Styles and trends in fine arts. Historical eras in order: chronology

Historical periodization - irreplaceable thing both in science and in There are certain eras that cover specific time periods. Their names were invented quite recently, after a person was able to look in retrospect, evaluate and divide past events into stages. Now we will look at all the eras in order, find out why they were named that way and how they are characterized.

Why is there a historical chronology?

This technique was developed by researchers for a reason. Firstly, each individual period is characterized by special cultural trends. Each era has its own worldview, fashion, structure of society, type of business structure and much more. Considering the eras of mankind in order, you can also pay attention to the fact that each of them is characterized by separate types of art. This includes music, painting, and literature. Secondly, in the history of mankind there really were so-called turning points, when morality changed radically and new laws were established. This, of course, entailed a change in preferences that manifested themselves in art. Such changes could be influenced by revolutions, wars, scientific discoveries, the teachings of great philosophers and church leaders. And now, before we look at all historical eras in order, we note that our society experienced such a fundamental change quite recently. Scientific and technological progress has completely revolutionized our ideas about communication, sources of information, and even about work. And the reason for this is the Internet, which ten years ago everyone could do without, but today it is a part of everyone’s life.

Antique period

We will omit the history of primitive society, since at that time there was simply no single ideology, religion, or even a writing system. Therefore, when the eras of mankind are considered in order, they begin precisely with the ancient period, because at this time the first states, the first laws and morality, as well as the art that we study to this day, appeared. The period began around the end of the 8th century BC. e. and lasted until 456 - the date of the fall. At this time, not only a polytheistic religion appeared with a clear fixation of all deities, but also a writing system - Greek and Latin. Also during this period, the concept of slavery arose in Europe.

Middle Ages

Even when the school considers eras in order, Special attention devoted to the study of the Middle Ages. The period began at the end of the 5th century, but there is no date for its end, at least approximately. Some believe that it ended in the mid-15th century, others believe that the Middle Ages lasted until the 17th century. The era is characterized by a huge rise of Christianity. It was during these years that the great crusades took place. Along with them, the Inquisition arose, which exterminated all opponents of the church. In the Middle Ages, a form of slavery called feudalism arose, which existed in the world many centuries later.

Renaissance

It is customary to single out this era as a separate one, but many historians believe that the Renaissance is, so to speak, the secular side of the Middle Ages. The point is that in the end people began to cry out for humanity. Some ancient rules and morals returned, and the Inquisition gradually lost ground. This was manifested both in art and in the behavior of society. People began to visit theaters, and such a thing as a social ball arose. The Renaissance, like Antiquity, originated in Italy, and today this is confirmed by numerous monuments of architecture and art.

Baroque

When we look directly at the eras of human history in order, the Baroque, although it did not last long, occupied an important branch in the development of art. We'll look at it in more detail below, but for now let's note the following. This era was the logical conclusion of the Renaissance. We can say that the craving for secular entertainment and beauty has grown to incredible proportions. An architectural style of the same name appeared, which is characterized by pomp and pretentiousness. A similar tendency manifested itself in music, in drawing, and even in people’s behavior. lasted from the 16th to the 17th centuries.

Classicism

In the second half of the 17th century, humanity decided to move away from such luxurious idleness. Society, like the art it created, became canonized and conformed to clear rules. Classicism began to manifest itself in the design of buildings and interiors. Right angles, straight lines, rigor and asceticism came into fashion. Theater and music, which were at the peak of their cultural development, were also subject to new reforms. Certain styles appeared that directed authors in one direction or another. Below we will look at the eras in art in order and learn in more detail what classicism was.

Romantic period

In the 18th century, people seemed to be infected with a mania for beauty and unearthly fantasies. This period is considered the most mysterious in the history of mankind, ephemeral and original. A trend has emerged in society according to which each person is a separate spiritual and creative personality, with his own inner world, experiences and joys. As a rule, when historians present cultural eras in chronological order, one of the most important places is given to romanticism. During this period, which lasted until the 19th century, unique masterpieces of music (Chopin, Schubert, etc.), literature (famous French novels) and painting appeared.

Education

In parallel with romanticism in art, society itself improved. When all eras are listed in order, as a rule, the Enlightenment is placed behind classicism. Along with the development of science and art at the end of the 17th century, the level of intelligence in society began to increase at a tremendous speed. This was expressed in the rejection of orthodox religious norms. Instead of sacred knowledge came logic and bright reason. This greatly undermined the authority of the aristocracy and ruling dynasties, which largely relied on the help of the church. The Age of Enlightenment was the birthplace new philosophy based on mathematics and physics. There were a number of astronomical discoveries that refuted many religious dogmas. The Age of Enlightenment affected not only Europe, but also Russia, as well as the Far East, and even America. During this period, serfdom was abolished in many powers. It is also worth noting that in the 18th and 19th centuries, women began to take part in scientific and government meetings for the first time.

Modern times

We briefly listed all historical eras in order and came to the 20th century. This period is famous for the flourishing of various coups d'etat and changes in government regimes. Therefore, from a historical point of view, this era is called Since the beginning of the 20th century, we can say that society has become completely equal. Slavery was eradicated throughout the world, clear borders of states were established. Such conditions became the optimal environment for the development of not only art, but also science. We now live in this era, therefore, in order to consider it in detail, we only need to look back.

Brief summary

After we have presented all the eras of world history in order, described them, and learned what our society was like in a particular century, we move on to the study of beauty. Indeed, in parallel with the formation of laws and state boundaries, art was formed, which for many is the main determining factor for dividing human history into separate periods. Below we will present the eras in art in order, characterize them and be able to compare a clear picture of how our society was formed from the very beginning of time. To begin with, we will generally list the main “eras”, and then divide them into separate sectors. After all, musical periods do not always coincide in time with periods of the same name in literature or, say, in painting.

Art: eras in chronological order

• Ancient period. Since the appearance of the first rock paintings, ending with the 8th century BC. e.
• Antiquity - from the 8th century BC. e. until the 6th century AD e.
• Middle Ages: and Gothic. The first dates from the 6th-10th centuries, and the second from the 10th-14th centuries.
• Renaissance - famous 14th-16th centuries.
• Baroque - 16th-18th centuries.
• Rococo - 18th century.
• Classicism. It was formed against the backdrop of other trends from the 16th to the 19th centuries.
• Romanticism - first half of the 19th century.
• Eclecticism - second half of the 19th century.
• Modernism - early 20th century. It is worth noting that modernity is common name for this creative era. IN different countries and in various directions art developed its own movements, which we will discuss below.

What the pen will tell you... At the origins of written speech

Now let's look at the literary eras in chronological order: the ancient stage (Antiquity and the East), the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, Classicism, Sentimentalism, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism and modernity. For the first time, literary creations began to appear in Greece, Rome, and also in It was in these powers that the first writing arose. In the ancient world, myths began to appear - about Hercules, about Zeus and other gods, about the titans and giant birds. Later the first philosophers, thinkers and writers appeared. These are Homer, Sappho, Aeschylus, Horace. This genre is now called lyrics, but such stories are often referred to as a historically reliable source. The world of the Ancient East is famous only for its instructive poems. However, let's not forget that it was in this part of the world that in ancient times the most important book of humanity - the Bible - appeared.

Middle Ages and Renaissance

There is no clear boundary between these periods, and there is no need for one. Indeed, in the years when Europe was just beginning to emerge as government system, people had no time for art. The first manifestations of creativity in the Middle Ages were stifled by the church. Therefore, the literary heritage that we have inherited since those years is only a knightly epic. Here you can name “The Song of My Sid”, “The Song of Roland” and “The Song of the Nibelungs”. Several centuries later, the Renaissance comes, and such names as Shakespeare, Dante, Boccaccio, Cervantes become known to the world. Their stories can be called free, since there is no clear structure, and the person and his feelings are at the center of events. This is the main characteristic of the Renaissance.

Formation of strict canons

When we list the eras in order, century by century, everything falls into place, except Classicism. It seems to exist outside of time, space, against the background of other currents. From the moment the classics became the basis for the work of European authors, a number of patterns emerged in the writing of literary works. They were clearly divided into satire, tragedy, comedy, epic, fable. We can say that since then the boundaries of creativity have been established, which we still use today (pay attention at least to cinema).

Sentimentalism and Romanticism

These two currents seem to complement each other. They are famous for their novels, which describe the experiences of the heroes, their state of mind, tastes and interests. Among the authors of romanticism, such names as Balzac, Dickens, Hoffmann, Victor Hugo, the Bronte sisters, Mark Twain, W. Scott and many others are written in red letters. In the later years of Romanticism, authors such as Oscar Wilde and Edgar Allan Poe wrote. Their stories are already devoid of sentimentality, but filled with deep philosophy.

Realism and modernism, as well as modern literature

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, many trends in literature appeared. In our country they were called the Silver Age, in others they were simply named in accordance with the style of a particular work. Symbolism and decadence became the most popular. Representatives of these trends were such authors as Verlaine, Baudelaire, Rimbaud, Blok. Acmeism enjoyed considerable popularity in Russia. Its main representative was Anna Akhmatova. Since then, literature has become as realistic as possible. People abandoned internal experiences and illusions. From the beginning of the 20th century to the present day, the authors describe any events from the most realistic point of view, taking into account all the innovations of progress.

art

Now it's time to consider all the eras in painting in order. Let us note right away that there are much more of them here than in the literature, so we will address each of them briefly and concisely.

• Cave painting.
• Art of Ancient Egypt and the Middle East.
• Creto-Mycenaean culture.
• Antique drawings and writing.
• Middle Ages: iconography and Gothic illustrations on religious themes.
• Revival. Prominent representatives are Michelangelo, da Vinci and others.
• Since the 18th century, the Baroque style appears in painting. Vividly expressed in the paintings of Caravaggio.
• Classicism, which had been developing in the fine arts since the 16th century, was embodied in the works of Poussin and Rubens.
• Romanticism manifested itself in the paintings of Delacour and Goya.
• Impressionism appeared at the end of the 19th century. Van Gogh is considered its brightest representative, and along with him are Gauguin, Lautrec Munch and others.
• In the 20th century, painting was divided into socialist realism and surrealism. The first movement developed exclusively in Russia. The second one conquered the whole world. It is clearly visible in the paintings of S. Dali, P. Picasso and other artists of this time.

The number of styles and trends is huge, if not infinite. They do not have clear boundaries, smoothly transform into one another and are in continuous development, mixing and opposition. This is why it is often so difficult to distinguish one from the other. Many of the styles in art coexist simultaneously and therefore there are no “pure” works (painting, architecture, etc.) at all.

However, understanding and being able to distinguish between styles largely depends on knowledge of history. When we understand the history of the formation and transformation of Western European art, the features and historical features of each style will become more clear.

1. Art of the Ancient World: before 5th century AD

Ancient Egypt

The art of Ancient Egypt, as well as the art of Mesopotamia that preceded it, are de facto not Western European. But it had a significant influence on the Minoan and, indirectly, on the ancient Greek civilization. The characteristic features of Egyptian art is the enormous importance of the funeral cult, for the sake of which many works of art were created that had a more utilitarian function for contemporaries.

Ancient Greece

Ancient ancient Greek art laid the foundation for the development of all European art in the future, creating a number of standard examples (for example, the Parthenon and Venus de Milo). The Greeks created ideal examples of classical sculpture. Significant (but having much less influence on subsequent generations) was the genre of vase painting. Painting samples Ancient Greece not preserved.

Characteristics of the visual language — ideality of appearance, calculated anatomical canon, harmony and balance, golden ratio, taking into account optical distortions. Over the next centuries, art will several times turn to the heritage of Ancient Greece and draw ideas from it.

Ancient Rome

Ancient Roman art was influenced by both ancient Greek and local Italic Etruscan art. The most significant monuments of this period are powerful architectural structures (for example, the Pantheon), as well as carefully designed sculptural portraits. We also received a large number of picturesque frescoes.

Early Christian art adopted iconography and types from Roman architectural structures, significantly reworking them under the influence of a new ideology.

2. Middle Ages: V - XV (XVI) centuries.

The art of the Middle Ages is characterized by a decline in visual means compared to the previous era of antiquity. The onset of the Dark Ages, when a large number of both skills and monuments were lost, led to a greater primitivization of works of art.

An additional aspect is the priority of the spiritual rather than the physical, which led to a weakening of interest in material objects and to a more noticeable generalization and coarsening of works of art.

Byzantium

Byzantine mosaic (5th century)

Byzantine art was at first the heir to late Roman art, enriched by a rich Christian ideology. The characteristic features of the art of this era are sacralization, as well as the exaltation of the emperor. From new genres: excellent achievements in the genre of mosaics and icon painting, from old ones - in temple architecture.

Early Middle Ages

Art early Middle Ages (until about the 11th century) created in the Dark Ages, when the situation was complicated by the migrations of barbarian peoples across the territories of the former Roman Empire.

Almost all surviving monuments from this period are illuminated manuscripts, although architectural objects and small decorative items can also be found.

Romanica

Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries) continued until it was replaced by Gothic. This was a period of increasing European prosperity, and for the first time a pan-European style can be seen, consistently found from Scandinavia to Spain.

Painting of the crypt of the Basilica of St. Isidore

Characteristics: energetic and straight shapes, bright colors. The main genre is architecture (thick-walled, using arches and vaults), but stained glass and enamel work are also becoming an important genre. Sculpture is developing.

Gothic

Fragment of a stained glass window

Gothic (XIII-XVI years)- the next international style to sweep Europe. It originated in France as the next stage in the development of architectural techniques. The most recognizable Gothic detail is the pointed arch and stained glass. Sacred painting is actively developing.

Proto-Renaissance

In Italian culture XIII-XIV centuries Against the backdrop of the still strong Byzantine and Gothic traditions, features of a new art began to appear - the future art of the Renaissance. That is why this period of its history was called the Proto-Renaissance.

Fresco "Kiss of Judas", Giotto

There was no similar transition period in any of the European countries. In Italy itself, proto-Renaissance art existed only in Tuscany and Rome. Italian culture intertwined features of old and new. "The last poet of the Middle Ages" and the first poet new era Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) created the Italian literary language.

3. Revival: the beginning XV — 90s of the XVI centuries.

The advent of the Renaissance radically changes ideology. The sacred fades into the background, interest in the human personality and individuality is actively manifested (thanks to this, the portrait genre flourishes). Artists and sculptors look back at the art of antiquity and try to follow its standards and objectives.

There is a discovery of perspective construction, as well as chiaroscuro. Painters simultaneously combine high technicality and skill in depicting nature with humanistic ideals, belief in beauty and attempts to create ideally balanced harmonious works.

"Birth of Venus", Sandro Botticelli

Thanks to the appeal to antiquity, not only forgotten genres appear in art, but also characters — ancient gods, which become as popular as the depiction of Christian characters.

Late Renaissance (Mannerism)

Mannerism is the final stage of the Renaissance ( mid-16th - 90s of the 16th century), transitional to the Baroque era. Mannerism is characterized by a loss of Renaissance harmony, a crisis of personality, and a turn to darker, twisted or dynamic interpretations.

"Descent from the Cross" Jacopo Pontormo.

4. Modern times: XVII - early XIX bb .

Baroque

Baroque (XVII-XVIII centuries), which gravitated toward the solemn “grand style,” at the same time reflected ideas about the complexity, diversity, and variability of the world.

"Young Man with a Basket of Fruit", Caravaggio

The most character traits Baroque — catchy floridity and dynamism. The main directions, channels of the Baroque: verism (naturalistic authenticity and reduced, everyday themes, interpretation of the motif), classicism, “expressive baroque”. Baroque architecture is characterized by spatial scope, unity, and fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms.

Rococo

Rococo — art movement 18th century, basically courtly "cute" art.

"Dancing Camargo" by Nicola Lancret

Characteristic the desire for lightness, grace, sophistication and whimsical ornamental rhythm, fantastic ornaments, charming naturalistic details.

Classicism

Classicism arises in XVII century and develops in parallel with the Baroque.

Then it reappears during the period of the French Revolution (in Western historiography this period is sometimes called neoclassicism, since there was another classicism in France before the onset of the Baroque era. There was no such thing in Russia, and therefore it is customary to call it exclusively “classicism”). Was popular before early XIX century.

Cupid and Psyche, Antonio Canova

The style is characterized by adherence to the principles of ancient (Greek and Roman art): rationalism, symmetry, purposefulness and restraint, strict compliance of the work with its form.

Romanticism

Ideological and artistic direction late XVIII - 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries. As a style of creativity and thinking, it remains one of the main aesthetic and ideological models of the 20th century. Romanticism originated first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region.

"Wanderer Above the Sea of ​​Fog", Caspar David Friedrich,

Romanticism is an aesthetic revolution. It is characterized by an affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. It has spread to various spheres of human activity. In the 18th century, everything strange, fantastic, picturesque and existing in books and not in reality was called romantic.

Sentimentalism

The state of mind in Western European and Russian culture and the corresponding literary direction. Works written within this artistic movement focus on the reader's perception, that is, on the sensuality that arises when reading them. In Europe there was from the 20s to the 80s of the 18th century, V Russia — from the end XVIII to early XIX centuries.

Pre-Raphaelitism

Direction to English poetry and painting in second half of the 19th century, formed in the early 1850s with the aim of fighting against Victorian era conventions, academic traditions and blind imitation of classical models.

The name “Pre-Raphaelites” was supposed to denote a spiritual relationship with the Florentine artists of the early Renaissance, that is, the artists “before Raphael” and Michelangelo.

Historicism (eclecticism)

The direction in architecture that dominated in Europe and Russia in 1830s-1890s It is characterized by the use of elements of the so-called “historical” architectural styles (neo-Renaissance, neo-Baroque, neo-Rococo, neo-Gothic, neo-Russian style, neo-Byzantine style, Indo-Saracenic style, neo-Moorish style).

5. Modern times: second half of the 19th century and — today

Realism

An aesthetic position according to which the task of art is to capture reality as accurately and objectively as possible. Originated in second half of the 19th century and was widespread until the 20th.

"The Death of Mazzini", S. Lega

In the field of artistic activity, the meaning of realism is very complex and contradictory. Its boundaries are changeable and uncertain; stylistically it has many faces and many options.

Impressionism

Art direction last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which originated in France and then spread throughout the world, whose representatives sought to develop methods and techniques that made it possible to capture the most naturally and vividly real world in its mobility and variability, to convey your fleeting impressions.

"Impression. Rising Sun, Claude Monet

Usually the term “impressionism” refers to a direction in painting (but this is, first of all, a group of methods), although its ideas also found their embodiment in literature and music, where impressionism also appeared in a certain set of methods and techniques for creating literary and musical works, in which the authors sought to convey life in a sensual, direct form, as a reflection of their impressions.

Modernism and avant-garde

These directions in art XX century they sought to find something completely new, to establish unconventional principles in art, through the continuous renewal of artistic forms, as well as the conventionality (schematization, abstraction) of style.

Due to the fact that there are still no theories and typologies of modernism and avant-garde (avant-garde) as literary and artistic phenomena, the range of opinions about the relationship between these two concepts varies from their complete opposition to complete interchangeability.

“Icon” of the world avant-garde — “Black Square”, Kazimir Malevich

In general, modern times in art can be characterized as a desire for everything new and unconventional. There is a strong mixture of schools and styles.

The following styles also belong to the era of modern times:

• Modern
• Art Deco
• Post-Impressionism
• Fauvism
• Cubism
• Expressionism
• Surrealism
• Primitivism
• Pop Art

Lecture “Topic No. 2”

Epochs, styles, directions

A work of art is a form of existence of art. It reflects the world in all its complexity of diversity and aesthetic richness.

Artists* always strive to convey the world truthfully. In the process of creativity, a certain artistic method is born, so truth in art is not always identical to verisimilitude.

In the formation of artistic and figurative techniques and methods, many social and cultural prerequisites are involved, associated with ideas about truth, with the religious and ideological views of society, with the worldview of the artist himself.

The historically established structural uniformity of artistic techniques, artistic language, relationships between content and form, which in a given era unites the works of masters who worked in different types and genres of art, is calledstyle .

The word style can be used in a broad sense - lifestyle, playing style, clothing style, etc., and in a narrow sense - “style in art”.

In different historical eras, Style manifests itself in separate types, which are called current.

Social development occurs unevenly. If it is slow in nature, as in Antiquity, then the change in the system of artistic forms occurs very slowly over thousands of years, centuries, then such development is usually called an artistic era.

Later, from the 17th century. world public development is significantly accelerating, art is faced with diverse tasks, aggravation of social contradictions, so there is a rapid change of styles.

In the art of the 19th and 20th centuries, only individual stylistic trends appear; the ideological instability of society prevents the formation of unified styles, and rapidly changing directions emerge.

Primitive art (20,000 - 5,000 BC) developed in complete dependence on nature, on the everyday needs of man, and was associated with magic. Characteristic is the development of ceramics with regular shapes, ornaments, carvings, and realistic images of animals (rock paintings).

*The word “artists” is used in a broad sense, i.e. artists, architects, writers, etc. , i.e. creators of works of art.

:

Rock paintings depicting animals. Paintings in the caves of Lascaux (France), Altamira (Spain), Tassilin Ajer (North Africa).

Sculptural images of women, the so-called Paleolithic Venus.

Megalithic structures Stonehenge (England), Stone Grave (Ukraine).

Ancient despotism (the art of the interfluve and Ancient Egypt (5000 BC - VIII century BC)) represent an artistic era. During this period, many artistic discoveries took place, but the main thing that defines the era remains unchanged:

Complete submission to religion,

Development of funeral cults

Development of canons in all types of art,

Formation of the fundamentals of construction equipment,

Synthesis of arts in architecture,

gigantism.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Mesopotamia.

Bulls - I’m walking from the palace of Sargon II to Dur Shurrukin.

Harp with a bull's head from the royal tomb of Ur.

Gate of the goddess Ishtar. Babylon.

Ancient y Egypt:

Pyramids at Giza

Temples of Amon Ra in Karnak and Luxor

Abu Simbel Temple

Thutmose. Sculpture. Head of Queen Nefertiti

Sculpture of the royal scribe Kaya

Fayum portrait of a young man wearing a golden crown

Antiquity (art of Ancient Greece (VII-III century BC) and Ancient Rome(III century AD)) explained the world mythologically. It was both realistic and illusory - a fantastic view of the world. In art this is expressed in:

glorification of the ideal image

harmony of internal and external appearance

humanization of art

Sculpture becomes contemporary art. Ancient artists convey the image of a perfect person with the highest skill and realism. Sculptural portraiture developed in Ancient Rome.

Antiquity developed building systems that we still use today. In Ancient Greece, an order building system developed, a combination of columns and ceilings, and in Ancient Rome, based on the discovery of cement, a round arch and a dome were used. New types of public and engineering buildings were created.

:

Knossos Palace, Fr. Crete

Lion Gate, Mycenae

Ancient Greece:

Architectural ensemble of the Parthenon (main temples: Parthenon, Erechtheion).

Pergamon Altar.

Halicarnassus Mausoleum.

Phidias (sculptor). Sculpture of the Parthenon.

Phidias. Sculpture of Olympian Zeus.

Miron (sculptor). Discus thrower.

Polykleitos (sculptor). Spearman.

Sculpture. Venus de Milo.

Sculpture. Nike of Samothrace.

Sculpture. Laocoon.

Ancient Rome:

Pantheon in Rome (temple of all gods)

Colosseum, Flavian Amphitheater (Rome)

Pont Du Gard (France)

Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius

Trajan's Column (Rome)

Medieval art (V – XVI centuries) is subordinated to Christian ideology, filled with allegories and symbols. Characteristic is the synthesis of art subordinate to Christian liturgy. The current view was architecture.

The era is divided into two periods: Romanesque (XI - XII centuries) and Gothic (late XII - XIV centuries)

Romanesque architecture uses design features of the architecture of Ancient Rome (Roma). Romanesque cathedrals are built in the form of basilicas, they are heavy with dark interiors, with two round towers on the facade of the building. The sculpture decorating the cathedral is planar, schematic (usually a relief), located mainly above the portals.

Gothic art - This is a qualitative leap in the development of medieval art. The cathedral, while maintaining the shape of a basilica, is now being built on the basis of a new frame system. The essence of which is that a brick frame is built using a pointed arch. The spaces between the pillars - supports (buttresses) are filled with windows - stained glass. Therefore, the interiors become as if permeated with light. The building is richly decorated with sculpture and architectural decoration. The façade is flanked by towers that are now square in plan. The façade of the cathedral, the only real wall, is richly decorated with sculpture. Now very realistic, round sculpture predominates. Above the main portal there is a round carved window called the “rose”.

Late Gothic (XV - XVI centuries) is distinguished by the architectural decoration of the facade - it resembles tongues of flame, the rose window disappears. This kind of Gothic was called flaming.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Worms Cathedral (Germany) – Romanesque architecture

Notre Dame de Paris (Paris) - Gothic

Cologne Cathedral (Germany) – late

St. Anne's Cathedral (Vilnius, Lithuania) – flaming

After the collapse of the Great Roman Empire in the 4th century AD, it was divided into the Western Empire, with its capital in Rome, and the Eastern Empire, with its capital in Byzantium. In the West, Catholicism and, accordingly, Romanesque and Gothic culture developed. And in Eastern (it became known as Byzantium) Orthodoxy spread. In Byzantium, the entire culture was also subordinated to religious ideology. Byzantium existed from the 4th to the 15th centuries. but art reached its greatest flowering during the reign of Justinian (VI century AD). In architecture, centric, domed, and later cross-domed cathedrals corresponded to Orthodoxy. Monumental painting (mosaics and frescoes) and easel painting (icon painting) are developing. Subject to religious dogma, painting was strictly canonized.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Sophia of Constantinople (Istanbul)

Church of San Appolinare (Ravenna)

Church of San Vitale (Ravenna)

Old Russian state (X - XVII centuries) adopted Orthodoxy, respectively, the cross-domed system of temple buildings and the picturesque canon. But in the process of development it developed unique national features. A national type of temple building is emerging: cross-domed, cuboid with wavy or keel-shaped walls (zakomar). The domes are raised on high drums.

In strictly canonized painting, the Slavic type of face predominates, Russian saints appear, national ornaments appear, and the entire characteristic of the images becomes more humane.

The influence of folk architecture was very strongly manifested in the transfer of artistic expressions, decor, and color into stone construction and was called “patterned” (XVI-XVII centuries). Folk technical techniques were embodied in the appearance of stone and tented temples.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Sofia Kyiv, Kyiv. (13 domes)

Demetrius Cathedral, Vladimir. (1 dome)

Church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, Chernigov. (1 dome)

Aristotle Fiorovanti. Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. (5 domes)

Icon of Our Lady of Vladimir.

St. Basil's Cathedral (Protection on the Moat), Moscow.

Icon of the Intercession with a portrait of B. Khmelnitsky.

Oranta. Mosaic of Sophia of Kyiv.

A. Rublev. Trinity (icon).

Renaissance (Renessanse) as the basis of the ancient heritage at a new historical stage arose in Italy, here at the end of the 13th – 16th centuries the humanistic ideals of antiquity were revived. Hence the name of the era “Renaissance”. The Renaissance claims that the world is knowable, and man is a titanic personality capable of changing the world. Artists discovered the individuality of man, so the portrait appeared; They developed the theory and practice of perspective, artistically mastered the anatomy of the human body, developed the harmony of composition, used color effects, the depiction of nudes and the female body was a visible argument in the fight against medieval asceticism.

In the sculpture, the main image is the shuttle, and not the deity. The main types of sculpture have emerged: monumental and decorative. After antiquity, the equestrian statue is being revived again.

In architecture, along with the requirement of ancient forms (the use of arcades, the Greek portico), the development of its own artistic language occurs. Created new type public buildings, city palace (parade ground) and country houses - villas..

Major monuments and leading artists :

Giotto di Bonde. Murals of the Chapel del Arena, Padua.

Botticelli. Birth of Venus.

Leonardo da Vinci. Jokona. Mona Lisa.

Leonardo da Vinci. Madonna of the Rocks.

Leonardo da Vinci. Painting " last supper"(Milan).

Rafael Santi. Sistine Madonna.

Rafael Santi. Murals in the Vatican (Vatican Stanza, Rome).

Michelangelo. Sculpture. David.

Michelangelo. Ceiling paintings of the Sistine Chapel (Vatican)

Giorgione. Judith.

Giorgione. Storm.

Titian. Portrait of Pope Paul III with his nephews.

Titian. Young man with a glove.

Titian. Assunta.

Veronese. Marriage in Cana of Galilee.

Brunelleschi. Church of Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence.

Palladio. Villa near Rome.

Donattello. Equestrian statue of Gattamelata, Padua.

In the Nordic countries (Netherlands, Germany, France) the ideas of the Renaissance penetrated from the end of the 15th century. The uniqueness of national cultures, medieval traditions, combined with the ideas of the Italian Renaissance, have developed a unique style, which is commonly called Northern Renaissance.

The 17th century was a time of intensive formation of national states, national cultures, the establishment of absolute power in some countries and the emergence of bourgeois relations in others. It became impossible to express the complexity and inconsistency of the era in one artistic formula, therefore in the 17th century a variety of artistic forms arose, i.e. styles. In the 17th century, styles appeared: classicism, baroque, realism.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Durer. Portrait of a Venetian.

Durer. Four Apostles.

Durer. Graphic illustrations for "Apocalypse"

Van Eyck. Madonna of Chancellor Rollin.

Van Eyck. Ghent Altarpiece.

Limburg brothers. Miniatures of “The Magnificent Book of Hours of the Duke of Berry.”

Bruegel. Blind.

Bosch. Ship of fools.

Baroque - the most common style of the 17th century. This is art built on contrasts, asymmetry, a tendency towards grandeur, and overload with decorative motifs.

In painting and sculpture characteristic:

diagonal compositions

image of exaggerated movement

illusory image

black and white contrasts

bright color, picturesque spot (in painting)

In architecture:

bent, volute-shaped forms

asymmetry

use of color

abundance of decor

the desire to deceive the eye and go beyond the real space: mirrors, enfilades, ceiling lamps depicting the sky.

ensemble organization of space

synthesis of arts

the contrast of elaborately decorated architecture and the clear geometry of gardens and parks, or city streets.

Baroque triumphed in those countries where feudalism and the Catholic Church dominated. These are the following countries: Italy, Spain, Flanders, later Germany and in the 18th century - Russia. (in architecture)

Major monuments and leading artists :

Caravaggio. Lutenist.

Rubens. Perseus and Andromeda.

Rubens. Self-portrait with Isabella Brant.

Bernini. Sculpture "Ecstasy of Saint Teresa"

Bernini. Sculpture "Apollo and Daphne"

Jules Hardouin Mansart. Palace of Versailles (France).

Bernini. St. Peter's Square in Rome.

Classicism (Lat. exemplary). French absolutism of the 17th century. regulated life, enclosing it within the strict framework of statehood. The hero of classicism is not free in his actions, but is subject to strict norms, social duty, humility of feelings with reason, adherence to abstract norms of virtue - this is the aesthetic ideal of classicism.

The classicism of the 17th century was a model for itself. chose Greek antiquity. IN architecture used Greek order. The sculpture contains ideal mythological images. In painting:

stern majesty

sublime beauty of images

horizontal or side-by-side composition

careful selection of details and colors

standard images, theatricality of gestures and feelings

Major monuments and leading artists :

Poussin. Arcadian shepherds.

Poussin. Seasons.

Lorren. The Rape of Europa.

Dutch culture. In the 17th century In the countries where capitalism was emerging, there was a struggle for national independence. The victory of the burghers determined the character of Dutch culture, the birth of realism, and the emergence of independent genres of easel painting (portrait, everyday genre, still life).

Major monuments and leading artists :

Holland XVII :

Rembrandt. Self-portrait with Saskia on her lap

Rembrandt. Return of the Prodigal Son.

Vermar of Delft. A girl reading a letter.

Vermar of Delft. Geographer.

Terborch. A glass of lemonade.

Hals. Gypsy.

Spain XVII :

Velazquez. Spinners.

Velazquez. Portrait of Pope Innok X

Velazquez. Surrender of Breda

Velazquez. Portrait of Inflanta Margherita

El Greco. Funeral of Count Orgaz

Rococo. With the beginning of the 18th century, a crisis of French absolutism emerged. Strict etiquette is replaced by an atmosphere of frivolity and pleasure. An art emerges that can satisfy the most elaborate and refined tastes - this is Rococo. This is a completely secular art, the main theme is love and erotic scenes, favorite heroines are nymphs, bacchantes, mythological and biblical themes of love.

This art of miniature forms found its main expression in painting and applied art. Light colors, fractional and openwork forms, complex patterns, asymmetry, creating a feeling of unease.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Watteau. Society in the park.

Boucher. Diana's bathing.

Boucher. Portrait of Madame Pampadour.

Fragonard. Swing.

Fragonard. A kiss on the sly.

Education. Since the 40s, a new social stratum of the emerging bourgeoisie, the so-called “third estate,” has appeared in France. This is what determined the development of the new philosophical and artistic movement, the Enlightenment. It originated in the depths of philosophy, and its meaning was that all people from birth have equal opportunities and only education and enlightenment (i.e. training) can distinguish them from the general mass of equal members of society.

The main genre is the everyday picture, depicting the modest life of the third estate; integrity and hard work are glorified.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Chardin. Cook.

Dreams. Spoiled child.

Houdon. Sculpture. Voltaire in a chair.

In England, the Enlightenment originated in literature at the end of the 17th century. Therefore, everyday painting becomes narrative, i.e. artists and graphic artists create whole series of paintings that consistently tell about the fate of the heroes and are of a moral and edifying nature. The English Enlightenment was characterized by the development of portraiture.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Hagarth. Fashionable marriage.

Gainsborough. Portrait of the Duchess de Beaufort.

Russian Enlightenment developed in the 18th – early 19th centuries and is associated with ideological and philosophical movements. Russian Enlightenmentists: philosophers - F. Prokopovich, A. Kantemir, M. Lomonosov and writers - Tatishchev, Fonvizin, Radishchev believed in the limitless mind of man, in the possibility of harmonizing society through the development of the creative principles of each individual, through education. At this time, home education is rapidly developing in Russia, new educational institutions are opening, and newspaper, magazine and book publishing is developing.

All this served educational purposes, the upbringing of the individual - the “son of the Fatherland”; and therefore the development of the portrait.

But the Russian Enlightenment also had an anti-serfdom orientation, because They quite rightly believed that peasants (serfs) were also endowed with a wealth of mental and emotional abilities.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Argunov. Portrait of P. Zhemchugova.

Nikitin. Portrait of a floor hetman.

Livitsky. Portraits of Smolyanok.

Borovikovsky. Portrait of Lopukhina.

Rokotov. Portrait of Struyskaya.

Shubin. Portrait of Golitsyn.

Falcone. Monument to Peter I in St. Petersburg (“Bronze Horseman”)

But creating ideal images of peasants, the art of the Enlighteners of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. merged with sentimentalism .

Major monuments and leading artists :

Tropinin. Portrait of A. Pushkin.

Tropinin. Goldsmith.

Venetsianov. Spring.

Venetsianov. On the arable land.

Baroque in Russian and Ukrainian architecture. With the advent of absolutist monarchies, including in the Vatican - the center of the capitalist church, the pomp, splendor, and theatricality of court art intensified, which contributed to the development of baroque in the architecture of Italy and France in the 18th century, in Russia (18th century), Ukraine (“Cossack baroque ") second half of the 17th - 18th centuries.

Features of Baroque architecture:

synthesis of arts in architecture

ensemble (a palace in a park with big amount pavilions)

increase in decorativeness, stucco decorations, sculpture

the use of order elements: bent pediments, bunches of pilasters or semi-columns, niches that completely cover the wall and enhance the light and shadow contrast

color use: turquoise wall, white architectural details, gold molding

interiors: lush decorative theatricality, enfilades, painting with illusory effects, use of mirrors

Ukrainian or “Cossack Baroque”- This is a completely independent stage in the development of European Baroque. There is no palace pomp in it. Bent pediments, “creases” in the roofs and domes of churches are used. Wall decor is a flat carving, white on a white or light blue wall background. Instead of palaces, houses of the Cossack elite, offices, and collegiums are built. And the religious architecture continues the traditions of folk wooden architecture (three-domed cathedrals).

Major monuments and leading artists :

Rastrelli. Winter Palace (St. Petersburg)

Rastrelli. St. Andrew's Church (Kyiv)

Grigorovich Barsky. St. Nicholas Church on the Embankment (Kyiv)

Kovnir. Bell tower at the Far Caves (Kievo-Pechersk Lavra)

Kovnir. Intercession Cathedral in Kharkov.

In the last third of the 18th century, a bourgeois revolution took place in France. Its tasks and requirements for citizens of society coincided with the heroic-civic ideals of Roman antiquity. In Ancient Roman society, the individual, his freedom and even life are sacrificed to society. The story was interpreted as the act of an outstanding personality. It is the hero, the outstanding personality, who is the bearer of the moral values ​​of society. This became the model for artists of the late 18th century. and developed into the last great pan-European style.

Classicism (in the works of J. David it is customary to say “revolutionary classicism”).

Painting is characterized by the artistic techniques of 17th century classicism. But the historical picture reflects civic and journalistic themes, and the portraits, in accordance with the ideals of the revolution, reflected the personality, the image of a contemporary of great changes.

From the beginning of the 19th century. classicism in painting loses its citizenship, only the external side remains: the strict logic of the composition of details, colors, statuesque figures. Thus, classicism in painting turns into academicism.

Major monuments and leading artists :

David. Death of Marat

David. Oath of the Horatii

Engr. Odalisque

Classicism in architecture. In France at the end of the 18th century, and in Russia from the beginning of the 19th century, the classicism style dominates in architecture. The style was formed under the influence of the ideas of patriotism and citizenship based on the use of ancient samples. Compositional techniques:

symmetry; usually the main building with a portico in the center and two wings

the sculpture is concentrated at the main entrance - the portico. A sculptural image of a chariot drawn by four or six horses driven by the goddess of Glory is often used.

Classicism is associated with the growth of cities and the need to organize their space. In Russia, classicism appears as the idea of ​​a universal style that creates uniform construction techniques; the use of local materials, plaster, creates new types of buildings: gymnasiums, universities, trading houses, triumphal arches, the type of noble estate.

The architectural style of late classicism is called empire style- completing the development of style. Along with the use of ancient forms (both Greek and Roman), stylized Egyptian motifs appear, especially in interiors.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Russia. Building General Staff(Saint Petersburg)

Voronikhin. Kazan Cathedral (St. Petersburg)

Bozhenov. Pashkov house. Moscow.

Baretti. University building. Kyiv.

Soufflot. Pantheon (Paris)

Romanticism. The Great French Bourgeois Revolution ended with the restoration of the monarchy. The style of romanticism (early 19th century) was the result of people's disappointment in the possibility of a reasonable transformation of society based on the principles of freedom, equality, and fraternity. The desire to rise above the prose of life, to escape from the oppressive everyday life, which is why artists are so interested in exotic subjects, the dark fantasy of the Middle Ages, and the theme of the struggle for freedom. Artists are interested in the ancient world of man, his individual exclusivity. The romantic hero is always portrayed in emergency situations, usually this is a proud, lonely hero, experiencing bright and strong passions. This is expressed in the expressive and sensual power of color, where color begins to dominate the design.

Painting is characterized by:

nervous excitement, composition expression

strong contrasts of color spots

exotic themes, gothic symbolism

software works, i.e. based on historical and literary subjects

Major monuments and leading artists :

Gericault. Raft "Medusa".

Delacroix. Freedom at the Barricades.

Ryud. Sculptural relief "Marseillaise" on Arc de Triomphe in Paris.

Goya. Mahi.

Goya. Portrait of the king's family.

This article will discuss the main stages of world history: from ancient times to our time. We will briefly review the main features of each stage and identify the events/reasons that marked the transition to the next stage of development.

Epochs of human development: general structure

Scientists usually distinguish five main stages in the development of mankind, and the transition from one to another was marked by fundamental changes in the structure of human society.

1. Primitive society (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic)
2. Ancient world
3. Middle Ages
4. New time
5. Modern times

Primitive society: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic

Paleolithic- Old Stone Age, the longest stage. The boundaries of the stage are considered to be the use of primitive stone tools (about 2.5 million years ago) and before the beginning of agriculture (about 10 thousand years BC). People lived mainly by gathering and hunting.

Mesolithic- Middle Stone Age, from 10 thousand years BC to 6 thousand years BC. Covers the period from the last ice age until the world sea level rises. At this time, stone tools become smaller, which makes their scope wider. Fishing is developing more actively, presumably at this time the domestication of the dog as a hunting assistant took place

Neolithic- the new Stone Age does not have clear time boundaries, since different cultures passed through this stage in different time. Characterized by the transition from gathering to production, i.e. agriculture and hunting, the Neolithic ends with the beginning of metal processing, i.e. the beginning of the Iron Age.

Ancient world

This is the period between primitive society and the Middle Ages in Europe. Although the period of the ancient world can include civilizations in which writing arose, for example, Sumerian, and this is about 5.5 thousand years BC, usually the term “ancient world” or “classical antiquity” means ancient Greek and Roman history that runs from about 770 BC to about 476 AD (the year the Roman Empire fell).

The ancient world is famous for its civilizations - Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, the Persian Empire, the Arab Caliphate, the Chinese Empire, the Mongol Empire.

The main features of the ancient world are a sharp leap in culture, associated primarily with the development of agriculture, the formation of cities, the army, and trade. If in primitive society There were cults and deities, then during the Ancient World religion developed and philosophical movements emerged.

Middle Ages or Middle Ages

Regarding the time frame, scientists disagree, since the end of this period in Europe did not mean its end throughout the world. Therefore, it is generally accepted that the Middle Ages lasted from approximately the 5th century (collapse of the Roman Empire) AD until the 15-16th or even the 18th century (technological breakthrough)

Distinctive features of the period are the development of trade, lawmaking, stable development of technology, and the strengthening of the influence of cities. At the same time, there was a transition from slavery to feudalism. Sciences develop, the power of religion increases, which leads to crusades and other wars based on religion.

New time

The transition to a new time is characterized by a qualitative leap that humanity has made in the field of technology. Thanks to this breakthrough, agricultural civilizations, whose prosperity was built on the presence of a large territory that made it possible to stock up on provisions, are moving to industry, to fundamentally new conditions of life and consumption. At this time, Europe, which became the source of this technological breakthrough, is rising, a humanistic attitude towards the world is developing, and there is an active rise in science and art.

Modern times

Modern times include the period since 1918, i.e. since the First World War. The period is characterized by an increasing pace of globalization, the increasing role of information in the life of society, two world wars and many revolutions. In general, modern times are characterized as a stage in which individual states realize their global influence and the planetary scale of existence. Not only the interests of individual countries and rulers, but also global existence come to the fore.

You may also be interested in other articles

Ancient world (1st century BC - 5th century AD).

Music in primitive society : 1). ritual nature (accompanied rituals and ceremonies of a peaceful or military nature); music at an early stage of development was predominantly rhythmic and appealing in nature. 2).syncretistic character (indissoluble unity of singing, dance and music).

Music in ancient states played a significant role in ceremonial rituals (initiation as rulers, priests, wars) and secular ones (accompanying festivities and funeral processions). The important role of music in ancient states is evidenced, first of all, by frescoes depicting musicians and dancers, and mentions in literary sources of those times.

Egypt.

"Passion Mysteries"- the highest achievement of serious musical art Egypt, telling about Gods and heroes, of an instructive nature. Tools: brass, percussion, strings (ancestors of the harp).

Greece.

Music functions: 1). accompaniment of rituals; 2). accompaniment of theatrical performances; 3). accompaniment of reading poetic texts; 4). music as medicine of the spirit (certain modes educated the soul in a certain way); 5). music as part of mathematical science (distances between planets were measured at intervals).

The greatest music theorist of antiquity:PYTHAGORAS- invented the monochord (6th century BC) - a one-string instrument for measuring the pitch of sound. Pythagoras developed the theory "harmony of the heavenly spheres" and the aesthetic impact of music on humans.

Ancient theater - the most important cultural achievement of Greece, which gave rise to many theatrical and musical traditions. Features of theatrical performances in Greece: A). texts were recited CHANTING = later opera emerged from the revival of this tradition; b). played only by men who used masks And Caturny- high platform shoes; V). the names of theater venues gave rise to modern theatrical terms; G). The seats for spectators were located in a circle with each next row elevated above the previous one.

Theatrical ancient terms:

orchestra(the platform where the choir stood commenting on the events) - orchestra;

skena(tent where the actors changed clothes) - stage.

Famous composers of tragedies (they were also directors and, often, actors of their plays):Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. Created a category catharsis - purification of the soul through suffering.

Famous comedy composers:Aristotle, Archilochus.

In antiquity, tragedies were much more popular as they carried high moral ideals.

The paradox of ancient musical art: music contains the most references in literary and historical sources, many sculptural and fresco images of people playing music, and musical notes there are practically no samples left. Those that have been deciphered do not give any idea of ​​the greatness of the musical art in Greece.

Middle Ages (5th - 16th centuries).

Worldview, psychology, ideals.

Worldview ordinary people developed in line with the sentiments imposed by the church. Medieval man felt himself insignificant before the power of the punishing Creator, felt his endless sinfulness, which was strengthened by the ministers of the church in their own interests (monetary exactions).

Attitude to life: as a test, suffering, anticipation of the Last Judgment.

Characteristic features of medieval art: 1). asceticism, weak emotionality (especially in the first half of medieval art); 2). symbolism, convention (this is especially strongly reflected in icon painting of the early stages of the Middle Ages) 3). irreconcilable antitheses (good-evil, God - devil); 4). the absence of personality as a creative ideal - everything is created in the name of God (this is why for a very long time the music and painting of the Middle Ages were anonymous, i.e. without specifying the authors); 5).introducing a person to comprehend the mysteries of divine existence -the task of the medieval creator(this influenced the strict selection of genres and means of expression0.

Music in the church.

Strict style - a rigid system of composing a melody (even fourths and leaps at these intervals were considered dissonances for a long time were prohibited). Singing in church remained for a long time monodic, i.e. monophonic. Later, with the development of musical art, counterpoints, suggesting the presence of several voices and their rearrangement. The earliest form of polyphony is organum(late 9th century, masters of this genre - Leonin and Perotin).

Gregorian chant - the most important meta of the Middle Ages, reflecting the unity of consciousness in the face of God. GH represents male choral singing in unison of a detached nature on Latin(for a long time, church services were held only in this language, incomprehensible to ordinary people). The GHs were created from the many chants existing at that time, ordered by the pope Gregory 1 at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries.

Sequence “Dies irae” (“Day of Wrath”) - a genre of medieval monody, expanding strict church melodies. The systematization of sequences is attributed toNotker Zaika."Dies irae" appeared around the 13th century as a reflection of the peak of the Middle Ages worldview with the expectation of the Last Judgment and terrible retribution for sins. This sequence was very often quoted in world musical literature either as a sign of the Middle Ages, or as a symbol of the inevitable, inevitable (Rachmaninov, Tchaikovsky) or even demonic (Berlioz, Symphony Fantastique, 5th movement, Sabbath of Witches).

Notation.

For a long time, chorales were not written down, existing in the oral tradition. Then they began to be used neuromas, denoting not a note, but an entire song. Gradually, rulers began to appear, the number of which varied from 1 to 18. The staff was improved in the 11th century Guido Aretinsky, which, instead of many options, legalized 4 lines.

The most important genre of the late Middle Ages is Mass( the first one that has come down to us is 1364. G. de Machaut) - a cyclic vocal or vocal-instrumental work based on the texts of the Catholic service of the same name. The 5 parts of the mass are ordinariumand are binding and unchangeable. Parts dedicated to certain holidays and resurrections constituteproprium- variable part of the mass.Proprium parts: 1). Kyrie eleison (Kyrie eleison - “Lord, have mercy”);2). Gloria (Gloria - “Glory”);3). Gredo (Credo - “I Believe”);4). Sanctus, Benedictus (Sanctus, Benedictus - “Holy, Blessed”);5). Agnus Dei (Agnus Dei - “Lamb of God”). The genre of the mass has reached high perfection in creativityO.Lasso And D. Palestrino.

Music in a medieval castle (courtly culture).

Addressed the person, cultivated admiration for Beautiful Lady(the image is often fictitious, collective). Vocal and instrumental genres developed in line with secular castle art. Courtly love(“courteous”) - implied compliance with certain rules of versification, behavior and musical accompaniment.

Genres of courtly culture(poetic and musical): 1). canzone(a type of lyric poem); 2). servera(song about knightly deeds); 3). alba(song at dawn); 4). pasturella or pastourel(song in the lap of nature, praising simple love shepherdesses); 5). ballata(song epic - narrative content); 6). Rondo (round dance song).

The art of vagantes, troubadours and trouvères.

Art de trobar (the art of inventing) - the art of free love singers, which originated in Provence in the 11th and 12th centuries.Troubadours were often wealthy people (such as knights) who traveled around native land and composed songs (albs, canzones, etc.) in honor of the Beautiful Lady. Some troubadours were of humble origin and made a living by performing their songs.Trouvères(from root trover - find, invent) appeared in northern France in the 13th century. About 2000 songs have survived, some of the most famous composers of love songs are known, for example,Adam de la Al. In Germany the singers of love were calledMinnesingers.In addition to the theme of love, the work of these singers also contained moral and edifying motives. The Minnesingers establishedsinging competition (meistersang), who demonstrated their vocal and poetic skills. The competition between German singers was reflected in his operaR. Wagner “The Mastersingers of Nuremberg”. History knows the names of such German Minnesingers asTannhäuser(Wagner has an opera of the same name),Wolfram von Eschenbach, Walter von Vogelweide.

In addition to troubadours and minnesingers, there were wandering singers of a different nature - these werepeople from the people, whose art was highly social and highly controversial, condemned politics and the church, the texts of these traveling artists often contained frivolous, vulgar subjects, which can be explained by the origin of these artists and the fact that they worked for the needs of a low-level public. In different countries, these traveling artists were called differently:stilettos(Igrets) in Germany,jugglers in England, buffoonsin Russia. Often a generalized term is used for these musicians -VAGANTS, denoting wandering singers and compilers of free poetic texts. Frequently, the vagrants became half-educated students (schoolchildren) who could not pass difficult exams and dropped out of universities, went on wanderings, earning their bread by teaching the wisdom they had acquired (Latin, mathematics) to those who could pay. But the vagantes could also steal, deceive and kill, depending on how strong the moral foundations of each of these representatives were. Excommunicated or fled monks and impoverished nobles also became vagrants. Thus, the contingent was predominantly intellectual and observing the seamy side of life - the greed and deceit of church ministers, racial unrest. The life of many brave vagrants ended either in prison or at the stake, as, for example,Hugh of Orleans.

Famous works based on Vagant texts:

“On the French Side”, arranged by D. Tukhmanov;

“Carmina Burana” by K. Orff.

Renaissance (15th - 16th centuries; in Italy - from the 14th century).

Worldview, psychology, subject of revival.

Revival of ancient forms of art (sculpture, painting, architecture). Close attention to the person = greater psychology in paintings and sculptures, greater accuracy in conveying anatomy and perspective. Time of great discoveries (H. Columbus, Magellan), formation of a European nation.

Ars nova art. GREAT NAMES:

Painting, sculpture, architecture:

Bernini, Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael Santi, Michelangelo Buanorotti, Jan van Eyck, P. Veronese, Giotto, Lucas Cranach, A. Durer, Titian, I.Bosch.

Literature, poetry:

Dante("The Divine Comedy"), Petrarch(sonnets), Boccacio (free plays), E. Rotterdam(“In Praise of Stupidity”), T. More (poetry), F. Rabelais(“Gargantua and Pantagruel”), Lope de Vega (plays, theater arts).

Music has acquired its own meaning ceasing to be only applied (i.e., to accompany festivals and rituals), music began to appear on its own. As a form of professional art.

The flourishing of Renaissance polyphony in the works of composers of the Dutch school - F. Landino, G. Dufay, Okegema, J. Depres, Obrechta.

Development instrumental performance, development of genres only for instrumental playing (viol, lute).

Genres of secular musical art:

madrigals, chanson, villanelles, frottolas, ballads, motets.

An unusual composer of the Renaissance - Gesualdo da Venosa(late 16th - early 17th century), who created a complex chromatic style and bold tonal juxtapositions that reflected the contradictory moods of the composer's musical works. Venosa is the greatest master of madrigal (songs in the native language). The dark story of his murder of his wife and child is connected with him, after which the composer committed suicide. The Soviet composer based his opera on this story. A. Schnittke (opera “Gesualdo”).

Baroque (2nd half of the 17th - first half of the 18th century).

The meaning of the term Baroque.

Translated from Portuguese - “irregularly shaped pearl” - bizarre, strange = invention of new genres and instruments, detailing the nuances of music.

Worldview, psychology.

Characteristic features of the time: 1). “The connecting thread broke for days. How can I connect their fragments?..” ( Shakespeare,“Hamlet”) = “torn” picture of the world (invention microscope And telescope expanded people's understanding of the world); 2). acceleration of the pace of life (God is an eternal watchmaker; added tempo dynamic notation into works; Madonnas in the paintings do not sit, but “float” in chairs); 3). time is understood as alternation contrasting processes; 4). mixing of tragic and comic, violation of the laws of ancient Greek tragedy(Shakespeare's plays, for example. Tragedies always contain comic farce, and comedies have seriousness); 5).tendency to violation of canons, ingenuity; 6). freedom in interpretation of any genre.

Features of musical art.

1). destruction of ideas about the logic of old voice guidance, the introduction of parallelisms, tritones, unexpected transitions into distant tonalities (especially in music J.S.Bach).

2). development polyphonic art (in translation - polyphony) - a type of music in which each of the voices has a certain independent trajectory of movement, and at the same time, obeys certain rules counterpoint essays;

3). music is proclaimed an independent art.

Composers: J.S.Bach, G.F. Handel(Germany); G. Caccini, K. Monteverdi, O.Chesti (Italy); earlier polyphonist composers: Gabrieli, Frescobaldi, Kuhnau, Buxtehude, Pachebel.

Genres of musical works:

1). fugue(translated as “running”) is a genre of polyphonic music in which a certain number of voices (from 3 to 10) consistently carry out a theme, and then begin to rearrange themselves relative to each other according to the rules of contrapuntal technique;

2). toccata(from “toccare” - to strike) - a genre of prelude-improvisational nature, often serving as an introduction to a strict part of a work (for example, a fugue);

3). invention (translated(“invent”, “invent”) - free name for plays of free-imitative construction;

4). opera(translated as “work”, “creation”) is a genre of performing arts that combines singing, instrumental performance, ballet, decorative and production skills.

5). suite(translated as “row”, “sequence”) - a sequence of mandatory (4 ancient dances) and optional plays;

6). oratorio(translated as eloquence) - a monumental work for a choir, soloists and orchestra on a specific plot basis, intended for concert performance;

7). cantata - a composition for solo singers, orchestra and, possibly, choir, consisting of completed numbers-episodes, intended for concert performance. Cantatas are smaller than oratorios in terms of the scale of the plot and the duration in time;

8). sonata(translated as “to sound”) - in the Baroque era - any instrumental work for four instruments with an obligatory keyboard playing the basso continua part;

9). concert(translated as “competition”, “competition”) - a virtuoso work for orchestra and soloist (in the Baroque era, various orchestra groups competed - large and small, not all composers had a pronounced solo part of the soloist),

Musical instruments:

clavichord, harpsichord, violin(Amati, Guarneri, Stradivarius), viola, cello.

Classicism (2nd half of the 18th century - 1st half of the 19th century).

A trend that developed in France and has become leading for this country and Germany.

Worldview, psychology.

Reason is at the forefront of everything. The desire for rational resolution of conflicts, edification in plays and literary works (a return to the ancient forms of harmony in plays). New forms of city design as a reflection of the new psychology: straight paths, bushes trimmed to certain geometric shapes, etc.

Appearance encyclopedists(J.-J. Rousseau, D. Diderot etc.), who systematized enormous knowledge in the first encyclopedias.

Features of musical art.

Orderliness of the form of the main genres, bringing their diversity to a common standard. Classic - translated as “exemplary”.

Active development of instrumental genres.

Domination sonata form - one of the most complex musical forms, comparable in dramatic complexity to a novel. Sonata form presupposes the presence exposition, development And reprises, in which the display, development and return of themes to their original tone occurs.

Genres:

1). symphony(translated as “consonance”) is usually a 4-part cycle for a symphony orchestra, in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

2). sonata(translated as “to sound”) - A 3-part work for piano or for solo instrument(s) and piano, in which at least one of the movements is written in sonata form.

3). quartet(translated as “fourth”) - a 4-part work for 4 instruments (most often strings - violin, viola, cello, double bass), in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

4). concert(translated as “competition”, “competition”) is a 3-part virtuoso work for orchestra and soloist, in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

5). theme with variations - a genre designed to demonstrate the virtuoso mastery of a composer or performer in handling a theme (composers or performers often improvised at concerts on a theme given by the audience). The theme could be borrowed from any composition (even from an opera), either one’s own or someone else’s.

Composers:

D. Scarlatti (early classicism), J. Haydn("father" of the genres symphony, sonata and quartet - i.e., he brought these genres into an exemplary, classical form), W.Mozart,L.van Beethoven.

Romanticism (2nd half of the 19th century).

Worldview, psychology.

1). A romantic is a person with a heightened perception of events in the outside world, vulnerable, sensitive, prone to dramatization or idealization of events.

2). Contradiction of the internal and external worlds;

3). Feeling of loneliness;

4). Feeling of hostility from the outside world;

5). Admiration for nature, endowing it with animated qualities;

6). Interest in folk culture (arrangement of folk melodies, use of folk texts).

Features of musical art.

1). increased emotionality of music or its meditative and reflective nature;

2). significant connection with literary and artistic images(from program headings to leitmotifs with specific figurative expressions);

3). tendency to choose small forms (impromptu, musical moments, eco-sess) = confidence in the statement, intended for a small circle of the closest, understanding people;

4). a sense of improvisation;

5). complex emotional and dramatic basis of music;

6). complication of texture (often mixed type with several solo voices in the form of dialogue - Schumann, Chopin) and harmony (transitions to distant tonalities, complication of the composition of harmonic functions).

Writers:

G. Heine, E. Hoffman, V. Hugo, O. Balzac, A. Dumas.

Composers:

Early Romanticism: K.-M. von Weber, F. Mendelson, F. Schubert, G. Rossini.

Mature romanticism:R.Schubert, F. Chopin, B. Smetana, R. Wagner, G. Verdi.

Late Romanticism:A. Dvorak, R. Wagner, G. Verdi, G. Mahler, G. Puccini.

Multi-style (twentieth century).

Worldview, psychology.

1. socio-historical cataclysms (World Wars, revolutions);

2. NTHP(scientific and technical progress);

3. multiplicity of worldviews;

4. pluralism - permissiveness; everything is relative, even the eternal categories of goodness, beauty and truth = cynicism, cruelty of perception;

5. general acceleration of the pace of life.

The difference between directions and style: style manifests itself in all types of art, direction- in one or more (for example, in literature and painting). Style has a more comprehensive meaning than a direction and can give a name to an entire era (for example, the Middle Ages and Baroque).

Features of musical art.

1. close connection of all types of art, the transition of the properties of one art into the properties of another(for example, symbolist poets often called their poems music or musical genres);

2. transformation and rethinking (change) of musical genres;

3. invention of new genres and techniques.

Composers:

Foreign:

C.Debussy, M.Ravel, A. Schoenberg, A. Berg, A.Webern, K.Orff, B.Bartok, D.Millo, F. Poulenc, J. Taillefer, P. Hindemith, P. Boulez, D. Lighetti, K. Penderecki.

Domestic:

S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, G. Sviridov, V. Gavrilin, A. Schnittke, S. Gubaidulina, Ustvolskaya.

Modern times (21st century, Ural and Russian composers):

O. Viktorova, V. Yakimovsky, O. Paiberdin, V. Kobekin, A. Zhemchuzhnikov, D. Pavlov, L. Tabachnik, L. Gurevich.

The name of this period was given by Renaissance historians, defining the middle “failure” between ideal Antiquity and the revival of its traditions in the 14-16 centuries. The term “Middle Ages” had a negative and disparaging character for a long time.

Comedy does not mean that the text contains something funny, but according to the ancient principle: it starts badly and ends well (in tragedy it’s the other way around).