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Sound laws in the field of vowels and consonants. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary

1. Phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, that is, it is pronounced as the corresponding paired voiceless consonant. Leads to the formation of homophones: threshold - vice, young - hammer, goats - braid, etc.

P. Deafening of the final voiced occurs under the following conditions:

1) before the pause: [pr "ishol pojst] (the train came); 2) before the next word with an initial voiceless + vowel + sonorant, + [j] and [v]: [praf on], [sat our]. Sonorants are not are subject to stunning: rubbish, they say, lump, he.

2. Assimilation of consonants in terms of voicedness and deafness. If two consonants of different sonority appear next to each other in a word, the first consonant becomes similar to the second. (Regressive assimilation)

Voiced consonants in front of deaf ones become paired deaf, and deaf consonants in the same position become voiced. Voicing of voiceless consonants is less common than voicing of voiced consonants; creates homophones: [dushk - dushk]. Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [v], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, yours, yours.

Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated in the presence following conditions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [pokhotk] (gait), [gathering] (gathering); 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [gd "elu] (to the point), [zd"el'm] (to the point); 3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [got] (year), [dod'zh'by] (daughter); 4) at the junction of words pronounced without a pause: [rock-kΛzy] (goat horn), [ras-p"at"] (five times).

3. Assimilation of consonants by softness.

The consonant softens, becoming similar to the subsequent soft consonant.

acc. , paired in hardness and softness, are softened in the following weak positions: 1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b"el], [v"es]; 2) before [i]: [m"il", [p"il"i] (mil, drank).

Before unpaired [zh], [sh], [ts], soft consonants are impossible, with the exception of [l], [l "] (end - ring).

They do not soften before soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep silent, etc. Softening occurs inside the word, but is absent before m. acc. next and before the particle. (here is the forest)

Labials do not soften before soft dental ones: [pt"ên"ch"k", [n"eft"], [vz"at"] (chick, oil, take).

4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness. It is carried out at the junction of a root and a suffix that begins with a hard consonant: locksmith - metalworker, secretary - secretarial, etc. Before the labial [b], assimilation in terms of hardness does not occur: [pros "it"] - [proz "b", [мъллт" it"] - [mlΛd"ba] (ask - request, thresh - threshing), etc. [l"] is not subject to assimilation: [pol"b] - [zΛpol"nyj] (field, outside).

5. Assimilation of dentaries before sibilants. It extends to dental [z], [s] in the position before the sibilants [sh], [zh], [h], [sh] and consists in complete assimilation of the dental [z], [s] to the subsequent sibilant.

Complete assimilation of [z], [s] occurs:

1) at the junction of morphemes: [zh at"], [rΛ zh at"] (compress, decompress); [sh yt"], [rΛ sh yt"] (sew, embroider); [w"from], [rΛw"from] (account, calculation); [rΛzno sh"ik], [izvo sh"ik] (peddler, cab driver);

2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [s-zh ar'm], [s-sh ar'm] (with fervor, with a ball); [bies-zh ar], [bies-sh ar] (without heat, without ball).

The combination zh inside the root, as well as the combination zh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [zh"]: [po zh"] (later), (I ride); [in zh"i], [trembling"i] (reins, yeast). A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] followed by [ch], [ts], resulting in long [ch], [ts]: [Λ ch "ot] (report), (fkra ts ] (briefly).

6. Simplification of consonant combinations. The consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. This simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in the combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts: [usny], [poznъ], [ш"исliv", [g"igansk"i], [h" stvb], [heart], [son] (oral, late, happy, gigantic, feeling, heart, sun).

7. Reducing groups of identical consonants. When three identical consonants come together at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the following word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra sor "it"] (raz+quarrel), [s ylk] (with reference), [klo n y] (column+n+th); [Λde s ki ] (Odessa+sk+ii).

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More on topic 13. Basic phonetic laws of the modern Russian language:

3. The main stages of development of the Russian literary language. Competition between “old” and “new” in the modern Russian language norm. “Old” and “new” in modern Russian dictionaries.
2. The role of the Russian language in the modern world. The status of the Russian language as the state language of the Russian Federation, the language of interethnic and international communication.
11. Lexical and phraseological norms of the modern Russian literary language. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics. Main categories of the section. Lexical compatibility of words. Accuracy of word usage. Contamination. Specifics of explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language.

Processes, allophone (see Phoneme) variation, living positional alternations. Such allophone variation is due only to the phonetic environment (position) and operates, in principle, regularly in all words, among all representatives of a given language community: for example, in all words of the Russian language, a voiced consonant, once in the position of the end of the word, is regularly replaced by the corresponding voiceless one: “ frosts - frost[s], "gardens - sa[t]", etc. There are no exceptions.

The laws of development of the sound matter of a language form the historically successive stages of the sound evolution of a given language and determine the historical (traditional) alternations of sound units. During the period of their emergence, the laws of development are historically ordinary laws of functioning, giving rise to regular positional variation of allophones. The transformation of a living law of functioning into a historical one is carried out by removing positional conditionality (i.e., the disappearance of a given law of functioning) through the transformation of living phonetic alternation (allophone variation) into a non-positional, historical alternation of independent phonemes. Thus, the historical alternation (k ~ ch) of the modern Russian language was positional in ancient times; in position before front vowels (ī̆, ē̆) ⟨к⟩ regularly changed to ⟨č⟩: *krīk- > krīč + ētī. Allophones (k/č) were under conditions of additional distribution: some positions regularly determined the appearance of ⟨č⟩, others - ⟨к⟩. Later F. z. (the transition ē > a in positions after palatal consonants, etc.) abolished the law of the first palatalization and removed the previous allophones from the relations of additional distribution: *krīčētī > krīčātī, “shout” ~ “jump”.

The concept of "F. z." introduced neogrammatism (see neogrammatism) as a formula for regular sound correspondences between two dialects of the same language or between two successive synchronous states of language development.

Sound changes occur only in strictly defined phonetic positions (P) in a given language (L) at a given stage of its development (T). The relationship between the parameters of sound changes can be expressed by the formula:

L	⎰ ⎱	a>b	⎱ ⎰	T	,
		P

i.e. ⟨a⟩ goes into ⟨b⟩ only if the corresponding (P, T, L) conditions are strictly observed. Violation of one of these conditions is the reason for deviation from the transition predicted by the law. There are no unmotivated exceptions. Opening of F. z. comes down to identifying the conditions of positional variation (P) in a given language (L) at distant stages of its development (T), i.e., to reconstructing the law of functioning for a certain era of language development. Some F. z. named after their discoverer (Grassmann's law, Pedersen's law, etc.). The idea of a strict pattern of phonetic changes was most consistently pursued by F. F. Fortunatov and his school (see Moscow Fortunatov School).

Phonetic changes are carried out according to strict laws; their violation, in turn, can only occur naturally, i.e., the existence of a pattern for the irregularity that needs to be discovered is assumed. Imaginary exceptions are the result of another law that abolished the first one, or borrowing from another language (dialect), or a non-phonetic change in the sound side of individual words. Thus, in modern Russian, in place of the form “ruce” (dative-prepositional case singular) expected from the second palatalization, the form “ruke” is presented. The deviation from the expected reflex is caused by the natural morphological process of alignment of the base “ruk-a”, “ruk-u”, ..., “ruku”. To explain this kind of exception, neogrammarists put forward the principle of analogy. For the first time, the idea of morphological analogy as a natural source of exceptions from physical laws. nominated by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay.

In the idea of F. z. as a fundamental position of comparative historical linguistics, the foundations for its further development are laid: from the reconstruction of the external (correspondence between related languages) - to the reconstruction of the internal (L, in a given language), from the reconstruction of inventory - to the reconstruction of the system (parameters L, P, the relationship of sounds, reacting equally to the corresponding positions), from static reconstruction to dynamic reconstruction (relative chronology of federal laws, successively replacing each other), etc. Regulations on federal laws. introduced a system of necessary prohibitions for a researcher in the field of comparative historical linguistics, for example: it is impossible to compare (in the procedure of genetic reconstruction) facts of sound transitions of different times (T) and different dialects (L); When reconstructing a particular sound transition, it is necessary to strictly determine the positions of its implementation (P). It is possible, however, to make a typological comparison of different linguistic phrases. in order to identify universal principles of phonetic changes.

Modern linguistics confirms the postulate of the non-exclusivity of phraseology: positional alternation itself (allophone variation) is actually carried out without exception in all words of a given language. Modern sociolinguistic research has shown that certain sound changes occur from word to word at different speeds in different social groups(cf., for example, Russian ze[rk]alo, but tse[rk]ov and tse[r’k]ov, ts[rk]ovnik, etc.). This kind of sound changes does not relate to positional alternations and is possible only if the previous law of functioning ceases to operate. About this in in this case and indicates the possibility of pronouncing the combination [erk] and [er’k].

Fortunatov F. F., Modifications in the pronunciation of words as signs of language, in his book: Selected works, vol. 1, M., 1956;
Reformed A. A., Changes in phonetics and phonetic laws, in his book: Introduction to Linguistics, 4th ed., M., 1967;
Katsnelson S. D., Sound laws and their internal mechanisms, in the book: Theory of Language. English. Keltology, M., 1976;
Zhuravlev V.K., The postulate of the immutability of phonetic laws and modern comparative studies, “Questions of Linguistics”, 1986, No. 4;
Fourquet J., Pourquoi les lois phonétiques sont sans exception, on Sat.: Proceedings of the IX International Congress of Linguists, The Hague - Mouton, 1964;
Collinge N. E., The laws of Indo-European, Amst. - Phil., 1985.

Phonetic laws (sound laws) are the laws of the functioning and development of the sound matter of a language, governing both the stable preservation and regular changes of its sound units, their alternations and combinations.

(I found a lot of BASIC laws, although there are suspicions that they are ALL here. Nothing less than L. But before that, a little information from the lecture)

Combinatorial changes- such changes in sounds in the flow of speech that occur under the influence of the articulation of adjacent or close sounds.

Combinatorial changes:

Assimilation (articulatory and acoustic convergence (similarity) of sounds)

Dissimilation (change in speech sounds under the influence of the articulation of neighboring or close sounds in the direction of their divergence, dissimilarity as a result of the morning you are one of them common features and acquisition of new distinctive features)

Accommodation (change of sounds, in which vowels change under the influence of articulation of consonants, and consonants - under the influence of articulation of vowels)

And now the laws (if that’s what they are)

1. Phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding paired voiceless. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: threshold - vice, young - hammer, goat - braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are deafened: gruzd - sadness, entrance - popodest [podjest], etc.

The devoicing of a final voiced occurs under the following conditions:

1) before the pause: [pr "ishol pojst] (the train has arrived); 2) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only voiceless, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [j] and [v]: [praf he ], [sat our], [slap ja], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your family). Sonorant consonants are not deafened: litter, they say, lump, he.

2. Assimilation of consonants in terms of voicedness and deafness. Combinations of consonants, one of which is voiceless and the other voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, if two consonants of different sonority appear next to each other in a word, the first consonant becomes similar to the second. This change in consonant sounds is called regressive assimilation.

By virtue of this law, voiced consonants in front of deaf ones turn into paired deaf ones, and deaf ones in the same position turn into voiced ones. Voicing of voiceless consonants is less common than voicing of voiced consonants; the transition of voiced to voiceless creates homophones: [dushk - dushk] (bow - darling), [v "ies"ti - v"ies"t"i] (carry - lead), [fp"jr"im"eshku - fp" "eat" food] (interspersed - interspersed).

Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [v], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Λtjest] (departure), yours, yours.

Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [pokhotk] (gait), [zbor] (gathering); 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [gd "elu] (to the point), [zd"el'm] (to the point); 3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [got] (year), [dod'zh'by] (daughter); 4) at the junction of significant words pronounced without pause: [rok-kΛzy] (goat horn), [ras-p "at"] (five times).

3. Assimilation of consonants by softness. Hard and soft consonants are represented by 12 pairs of sounds. By education, they differ in the absence or presence of palatalization, which consists of additional articulation (the middle part of the back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate).

Assimilation in terms of softness is regressive in nature: the consonant softens, becoming similar to the subsequent soft consonant. In this position, not all consonants paired in hardness-softness are softened, and not all soft consonants cause a softening of the previous sound.

All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, are softened in the following weak positions: 1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b"ate", [v"es", [m"ate", [s"ate] (white, weight, chalk, sat), etc.; 2) before [i]: [m"il", [p"il"i] (mil, drank).

Before unpaired [zh], [sh], [ts], soft consonants are impossible with the exception of [l], [l "] (cf. end - ring).

The most susceptible to softening are the dental [z], [s], [n], [p], [d], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [v], [f]. They do not soften in front of soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet, etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l "es]; cf. [Λ t or]) and before the particle ([ros-l"i]; cf. [rosli]) (here is the forest , wiped off, grew, grew).

Consonants [z] and [s] are softened before soft ones [t"], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m"ês"t"], [v"eez" d "e], [f-ka s"b], [treasury"] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). The softening of [z], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them before soft labials : [raz"d"iel"it"], [ras"t"ienut"], [b"ez"-n"ievo], [b"ies"-s"il] (divide, stretch, without it, without strength). Before soft labials, softening [z], [s], [d], [t] is possible inside the root and at the end of prefixes with -z, as well as in the prefix s- and in a preposition consonant with it: [s"m"ex] , [z"v"êr], [d"v"êr|, [t"v"êr], [s"p"êt"], [s"-n"im], [is"-pêch"] , [rΛz"d"êt"] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).

Labials do not soften before soft dental ones: [pt"ên"ch"k", [n"eft"], [vz"at"] (chick, oil, take).

4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness. Assimilation of consonants by hardness is carried out at the junction of a root and a suffix beginning with a hard consonant: mechanic - metalworker, secretary - secretarial, etc. Before the labial [b], assimilation in terms of hardness does not occur: [prΛs "it"] - [proz "bъ", [mаllt "it"] - [мълΛд"ba] (ask - request, thresh - threshing), etc. [l"] is not subject to assimilation: [pol"b] - [zΛpol"nyj] (field, field).

5. Assimilation of dentaries before sibilants. This type of assimilation extends to the dental [z], [s] in the position before the sibilants (anteropalatal) [w], [zh], [h], [sh] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [z], [s] to the subsequent sibilant .

Complete assimilation of [z], [s] occurs:

2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [s-zh ar'm], [s-sh ar'm] (with fervor, with a ball); [bi e s-zh ar], [bi e s-sh ar] (without heat, without ball).

The combination zh inside the root, as well as the combination zh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [zh"]: [po zh"] (later), (I ride); [in zh"i], [trembling"i] (reins, yeast). Optionally, in these cases a long hard [zh] can be pronounced.

A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] followed by [ch], [ts], resulting in long [ch], [ts]: [Λ ch "ot] (report), (fkra ts ] (briefly).

The main phonetic processes occurring in a word include: 1) reduction; 2) stunning; 3) voicing; 4) mitigation; 5) assimilation; 6) simplification.

Reduction is a weakening of the pronunciation of vowel sounds in an unstressed position: [house] - [d^ma] - [dj^voi].

Devoicing is the process by which voiced people agree before deaf people and at the end of words are pronounced as voiceless; book - book; oak - du[n].

Voicing is a process in which deaf people in a position in front of voiced ones are pronounced like voiced ones: do -[z"]do; selection - o[d]bor.

Softening is a process in which hard consonants become soft under the influence of subsequent soft ones: depend[s’]t, ka[z’]n, le[s’]t.

Assimilation is a process in which a combination of several dissimilar consonants is pronounced as one long (for example, the combinations сч, зч, Шч, здч, стч are pronounced long sound[w"], and the combinations ts(ya), ts(ya) are pronounced as one long sound [ts]): obe[sh]ik, spring[sh]aty, mu[sh"]ina, [t"]aste , ici[ts]a. Simplification of groups of consonants is a process in which in combinations of consonants stn, zdn, eats, dc, persons and others, the sound is lost, although the letter used in writing denotes this sound: heart - [s "e" rts], sun - [son].

8. Reduction of vowels. The change (weakening) of vowel sounds in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. A distinction is made between the position of unstressed vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in the remaining unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in the weak position of the second degree undergo greater reduction than vowels in the weak position of the first degree.

Vowels in the weak position of the first degree: [vΛly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [bi e yes] (trouble), etc.

Vowels in the weak position of the second degree: [рърʌvos] (locomotive); [kurganda] (Karaganda); [kalkkla] (bells); [p"l"i e na] (veil); [voice] (voice), [vocal] (exclamation), etc.

Synchrony - (from the Greek sýnchronós - simultaneous), consideration of language (or any other system of signs) from the point of view of the relationships between its components in one period of time. For example, the nominative singular form “table” in synchrony has a zero ending, unlike the genitive case “table-a”.

Identification of the dynamics of development in synchrony is also possible through comparison of several simultaneously functioning styles (the choice of which is determined by the conditions of communication) - a more solemn (high), preserving old features, and a more colloquial (low), in which the direction of language development is guessed (for example, an abbreviated form [chiek] instead of “person”).

The study of phonetic phenomena in terms of synchrony is the study of the phonetics of a particular language in this moment as a ready-made system of interconnected and interdependent elements.

44. Problems, tasks, course content and fundamentals of linguistics.

The object of linguistics is natural human language. The laws of the structure, development and functioning of language constitute the subject of the science of language. These patterns may be inherent in individual specific languages or their groups. Along with such particular patterns in every language of the world, some general patterns inherent in all or most languages of mankind can be revealed.
Private linguistics– studies dept. language or group of languages: Russian studies, Slavic studies. The internal structure and distinctive special conditions are studied in isolation from the outside world. General– studies universals, what unites different languages. If we consider language from a linguistic and extra-linguistic point of view, then External linguistics studies how language relates to external factors (sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, ethnolinguistics, pragmalinguals). Internal linguistics studies internal device: language units, language levels, internal features. language development (laws).

It is also possible to consider language in diachronic and synchronic aspects. Diachronic– considers the state of language throughout history, and synchronous- only at a certain stage.

In addition, linguistics can be practical, theoretical, and applied. Practical – deals with specific languages with the aim of using them as a means of communication. Theoretical – studies the essence of language as a system, its units and the relationship between them, the nature grammatical categories and so on. Applied - the industry is engaged in the development and application of linguistic data to the needs of society.

That., general linguistics studies patterns characteristic of all languages. General patterns- this is a person. language in general, language as a social phenomenon as a means of cognition, language in its connection with thinking, language as a cultural phenomenon, language as a system of signs, language as a special structure. General language is a theoretical, external and usually synchronic discipline. IN modern world trends in expanding the object of linguistics are emerging. More external factors included in the object of the language: 1) gender, 2) national-cult., 3) psychological, 4) sociological. Thus, the language is being studied internal device language, together with the factors determining its functioning and development.

Main objectives of the course: 1) establish the object of linguistics, boundaries, separation from related sciences. 2) internal problem. division of tongue and internal connections, 3) features of the functioning of a language, its external connections, 4) the problem of language development, 5) the problem of the sign nature of a language and its place among other sign systems, 6) the problem of the typology of languages of the world, 7) the problem of language universals, 8) the problem of methods and techniques for studying the language.

Sound laws - regularly implemented in current state or in the history of language, sound (phonetic) changes. IN different periods stories in language can operate in different ways 3. h. A law that is alive for one era may cease to operate in another era, and other laws arise. For example, in the history of Russian language in ancient times there was a 3. z., according to which the consonants k, g, x before front vowels changed into soft hissing ch, zh, sh" (see Palatalization). This 3. z. determined the pronunciation of k , g, x before non-front vowels and the pronunciation in their place of soft hissing ones before front vowels: hand - poruchit, friend - friend, dry - dry. In a later era, this 3. z. ceased to work: k, g, x and h, zh, sh became possible before the same vowels, but the results of the previous law were preserved in the phenomenon of alternation of back-linguals with sibilants in the modern Russian language.In the 13-15th centuries, the 3. e. was in effect in the Russian language, according to - In addition, the vowel e changed to o after soft consonants before hard consonants (nes-*-nes, dog-"dog, birch-* birch), after the termination of this law, the pronunciation of e in this position became possible (forest from L"ksvver from ve[ р"]хь, female from female[n"]skiy, borrowed pharmacy), the results of the action of the former 3. z. are preserved in modern Russian language in the form of alternation e/o (rural - villages, fun - cheerful, darkness - dark).
In modern rus. lit. A language has a number of 3. laws that determine the nature of its phonetic system. This is the law of the regular coincidence of vowels a, o, e in the first pre-stressed syllable in one sound (see Akanye), the law of compatibility of voiceless noisy consonants only with voiceless noisy consonants, and voiced consonants only with voiced ones: o[ps]ipat, po[tp] to write, but[shk]a, la\fk\a and sva[d"b]a, pro[zb]a, vo[gz]al, [z"]del. This Z.z. the pronunciation of any word and any form is subject to.
The same Z.Z. may operate in a number of related languages, the results of their implementation may be the same or different. For example, the above-mentioned change in k, g, x in h", zh", w" was carried out with the same results in all languages, and the change in the combinations t and y with j gave different results in different glory. languages (e.g., Common Slavic "svetja gave Old Russian c&kua, Old Slavic sv\shta, Polish iwieca; Common Slavic "medfa - Old Russian border, Old Slavic interda, Polish .miedza). These results reveal regular consistent correspondences between Slavs, languages, which has important to study the problem of the relationship of languages and the patterns of development of their sound structure.
3. h. act as absolute for specific language at a certain period of its development, however, their action is sometimes influenced by the conditions of their implementation, which can disrupt the sequence of their manifestation. For example, in modern rus. lit. in the language at the end of words, as a rule, only hard [m] is pronounced (table, dam, that, them), this is a reflection of the action of the ancient Z.Z. hardening of the soft [m"] at the absolute end of the word. In the same words as seven, eight, dark, winter, zaum, indeed, hardening of [m"\ did not occur, which can be explained either by the influence of indirect case forms on these forms (see. Analogy), where after [m"] there was a vowel (such as seven, eight), or their late origin, when the third hardening of the final [l"] ceased to work.
The reasons for the occurrence of sound changes have not been studied enough; one can only assume that they are inherent in the language itself and are caused by internal trends in its development, as well as the influence of other languages and dialects.

Phonetic processes- These are changes in sounds that occur over time. These changes can be of two types - combinatorial and positional. Combinatorial are phonetic changes caused by the interaction of articulations of sounds in the stream of speech. Sounds can be in close proximity to each other. For example: rest[breath] under the influence of [d] the neighboring [t] in the word changes sew[shyt´] the sound [sh] affects the neighboring [c].

Sounds that are located at a distance from each other can influence each other. For example, in colloquial pronunciation kolidor there is a dissimilarity between two sounds [p], located at a distance from each other.

Positional changes- these are changes in sounds due to their position in a word, caused by the presence of special phonetic conditions. For example, position at the end of a word or under stress.

Combinatorial changes include: accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, haplology, fusion, metathesis. Positional ones include reduction of vowels and deafening of consonants at the end of a word.

Vowel reduction (from the Latin reductio - reduction, decrease) is a change in the sound characteristics of vowels caused by a shortening of the duration of the vowels and a weakening of tension. There are qualitative and quantitative reductions. Quantitative reduction is a decrease in the duration of a sound caused by its unstressed nature. Quantitative reduction is subjected to [y] in an unstressed position.

Qualitative reduction is a reduction associated with a change in the articulatory characteristics of a vowel due to a reduction in its duration. All vowels are subject to qualitative reduction, except [у], in an unstressed position. They say that reduced vowels are sounds with under-articulation. For example, when pronouncing the vowel [a] in an unstressed position, the tongue does not reach the lowest possible position characteristic of this sound under stress. Sometimes reduction can lead to complete disappearance sound, as in words wire[pro´volk], hustle[su´talk]. Examples of qualitative vowel reduction: transportation[p´р´i e vos], drum[bar^ban], paraglider[pаr^plan].

TO positional changes consonants include devoicing at the end of a word. Instead of voiced consonants, their voiceless pairs appear: eyebrow[f´´], eye[c], rye[w], pond[T]. At the end, the words are deafened and sonorant: they sound more muffled: ship [l´], Peter [r], theater [r].

Combinatorial changes in the area of consonants include, first of all, assimilation(from the Latin assimilatio – ‘likening’) is the likening, complete or partial, of sounds to each other within a word or phrase. Assimilation occurs between sounds of the same type - vowels or consonants. Assimilation differs by sonority-voicelessness, hardness-softness, and by place of formation. Let us trace the essence of this process with examples.

1) assimilation according to voicedness-voicelessness: book[kn´i´shk], request[pro´z´b].

2) assimilation by hardness-softness: snow[s´n´ek], honor[ches´t´].

3) assimilation at the place of education: live down[zhyt´], higher[higherj].

Dissimilation(from the Latin dissimilation ‘dissimilarity’) is the dissimilarity of sounds, namely: sounds that match some characteristics begin to differ in these characteristics. For example, in many dialects the plosive [k] before the plosives [p], [t], [k] has changed into a fricative [x]: who [hto], soft [m´ahk´ij], easy [l´ohk´ij ]. Dissimilation occurs in the word What, in place of two stops [h] and [t], a combination of fricative and stop [pcs] is pronounced. Dissimilation explains the pronunciation of the combination [shn] in place of the combination of two stops [chn] in words Of course, boring, birdhouse, scrambled eggs. Although in many words there is a tendency to pronounce a combination of two stops without change. Dissimilation is caused by the colloquial pronunciation in the words as[v]alt, bo[n]ba, tra[n]vay.

Dierez- This is the loss of sounds. Thus, dental [t] and [d] have ceased to be pronounced in a number of combinations [stn], [zdn], [sts], [sts], [zdts], [nts], [nds] honest, sad, late, mountaineering, Scots, heart, festive.

The opposite process is called epenthesis - this is the insertion of sounds. Vowels can be inserted between two consonants. So, modern words fire And coal arose from the Old Russian FIRE, COAL. In colloquial pronunciation, the consonants [j], [v] can be inserted between vowels. For example, scorpien, spien, Larivon, radivo, kakavo.

Prosthesis is the appearance of a sound at the beginning of a word. Prosthetic is [in] in the word eight. It is enough to compare this word with similar root words ocmushka, ocminy, eighteen. In dialects, prosthetic is [in] in words vutka, sharp. A vowel sound can be prosthetic. So, in dialect pronunciation arzhanoy, alnyana the sound [a] is prosthetic.

Metathesis- This is a rearrangement of sounds. As a result of metathesis, words such as palm, which goes back to the Old Russian DOLON and the same root Old Slavic DLAN. As a result of metathesis, the word arose witchbear, common in dialects. Compare with literary bear.

Haplology(from the Greek χάπλος – ‘simple’ and λογος – ‘word’) is a simplification of the syllabic structure of a word due to the loss of one of two identical syllables immediately following each other. Yes, word mineralogy arose from the word mineralology after one of the syllables is dropped lo. Word standard bearer arose from the word standard bearer when one of the syllables was lost But. As a result of haplology, the words arose tragicomedy ← tragicomedy, Lermontov scholar ← Lermontov scholar.

Fusia(from Latin fusio - ‘fusion’) is a phonetically determined penetration of contacting morphemes, in which it becomes difficult to draw boundaries between affixes. Fusion occurs at the junction of two morphemes, for example at the junction of the ending of a verb and a postfix - Xia is fighting[d and e rots]. In transcription, identifying morphemes is difficult. The pronunciation of the sound [ts] in place of the combination [ts] at the junction of morphemes arises as a result of fusion.

Accommodation(from the Latin accomodatio – ‘adjustment’) is the process of adapting the articulation of a consonant sound to the articulation of a vowel and vice versa. Accommodation occurs between sounds different types. The result of accommodation is, for example, the rounding of consonants before rounded vowels [р°ука¢].

As a result of accommodation, the sound [and] turns into [s] after hard consonants game - joke, ideological - unideological, spark - sparkless, Ira - to Ira[kyr].

The result of accommodation is the adaptation of the articulation of vowels, except for [and], to the articulation of soft consonants in the position under stress. Under the influence of soft consonants, vowels develop an i-shaped overtone, that is, they become somewhat advanced. more forward in the row. In transcription, accommodation of vowels under the influence of soft consonants is indicated as follows: small [small], crumpled [m¢·al], mother [ma·t¢], crumpled [m·a·t¢]. Vowels between two soft consonants become narrower, tense, and closed.

Positional and combinatorial changes in sounds lead to alternation.

Hardness - softness.

The place of formation of the consonant depends on which active organ does the main work and which passive organ it connects with. According to the place of formation, all consonants are divided into labial and lingual. Labial Consonants are sounds in which the noise-producing barrier is provided either by the lips or by the lips and tongue. If the active organ is the lower lip and the passive organ is the upper, then such consonants are called labiolabial. These include: [b]/[b´], [p]/[p´], [m]/[m´]. Labiodental called consonants in which an obstruction is created lower lip(active organ) and upper teeth (passive organ). These include: [v]/[v´], [f]/[f´].

In lingual consonants, the active organ is the tongue. It can articulate to the upper teeth, alveoli (tubercles at the roots of the upper teeth), different parts sky. Depending on which part of the tongue creates the obstruction, frontal, middle, and posterior consonants are distinguished.

TO back-lingual sounds include: [g]/[g´], [k]/[k´], [x]/[x´]. TO middle language– [j]. TO front-lingual- [t]/[t´], [d]/[d´], [s]/[s´], [z]/[z´], [n]/[n´], [l]/ [l´], [ts]. In this case, the active organ is the tongue, and the passive organ is the upper teeth. Forelingual-alveolar ones, in which the active organ is the tongue and the passive organ is the alveoli, include: [p]/[p´], [w]/[w´], [g]/[zh´], [h].

The method of formation is a characteristic of the obstacle in the oral cavity in the path of the air stream and the method of overcoming it. There are three types of obstacles: (1) a narrow gap between the adjacent organs of speech, (2) complete closure of the organs of speech, (3) an active organ trembling in the flow of speech. Therefore, according to the method of formation, all consonants are divided into fricatives (or fricatives, their Latin analogue), stops and tremors.

Slotted are formed as a result of friction of an air stream against the edges of the adjacent organs of speech, forming a gap. There are slotted middle and slotted side ones. When articulating slotted laterals, air flows along the sides oral cavity, between the sides of the tongue. This is how the consonants [l]/[l´] are formed. The slotted middle ones include: [v]/[v´], [f]/[f´], [s]/[s´], [z]/[z´], [w]/[w´], [g]/[g´], [x]/[x´], [γ]/[γ´], [j].

During education stops consonants, the flow of air through the oral cavity is blocked by the bow. There is a moment when the flow of air through the oral cavity completely stops. Depending on the nature of overcoming the stop, nasal, plosive, affricates and implosive consonants are distinguished.

Nasals consonants are characterized by complete closure of the oral cavity and simultaneous lowering of the velum palatine, as a result of which air freely passes through the nasal cavity. This is how the consonants [n]/[n´], [m]/[m´] are formed.

During education explosive consonants, first there is a complete delay of the air stream, and then a complete opening of the speech organs and a breakthrough of the air stream with a characteristic noise. Plosives include: [p]/[p´], [b]/[b´], [d]/[d´ ], [t]/[t´], [k]/[k´], [g]/[g´].

Africates, like plosives, are initially formed when the speech organs are completely closed, but in the last phase the speech organs do not open sharply, but form a gap for air to escape. They are also called slit-slotted. These include [ch] and [ts]. Sometimes in transcription they have a different designation, which illustrates their occlusive-frictional character - [ch] as [t´sh´], and [ts] as [ts]. It should be remembered that this is one heterogeneous sound, not two different sounds. Compare: pronunciation of words dump and unhook[^tsyp'it']\[^tsyp't'].

Some scientists distinguish among stop consonants the so-called implosive. They contain only one stop phase, they do not have a second phase - opening, like plosives or affricates. Implosives take the place of plosives before plosives or affricates. For example: father [^ttsa´] the consonant [t] is implosive, since it contains only a stop phase.

Trembling(otherwise vibrants) are formed by vibration (trembling) of the tip of the tongue in the outgoing stream of air. In this case, the tip of the tongue closes and opens with the alveoli. Trembling ones differ somewhat from occlusive ones in that in the latter the closure of the active and passive organs is longer and denser. Trembling sounds include the sounds [р], [р´].

According to noise level, consonants are divided into sonorant and noisy. Sonorant ones include [m], [m´], [l], [l´], [p], [p´], [n], [n´], [j]. Sonorous are formed with the help of voice and slight noise, which from an acoustic point of view brings them closer to vowels. All other consonants are classified as noisy. They are formed either using only noise [п], [п´], [т], [т´], [с], [с´], [к], [к´], [ф], [ф´ ]..., or with the help of voice and noise [b], [b´], [c], [v´], [d], [d´], [z], [z´]... Depending on the degree of participation vocal cords during the formation of consonants, all noisy ones are divided into voiced and voiceless. In education deaf only noise is involved in consonants. These include: [k], [k´], [p], [p´], [s], [s´], [t], [t´], [f], [f´], [ x], [x´], [w], [h], [ts], [w´]. When forming smelly noise dominates the voice. These include: [b], [b´], [c], [v´], [d], [d´], [z], [z´], [g], [g´], [ and]. So, the division of consonants by voice and noise level can be schematically represented as follows:

According to their voicedness-voicelessness, consonants form pairs: [b - p], [b´ - p´], [v-f], [v´ - f´], [g - k], [g´ - k´]. [d - t], [d´ - t´], [z - s], [z´ - s´], [f - w].

The consonants [ch] and [ts] also have voiced pairs. They appear in place of these sounds before voiced consonants. [ts] has a pair [dz], and [h] has a pair [j´]. Compare: the father would be [^t´edzbъ], the daughter would be [do´dzh´bъ]. The sound [γ] is voiced paired with the consonant [x] in the words accountant, would go deaf [^gloγbъ].

Sonorant consonants also have voiceless pairs that appear at the end of the word after the voiceless consonant , , .

All consonants are divided into hard and soft depending on whether additional (iota) articulation is superimposed on the main one. Soft (or palatalized) consonants are formed if there is an additional rise of the middle part of the back of the tongue towards soft palate. This process is otherwise called palatalization (from the Latin palatum - sky). The sound [j] is the only consonant in the Russian language in which the rise of the tongue to the palate is not an additional, but the main articulation, therefore it is called palatal.

According to hardness and softness, consonants form pairs. For example: [b - b´], [c - c´], [d - d´] ... Let's pay attention to that. that soft [zh´] is pronounced in the words reins, yeast, squeal. This sound is always long. However, in these words the pronunciation of hard [zh] is also acceptable.

In accordance with 5 classification criteria, a table for the classification of consonant sounds has been compiled.

The classification of vowel sounds is based on 3 main features: (1) the degree of elevation of the tongue, that is, the degree of its vertical displacement, (2) row - the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or backward, (3) labialization - the position of the lips.

According to the degree of rise, the vowels of the upper rise are distinguished [i], [s], [y]; medium rise [e], [o]; lower lift [a]. When articulating high vowels, the tongue occupies the highest position. The upper and lower jaws are as close as possible, creating a narrow mouth opening. Otherwise, high vowels are called narrow. When articulating lower vowels, the lower jaw is lowered to its lowest position. A wide mouth opening is created. Such vowels are called wide.

According to the series, vowels are divided into 3 groups. The basis for classifying vowels by series is horizontal position tongue in the front or back of the mouth. There are front vowels [i], [e], and with their articulation the tongue moves forward; middle vowels – [ы], [а], during the formation of which the tongue is extended along the oral cavity; back vowels - [у], [о], when they are formed, the tongue moves back, and the back of the tongue rises to the back of the palate.

Based on the participation of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded(labialized) and unrounded(non-labialized). The terms are derived from Latin word labium - lip. When rounded vowels are formed, the lips come closer, rounded and protrude forward, lengthening the oral resonator. The degree of rounding may vary. The vowels [у], [о] are labialized. Moreover, the vowel [y] has a greater degree of labialization. All other Russian vowels are non-labialized.

The simplest table for the classification of Russian vowels is as follows:

	Front row	Middle row	Back row
Top rise	AND	Y	U
Medium rise	E		ABOUT
Bottom rise		A

This table was called the “Shcherba triangle”, since the classification itself was developed by L.V. Shcherba.

But the division into three rows and three rises does not reflect the full richness of Russian vowel sounds. Many phoneticians proposed to distinguish seven degrees of rise, which makes it possible to detail the classification of Russian vowels. For example:

	Front row	Middle row	Middle-back row	Back row
Top rise	AND	Y		U
Upper-medium rise	And uh, b	Uh
Medium rise	E	Kommersant		ABOUT
Mid-low rise			^
Bottom rise		A

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