly and completely trampled the pastures. Over the next two winters, 60,000 deer died. By 1929, the number of deer had dropped to 30,000, by 1931 to 20,000. And in 1939, only 10,000 black-tailed deer grazed the Kaibab Plateau.

This is a cautionary tale. The predators were obviously holding back deer population growth , thereby protecting natural pastures. The destruction of predators led to the fact that deer multiplied catastrophically and destroyed the pastures on which they fed.

The same balance exists in nature between lions and the topi antelope, which lives in the Ruin di Rutshuru valley in the former Belgian Congo. From 1918 to 1929, lion hunting in the area was particularly intense; quantity large predators sharply decreased, and the number of topi antelopes, as one would expect, increased greatly.

Close relatives.

Competition between predators various types living in the same territory is more apparent than real, even if several species hunt the same animals periodically or constantly. Changes in habitat, or in the number or proportion of animals that predators eat, can tip the balance in favor of one predator or another. Some predators benefit from this, while others suffer.

(lat. Mustela erminea) is a small predatory animal of the mustelidae family, a typical musteloid appearance with a long body on short legs, a long neck and a triangular head with small rounded ears. The body length of the male is 17-38 cm (females are about half as long), the length of the tail is about 35% of the body length - 6-12 cm; body weight - from 70 to 260 g. Similar to weasel, but slightly larger in size.

These relationships have been well studied in the case of weasels and stoats living in the Northern Hemisphere. In England, weasels and stoats often live side by side in the same territory; and as long as each species hunts its prey, there is no rivalry between them. Weasels are much smaller than stoats, a male weasel weighs only 150 grams, and a male stoat weighs 350 grams. If there are a lot of rabbits, the ermine hunts mainly on them, while weasels hunt voles. In such a situation, both predators prosper. If the rabbits are affected by myxomatosis, which kills these rodents without exception, the number of stoats decreases noticeably, but this does not affect the weasels at all. The disappearance of food disrupts the balance of the ecosystem to the detriment of the stoat, without affecting the weasels.

Young forest plantations in countries temperate climate an ideal habitat for voles, which love thickets of thick, tall grasses. In such a biocenosis, both weasels and stoats feed on voles. The relationships of these animals have been well studied in Scotland. The weasel, due to its diminutive size, can hunt voles underground, in their burrows. An ermine will not fit into a mouse hole and is content with random prey, that is, those voles that it catches on the surface. The weasel also has access to its main capital: by destroying voles underground, the weasel reduces the amount of random stoat prey; but as long as the number of voles does not fall below a certain critical figure, both predators are not afraid of hunger. However, the number of voles is subject to sharp fluctuations, and if there are fewer than forty-five per acre, the stoats leave their homes. The weasels continue to exist carefree in this territory until the number of voles drops to eighteen per acre. With the departure of the stoats, the number of voles begins to increase. Eventually there are so many of them that the stoats return again.

, or common weasel(lat. Mustela nivalis) - carnivorous mammal family mustelids, species of the genus Weasels and ferrets (Mustela). Found on all continents of the Northern Hemisphere.

Here is another example of the coexistence of weasels and stoats, this time brought to the Dutch island of Terschelling. On this island, in the early 1930s, water voles began to cause great damage to the forest. We decided to apply biological protection forests and in 1931, 102 weasels and 9 stoats were brought to the island. Three years later, there were no weasels left on the island. Five years later, the stoats completely destroyed the water voles and sharply reduced the number of rabbits living on the island. Now it was necessary to take urgent measures against the stoats, which quickly multiplied and began to prey on all kinds of birds: wild, domestic and even waterfowl. Natural balance was achieved only in 1939. Stoats persisted on the island, but were no longer a problem. In this case, the stoats found themselves in an advantageous position, and the weasels, unable to withstand the competition, died.

The USA has its own weasels and its own stoats; The American weasel is no different from the European one, but the American ermine, unlike the European one, can be a very small animal or a larger one: in different areas countries live different types ermines. The largest is distributed in the USA in the eastern and northwestern regions up to Alaska. It shares its habitat with the weasel. In the west of North America there is only a small stoat, no larger than a weasel; and it turned out that weasels are not found in these places at all. She can live next to large stoats, but cannot stand competition with the “kids”. This example proves that the small variety of stoats is a kind of taboo for affection, it can only live where they are not.

Reference supplement to the book.

Distribution area of the Ermine.

Chapter 9. The rise and fall of a population. Cycles .

Many representatives of the animal world of our planet are endowed with completely unusual methods of protection. This includes the expedient structure of the body, and defensive behavior, which ensures safety for a living being, and passive defensive reactions (such as the use of protective coloring and shape).

Sometimes nature clearly warns you that you have encountered dangerous creature, but sometimes even seemingly peaceful, inconspicuous creatures can cause a lot of trouble by unleashing their secret weapon, hidden for the time being.

The most interesting method of self-defense is used by the Brachinus beetle, which lives in Africa, which is otherwise called the bombardier.

This creature is capable of accurately dousing an enemy with a stream of burning liquid that has the temperature of boiling water and a composition corresponding to that used in binary chemical weapons.

Brachinus appears to be completely harmless. Nature has not endowed the bug with any marks indicating its extraordinary abilities and the fact that it releases the “explosive mixture” not just once, but in powerful rapid-fire volleys. Therefore, many insectivores, when meeting this creature, strive to immediately include it in their menu.

Only already lying on the ground with bulging eyes and burnt oral mucosa does the predator realize that he was wrong and made a mistake in choosing the “dish”. In the future, the aggressor will prefer to take the tenth road around the literally explosive beetle. Brachinus also obtains food using an original method: it shoots drops of liquid from its abdomen, which, like artillery shells, knocks down flies.

Scientists call this insect a direct challenge to the theory of evolution. A real “chemical laboratory” operates in his body. An explosive mixture - hydroquinone (also known as a respiration substrate) and a 25% solution of hydrogen peroxide - is produced by a special pair of glands. Both substances enter the storage sac with a valve and an opening muscle.

The third additional gland produces a special respiratory enzyme-catalyst, hydroquinone oxidase, which is necessary for the components stored in the storage sac to enter into an oxidation reaction. The enzyme is contained in a so-called reactor chamber, lined with fabrics whose properties are very similar to asbestos.

At the moment when the situation requires decisive action from the insect, the contents of the storage bag are thrown into the chamber and... the instantly boiled substance, with a noise that resembles a shot from a scarecrow, flies out from the rear end of the insect’s abdomen and turns into a small cloud of acrid “smoke.”

Thus, when shooting back at a ground beetle, the brachinus fires 12-15 “chemical volleys” at slight intervals. And in the event of a collision with a more dangerous enemy, the beetle is capable of producing from 500 to 1000 emissions per second! Such “shelling” leaves serious burns on the attacker’s body.

By the way, scientists are convinced that such an original and effective apparatus of attack and defense did not “develop gradually” in the process of evolution (the first insects that decided to play with fire would have died before they had time to improve this weapon), but was part of the beetle’s body from the moment it appeared of this type. So, evolution has nothing to do with it, and there is Someone who provided a harmless and defenseless creature with a flamethrower? Perhaps, as always, we missed something in the structure of the universe.

The field jumping beetle also has the ability to actively protect its life. This insect, in a moment of danger, simply prefers to run away. At the same time, the baby not only flies quickly, but also runs well. For a predator, catching such a sprinter is not much pleasure. Moreover, to achieve a positive hunting result in in this case and in fact practically impossible. But if you manage to catch a field horse, this will not bring joy either.

The beetle will begin to violently break out and bite frantically. Crescent-shaped powerful jaws insects can cause trouble even for humans, not to mention other representatives of the fauna! The bear behaves in a similar way in critical situations. But the earwig doesn’t try to escape. Instead, she assumes a menacing appearance and raises the ends of her impressive pincers above her head. By the way, they are so strong that they pierce human skin until it bleeds.

To intimidate predators and for hunting, many insects prefer to use poisons - secretions of special glands that can scare away, paralyze or kill the enemy. Wasps, bees, bumblebees and ants are familiar to everyone. These creatures received from nature as a gift special stings for injecting poison.

True, honey bee it is jagged and therefore gets stuck in the body of the attacker; the bee dies. So in this case we can talk not about individual, but about social protection, which develops a persistent reflex among those around them in relation to a whole species of insects. But a wasp can easily sting many times during its life. And to remind you that this is a poisonous creature, nature has endowed bees and wasps with a special warning color.

As for ants, representatives of some species of these insects not only pour formic acid on the enemy, but also add a mixture of two complex chemical compounds to the caustic “cocktail”.

They are specially synthesized in the insect’s body and have a pleasant lemon smell.

This mixture itself is poisonous, and it also promotes the penetration of formic acid through the outer integument of the animal. Interestingly, in the “chemical laboratory” of the little aggressor, not only “weapons” are created, but also many protective substances. Some of them can cope with the pathogens of cholera, tuberculosis and typhus!

The ant does not have to bite the enemy. Many strike the enemy at a considerable distance, spraying a poisonous mixture. For example, worker ants from the furmicin subfamily are able to “fire” at an aggressor located half a meter away from them! This distance is 500 times the length of the body of the warrior insect itself.

Leaf beetles also defend themselves with poison. They release a yellow-orange liquid through the joints of their body that has a pungent odor. A microscopic dose of this substance, entering the blood, kills a small animal. Larger enemies of the leaf beetle have big problems with health, so that in case of recovery, a persistent reflex to the “inedibility” of the beetle is developed.

Biologists have had to observe how a toad or lizard, having accidentally grabbed this insect, tries to spit it out as quickly as possible, and then for a long time and carefully wipes its tongues and muzzles on it. various items and plants.

Scolopendras are also seriously “armed”. Poisonous centipedes living in Africa, according to eyewitnesses, reach 47 centimeters in length. But we can only speak reliably about 5-30 cm specimens. Usually these creatures sit out in the ground or under a stone, waiting for prey - spiders, worms, cockroaches.

The centipede's venom also kills frogs and lizards that inadvertently tried to snack on the centipede. But the mouse already has a chance to survive. After a scolopendra bite, a person feels general malaise, pain and fever. Only the following pose a serious threat to children: giant specimens, digging into the neck with poisonous jaws.

Blister bugs, despite their small size, are very dangerous. Their poison is so strong that even large domestic animals often die after eating this crumb along with the grass.

In the old days, pharmacists used dried blisters to make blister plaster.

Some wingless grasshoppers use poisonous foam to protect themselves. In case of danger, foam begins to emerge from their mouth and chest with a hissing hiss - a mixture of quinine, air bubbles and phenol. Cicada larvae do the same thing. But sawfly larvae have an even more original “weapon” against aggressors.

Feeding on pine needles, they collect tree resin in special sacs connected to the intestines. In a moment of danger, the caterpillar releases a piece of “strategic reserve”, inflates it and shoots it at the enemy. The sticky substance glues the ants' legs together and makes the birds lose interest in such "nervous" prey.

In addition to poison, the smell can also scare away predators. And not just any one, but a particularly unpleasant one. In the “arsenal” of many insects there are special glands responsible for the formation of a secretion that emits a rare stench and leaves the enemy with long memories of the meeting.

To scare away enemies, insects often use some behavioral techniques. For example, the Apollo butterfly, in case of extreme danger, falls to the ground, begins to cross its legs and hiss threateningly. At the same time, it vigorously spreads its wings, on which there is a sign notifying the attacker that the insect is poisonous - bright red spots.

But the praying mantis, if necessary, rises, takes a threatening pose, spreads its hind wings, begins to creak its abdomen and click its grasping legs. After this, there are few people who want to get acquainted with the main “argument” of the praying mantis - its jaws. Defensive postures (often combined with a repellent odor or poison) are also widely used by various caterpillars.

Sea creatures also know how to defend themselves from attack. Many of them are extremely poisonous. Needles, skin, mucus, special stinging threads, unexpectedly sharp “scalpels” filled with poisons, before which the capabilities of even the famous curare pale - all this “arsenal” of a number of representatives of the sea people is dangerous not only for animals, but also for humans. A electric Stingray quite capable of, if not killing, then stunning its victim. As for electric eel, then it’s better not to meet such a “living power plant”!

Unlike other “armed” inhabitants of the sea, the octopus is a completely intelligent creature. He does not try to stun the enemy with an electric shock or treat him with a horse dose of poison. If a cephalopod encounters danger, it prefers... to evaporate, releasing a dark cloud. The ink-like liquid that the octopus “shoots from a special bag quickly spreads into a dirty mist, hiding the path sea creature to retreat.

True, there is no rule without exceptions. Extremely cute, but malicious tiny ringed octopus, resident Indian Ocean, can cause the death of a person. Its poison, injected using a sharp “beak,” causes paralysis of the heart muscle in a matter of seconds.

Snakes are a separate article. Many of the reptiles are dangerous because of their poison. At the same time, there are individuals that can cause major trouble or even kill, both with a bite and... spitting! But among the poisonous creatures, the famous black mamba stands out especially, “from the bite of which a person dies five minutes before the bite.”

Believe me, this is exactly the case when the joke is only part of the joke... And non-venomous individuals - by the way, the vast majority of them - use serious muscle force to attack, which allows the snake to strangle its prey. " Secret weapon“Some lizards and representatives of the spider family are also endowed, such as the notorious “black widow”, crosses, tarantulas and scorpions.

Mammals can also find unusual methods of self-defense.

The mammals of the skunk family are perhaps most famous for their method of defense against predators. Skunks usually do not try to hide from their enemies. Instead, the animal first raises its fluffy tail and sometimes stomps its paws on the ground.

If the warning does not help, the skunk turns its back on the enemy and “shoots” an oily yellowish liquid at him, usually aiming at his eyes. Some skunks (Mephitis mephitis) are able to hit an enemy from a distance of more than 6 m.

This liquid is the secretion of two glands located to the right and left of the skunk's anus, and is a mixture of sulfur-containing organic substances (methane and butanethiols (mercaptans)), which have an extremely strong, persistent and unpleasant odor. The muscles surrounding the mouths of the glands make it possible to accurately shoot the secretion at a distance of 2-3 m. The main component of the skunk “jet” - butyl selenomercaptan (C4H9SeH) - can be determined even in the amount of 0.000000000002 g.

If it gets into the eyes, this liquid causes a burning sensation and even temporary blindness. However, the skunk’s glands contain fluid for only 5-6 “charges”, and it takes about 10 days to restore them, so the skunk spends “charges” reluctantly, preferring to scare off potential predators with its contrasting coloring and threatening poses. As a rule, skunks are attacked by young predators unfamiliar with their method of defense. The exception is the Great Eagle Owl, which hunts skunks systematically.

The smell of skunk is so persistent that spoiled clothing usually has to be burned. Folk remedies like tomato juice, vinegar or gasoline do not destroy the smell, but only mask it. Dry cleaners use hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to combat it.

The platypus is one of the few venomous mammals (along with some shrews and sawtooths, which have toxic saliva, and slow lorises, the only genus of known venomous primates).

Young platypuses of both sexes have the rudiments of horny spurs on their hind legs. In females they disappear by the age of one year, but in males they continue to grow, reaching 1.2-1.5 cm in length by the time of puberty. Each spur is connected by a duct to the femoral gland, which produces a complex “cocktail” of poisons during the mating season.

Males use spurs during mating fights. Platypus venom can kill dingoes or other small animals. For humans, it is generally not fatal, but it causes very severe pain, and swelling develops at the injection site, which gradually spreads to the entire limb. Painful sensations (hyperalgesia) can last for many days or even months.

In other oviparous species - echidnas - hind legs There are also rudimentary spurs, but they are not developed and are not poisonous.

Slow lorises are the only known genus of venomous primates and one of only seven known venomous mammals. The poison is secreted by glands on the forelimbs.

Mixed with saliva, the poison is either smeared on the head to repel predators, or is kept in the mouth, allowing the loris to bite especially painfully. The poison of slow lorises can cause suffocation and death not only in small animals, but even in humans.

So, many of our “smaller brothers” have a whole arsenal of sometimes very unexpected means of defense and attack. Thus, nature made their life easier and forced larger predators to respect the little “warriors.”

Almost all animals, with the exception of some large predators, are forced to constantly beware of enemies. Even the slightest inattention can lead to their death. In this regard, some animals have developed special defensive “weapons”, such as needles, claws and claws, which they can use in case of danger.

Others unite in groups, packs or herds, which allows them, in case of danger, to act like one large living organism, before which the enemy retreats. Some animals use “chemical” weapons for protection - they emit, for example, strong-smelling substances, warning their relatives of danger.

Group safety

Starlings, gathering in huge flocks and maneuvering in flight, make a terrifying impression. Many predators mistake the pack for a huge animal and do not dare to attack it.

Scorpion sting

There are more than 1,500 species of scorpions similar in structure. They each have eight legs and two large claws on the front of their elongated torsos. With these claws, the scorpion grabs the victim and tears it into pieces. The dangerous sting at the end of the scorpion's tail protects it from attacks by enemies.

Spiny ball

Almost everyone in Europe is familiar with such a forest inhabitant as the hedgehog. It can be found in gardens and parks. This friendly creature has excellent defense weapons. In case of danger, it curls up into a ball, hiding its tender abdomen and exposing its spines. And if the enemy does not retreat, he will learn a rather painful lesson.

Escape

Impalas (antelopes of the bovid family) graze in herds. With their sensitive ears, they constantly listen, watching to see if a predator is approaching them. In case of danger, all they can do is quickly run away, but before doing this, the first of them make a huge jump, clearly visible to the rest of the animals. In addition, they have a special gland at the back, which, in times of danger, releases a strong-smelling substance, which, like jumping, is a warning to the entire herd.

Owl

This young long-eared owl has already learned, in case of danger, to ruffle its feathers so as to look much larger and scarier than it really is. This is the only way she can scare off many of her enemies.

Schools of fish

The smallest fish prefer to cluster in dense schools or shoals, which move like one large living organism, and such a cluster confuses the attackers, who can no longer notice and grab an individual fish.

Small animals have many natural enemies, from which you need to constantly hide and defend yourself. Exist different ways protection from predators. The main one is escape. In addition, animals are able to mimic, which makes them invisible in their habitat, hide inside shells or under a hard shell, and increase in size at a time of danger in order to frighten a predator. Small animals that have none of these protective properties, solve the problem of survival and conservation of the species in a simple way— they multiply vigorously.

Jerzy

Hedgehogs lead active image life from dusk to dawn: these small mammals have adapted to hunt at night. In addition, in the dark they are exposed to less danger - after all, during the day they can become prey to numerous predators at any moment. The hedgehog escapes from its enemies in two ways: if possible, it takes off running, but if this is not possible, it curls up into a ball, hiding the soft parts of its body under a thick cover of sharp needles. In this form, adults are practically invulnerable, but babies, whose muscles are not yet sufficiently developed, cannot always resist the attack of a predator.

Octopus and cuttlefish

The ancestors of octopuses and cuttlefish competed with fish for sea dominance for many millions of years. However, the long rivalry did not reveal a winner.

Dexterity, speed, sharp vision are the undeniable advantages of these mollusks. But cuttlefish have another “weapon” in their arsenal: at the slightest danger, they throw dark ink into the water, which hides them from enemies and disguises their escape.

Sea Horse

The father takes care of the baby seahorses. The male carries the eggs of the embryos in his abdominal pouch until they are born. A large number of embryos maturing in the paternal pouch contributes to the preservation of the species.

Common tree frog

Camouflage is the most effective means of protecting frogs. Some species of these amphibians are very poisonous, as indicated by their bright colors. Predators prefer to stay away from such tasty but poisonous prey.

Armadillo

In the pampas, steppe zone South America, there are very few natural shelters where armadillos could find shelter. The main means of protection of these animals is a strong shell. At the slightest danger, armadillos curl up into a ball covered with hard scales, which protects them like a shield.

Sea porcupine

Displaying hundreds of prickly thorns is an excellent defense strategy. The porcupine fish, when threatened, inflates and spreads the prickly spines located on the surface of its skin. Taking the form of a prickly ball, it protects itself from the gastronomic demands of predators.

Spotted skunk

Skunks keep predators at bay by releasing a stream of foul-smelling liquid. In case of danger, the skunk first stands on its front legs, demonstrating its intentions. If the enemy does not move away, the skunk releases a foul-smelling liquid that stops the enemy. Only big ones predator birds dare to hunt skunks. They attack the animals from above before they have time to react.

Hyena

The work of hyenas begins where the work of large felines ends. In small groups, hyenas surround the remains, partially gnawed by predators, protecting them from the attacks of jackals and vultures. The digestive system of hyenas allows them to digest the hardest parts of the remains, those that are not used as food by other species of carrion-eating animals.

Powerful jaws

Adult hyenas have extremely powerful jaws. They can use them to crush bones to extract nutrients found in the bone marrow.

Jackal

This small predator lives in the same area as the hyena, so these two species of animals are in constant competition for food. In this competition, the jackal, cautious by nature, adheres to defensive tactics rather than offensive ones. If necessary, jackals unite in packs, and then they can attack animals that are larger in size.

Tasmanian devil

The Tasmanian devil, living in the forests of Tasmania, is considered a ferocious predator, although in fact it feeds exclusively on carrion. This animal is very timid and cautious. Its dark, loud cries can only be heard at night. It is because of this terrifying Howling, he gained fame as a bloodthirsty predator.

Insects

The remains of small animals can be processed not only by hyenas or vultures. Thousands of insects accumulate in the corpse, and a real feast begins. Some insects lay eggs there, and entire colonies of larvae complete the cycle of processing the remains.

Condor

These huge birds, whose wingspan reaches three meters, live high in the Andes, between Venezuela and Tierra del Fuego. They are very voracious and sweep up any carrion in their path. Sometimes, after a hearty meal, they are unable to rise into the air due to excess weight.

Black vulture

Streams warm air, rising above the sun-heated savanna, help the vultures take off. Circling high in the sky, vultures explore the surface of the earth. Having noticed with their keen vision the prey left by predators, they begin their meal. After the feast of the vultures, little remains of the remains.

Ecology

They say that the best means of defense is attack, although some prefer to flee in case of danger, covering their tracks. However, some animals have adapted to defend themselves in completely different, more original ways. Find out what methods of protection some living creatures on our planet have.

1) Possum: best defense is coma

Virginia opossum ( Didelphis virginianus), which lives over a fairly large area from Canada to Costa Rica, usually reacts in times of danger as many mammals do: it hisses, growls and shows its teeth. If you touch it, it can bite painfully. However, if this does not help, and the situation becomes increasingly dangerous, this animal plays dead, it falls to the ground, drools, and then stops moving, leaving its mouth open. The animal also begins to exude a horrid odor from its anal glands, similar to that of a corpse.

Many predators prefer to eat fresh meat, so when they see already dead, and even the smelly beast quickly loses interest and leaves him alone. But the most interesting thing about this method of protection is that the animal does it unconsciously, it is just a reaction to a severe stressful situation, the opossum falls into a comatose state, which can last for several hours. The Possum only returns to consciousness after the enemy has disappeared. How his mind knows when to return remains a mystery.

2) Potto: secret sharp weapon

Found in the jungles of Africa, pottos look like cute little bear cubs but are classified as primates. They drive night look life and feed on tree sap, fruits and insects. Due to their slow movements, pottos are very vulnerable to danger from predators, which is why they invented unusual way protection.

The potto has elongated vertebral spines on its neck. These appendages have sharp ends and animals use them as weapons, because predators that grab onto the throat of these primates can choke.

3) Pangolin: better to curl up in a ball

Pangolins are very strange mammals, whose bodies are almost completely covered with large scales, so the animal resembles a giant living pine cone. They primarily feed on pine cones and are found in Africa and Asia. Although they have large and powerful claws on their front feet, pangolins rarely use them as weapons. Instead, in case of danger, the animals curl up into a ball, and so tightly that it is almost impossible to turn them around. The sharp edges of their scales allow them to defend themselves from most predators. They can also strike with their powerful and heavy tail, which can seriously injure with its sharp scales.

And that is not all. Sumatran pangolins can curl up into balls and then roll down slopes at high speed to hide from their enemies. And the last defense of pangolins is the disgusting odor that the animals secrete through their anus. Needless to say, this animal has very few enemies?

4) Armadillo: turning into a perfect ball

As their name suggests, these animals have special kind armor that helps them protect their delicate body, as does the shell of turtles, but in most armadillos the shell does not help protect against large predators. These animals prefer to burrow into the ground to hide from the enemy. The South American three-banded armadillo is the only species of these creatures that can curl up into a perfect ball. This is possible thanks to the special structure of the armor, which allows the animal to move freely, and the tail and head ideally block the “structure”. This allows animals to become invulnerable.

With such abilities, the three-banded armadillo does not need to be able to dig well and quickly burrow into the ground; it often “borrows” other people’s holes and does not bother digging its own.

5) Crested porcupine: life-saving quills

Native to Africa and southern Europe (mostly Italy), the crested porcupine is one of the largest rodents on the planet, as well as one of the best-defended creatures. Its needles with white and black stripes are visible to predators from a great distance. It is actually modified hair covered with layers of hard keratin. The quills are longer in the front part of the body; the porcupine can raise its mane in case of danger, thus scaring away the enemy. However, the most dangerous needles are the shorter ones located on the back. When an animal is threatened by a predator, the porcupine begins to shake its tail with quills, which make a rattling sound because they are hollow. If this does not help, the porcupine tries to stab with its quills on its back.

Porcupine quills break fairly easily once they enter an enemy's body. The tiny burrs push them deeper into the enemy's body, so predators can die from wounds, infection, or because the quills damage blood vessels or internal organs. IN North America Porcupines also live, but they are usually much smaller than their African relatives and spend most of their time in trees. Interestingly, porcupines have very powerful natural antibiotics in their blood. They often fall from trees while searching for food and can be injured by their own quills. If they did not have such protection, most porcupines would die from self-inflicted wounds during such falls, but nature took everything into account!

6) Dwarf sperm whale: muddy water

Unlike his more famous relative- the giant sperm whale, which can reach 20 meters in length, the rarer dwarf sperm whale is only 1.2 meters long. This makes it especially vulnerable to its enemies - sharks and killer whales. To protect itself, this sperm whale uses an unusual method: it secretes a stream of reddish, syrup-like liquid from its anus, and then uses its tail to stir it into the water, resulting in a dark, large cloud. This allows the sperm whale to gain time and, while the predator tries to see at least something in the “fog,” the animal quickly disappears into the depths of the ocean, swimming away to a safe distance.

Among mammals, this method of defense is not very common. Usually, mollusks resort to it - squid and octopus, which, ironically, are the main delicacy for this sperm whale.

7) Sonya: it’s better to lose your tail than your head

These small edible rodents are found in Europe, and some species can also be found in Africa and Asia. Dormouses usually flee from their enemies, but they have another trick in their arsenal, which they use in extreme cases. The skin on the dormouse's tail dangles freely, and if a predator grabs the rodent by the tail, the skin easily separates, allowing the mouse to escape. This is a type of autotomy, when an animal loses a part of its body for protection. Autotomy is often observed among reptiles, for example, lizards shed their tail, or among invertebrates, but it is very a rare event among mammals.

Unlike other animals, dormice can only use a trick once. Exposed bones without skin usually fall off or are chewed off by the dormouse itself, because the skin cannot be restored and a new tail, like in lizards, does not grow. Some species of dormouse have fluffy tails, which act as bait, attracting the attention of the predator and distracting it from the head of the animal.

8) Skunk: chemical attack

Everyone is familiar with skunks and their original method of defense; their chemical weapons are unusually powerful. The skunk's protective fluids are produced by a pair of glands located in the anus. Although many carnivorous predators also have such glands, especially representatives of the mustelidae family, the glands of skunks are more developed, and they have powerful muscles, allowing you to spray a smelly liquid at a distance of up to 3 meters.

Skunks also prefer to spray it directly into the enemy’s face, and this liquid is so poisonous that it can deprive the poor creature of his sight, including a person’s, so it is better not to touch skunks out of harm’s way. Because of their unique abilities skunks have made very few enemies; the most dangerous for them is considered to be the great eagle owl, which has no sense of smell and can attack a skunk unexpectedly from above. Before the poor skunk knows it, he ends up dead.

The method of protection using a stinking liquid is a last resort, since the skunk has this liquid limited stock, and the glands take about 10 days to recover.

9) Platypus: poisonous spurs

A strange creature, the platypus, which was once considered a fiction, as well as only mammal nowadays, which lays eggs also has unique means protection. The male platypus has a sharp, retractable spine on each hind leg that contains venom glands. If the platypus is caught by an enemy or a curious ignorant person, it stabs with its spines, injecting enough poison to escape. Although platypus venom can kill animals as large as dogs, it is not fatal to humans. However, this is not a pleasant feeling. Those stung claimed that it was so strong pain that they had not experienced anything like this, and the effect of the poison could last for several days. The pain may lead to fainting.

Interestingly, only male platypuses have poisonous spines; females cannot harm other creatures, with the exception of small invertebrates that they feed on. This suggests that the poisonous spines were originally an intraspecific weapon used by males against each other during the breeding season to ward off rivals.

10) Slender loris: poisonous fur

This nocturnal animal lives in tropical forests South-East Asia. Loris has a body length of an average of 35 centimeters and feeds on various small animals that it manages to catch, and can also drink tree sap. Due to their small size and slowness, lorises are very vulnerable to the enemy, so they have developed original way protection. The slender loris has venom glands on its elbows, making it a venomous primate. Moreover, the animal licks the poison that these glands produce and spreads it throughout its fur. Female slender lorises apply their poison to the bodies of their young before they go hunting and leave them alone.

As the animals lick up the venom, their bite also becomes poisonous, making it especially painful and causing swelling. Some people have died from anaphylactic shock after being bitten by the slender loris, although the venom itself is not fatal to humans or large animals.

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