8 pound gun 1 26. French army
One of the most popular English museums is Her Majesty's Ship (HMS) or Her (His) Majesty's Ship - the famous ship of the sailing age Victory ("Victory"), which has been docked in the Portsmouth naval dock since January 12, 1922. The exhibit attracts up to two thousand visitors every day, bringing in considerable income that goes towards maintaining the unusual museum. The ship became famous due to its unusual history, which will be discussed below.
The three-masted Victory was built in Chatham (England) for almost six years (from 07/23/1759 to 05/07/1765) under the leadership of prominent shipbuilders D. Lock and E. Allin. The beauty of the ship, its 60-centimeter side and over 100 different-caliber guns impressed contemporaries. It took more than 2,500 perennial elms, oaks and other trees to build the giant, and the crew different periods consisted of 850-950 people. The ship's hull had two skins, and the underwater part was later covered with copper, the sheets of which were attached to the skin with metal nails.
The flagship's displacement was 3,500 tons, with a length of 69 and a width of 15.7 meters. The area of its sails reached 260 m2, which made it possible to move at speeds of up to 11 knots (about 20 km/h). All this, however, did not help the ship to surpass the size of the Spanish ship Santisima Trinidad.
History of military victories
On military service HMS Victory served until December 18, 1812, when it was removed from the lists of the British Navy and turned into a monument ship. Over almost half a century of being in combat formation, the weapons on it were repeatedly changed, which depended on the tasks at hand and the will of the command. During this period, the ship participated in several major naval battles:
- In the battle near the island of Ouessant with the French fleet on July 27, 1778.
- In the battle between English ships and the combined Spanish-French fleet, which took place on October 20, 1782 at Cape Spartel (near Gibraltar).
- In the battle between the English and Spanish squadrons near the Portuguese Cape of Sao Vicente on February 14, 1797. In this battle the ship "Victory" took part under the command of Horatio Nelson, who distinguished himself, was awarded and became a lord.
- In the well-known Battle of Trafalgar against the French-Spanish fleet on October 21, 1805, in which Nelson, already an admiral and on the flagship Victory, commanded a group of ships of 12 ships. The battle ended in victory for the British, but Nelson died in this battle.
At the Battle of Trafalgar battleship received heavy damage and was forced to go for repairs, after which she participated in several naval battles that took place in the Baltic. His military career ended as a transport. Victory was completely renovated in 1815. After that, it stood for 100 years in the port of Gosport, near Portsmouth. At the same time, the famous flagship was not particularly looked after, which contributed to the destruction of its hull.
Admiral D. Sturdy came to the defense of the doomed ship, as well as the author of books about Nelson and his ship, Professor J. Callender, who announced a collection of funds intended for the restoration of the historical relic. The work was carried out in 1922. During one of the fascist air raids on England, the ship received a large hole in the hull. After the Second World War, the ship underwent further repairs, during which all her guns were removed and placed on the shore around the dock that served as the final resting place of HMS Victory.
Since the ship's hull is made of wood, its enemies today are dry rot and wood-boring beetles, which have to be constantly fought against. A threat also hung over the ship's masts, to preserve which, in 1963, the guys holding the masts, as well as the stays and shrouds, were replaced with cables made of Italian hemp that do not respond to changes in humidity.
First rapid fire 18- pound gun The Mk I entered service with the Royal Artillery in 1904, and by 1914 it had become the standard field gun in service with British and Commonwealth armies. Some of its samples were even produced in India. The design of the 18-pounder gun was based on designs from the Woolwich plant, Elswick and Vickers workshops. The gun barrel was wrapped in wire, had a simple breech and was mounted on a carriage with a trunk. A regular shield was provided. Shrapnel was used as ammunition.
Very soon the basic model of the gun was modified. Firstly, the inner tube of the gun barrel became removable, although when this gun went to war in 1914, it was practically no different from the basic version. The return springs of the gun, which returned the barrel to its original position after recoil, could not withstand prolonged firing and broke, which turned the gun into a pile of iron. All the gunsmiths could do was change the springs, which took a lot of time and effort. This continued until a modification of this gun appeared in the army. A completely new hydropneumatic recoil mechanism was developed, which was mounted inside the existing spring housing, making the gun more reliable.
During the First World War, the gun was subjected to another modernization. The original carriage included a trunk that was suitable for horse-drawn traction. However, this trunk went under the breech, which limited the elevation angle, and therefore the firing range. The result was the 18-pounder Mk IV gun (modifications were designated by numbers). In fact it was new development. First of all, the Mk IV was equipped with a box-shaped frame, which ensured that the barrel was raised at a greater angle and increased the firing range, in addition, a new bolt mechanism of the Asbury model was proposed.
The new recoil mechanism, located under the gun barrel, used the free piston principle, using oil and compressed air for smoother and more reliable movement. The cradle has been changed. The result was a fully rotating gun. It not only had an increased firing range, but was also more stable and had a high rate of fire - for a trained crew, 30 rounds per minute was common.
By the time the 18-pounder Mk IV entered production the war had already ended, but it was the weapon of choice for the Royal Artillery between the wars. By that time, the gun began to be supplied not only to the troops of Britain and the Commonwealth countries. Since 1917, a large batch of these guns was acquired by the US Army. Later they appeared in Ireland, the Baltic countries and China. Most of the 18-pounder guns found their use during the Second World War, and the last gun was removed from service with the Irish Army only in the 70s of the twentieth century.
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Fully machined, copper plated and blackened cast guns made Dmitry Shevelev, gold champion of the world and Russia in ship modeling. The author has his own outstanding style, his works are distinguished by historical authenticity, artistic taste and the effect of antiquity.
To cast the guns, a dental alloy with a melting point of 105 degrees is used, then the casting is mechanically processed to lathe, the channel is drilled, brushed, copper-plated and only then blackened. The process is not easy, but the result is amazing. There’s no need to even stutter about historical authenticity; a mosquito won’t hurt your nose. The master model of this gun was made according to drawings from the monograph Le Cygne by the French publishing house Ancre.
Technical characteristics of the gun:
- length 59 mm; - scale 1:48;
- caliber 8 pounds;
- channel diameter 2.2 mm;
- France, 1806;
- initial development for the Le Cygne brig model. Requires 2 pieces.
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French artillery on turn of XVII-XVIII centuries
(Historical and technical essay)
Part 1
Guns and ammunition for them.
Preface.
The artillery of the Russian regular army, created by the genius of Emperor Peter I, developed under the clear and strong influence of the European. It is believed that the king was a great admirer of Holland and perceived a lot from there.
However, Surrey de Saint-Rémy's book on artillery, first published in France in 1697, republished in 1706, was translated into Russian in 1732. In the preface to this book, the author indicates that his work is original and that the book was then translated into a number of languages, including Dutch.
It can be assumed that the basis for regulating Russian artillery imperial army However, French developments served. This does not mean at all that before Peter I there was no artillery in Russia, or that it was something vague and amorphous, that guns were poured out as needed and as needed. Peter I simply brought order to this matter, gave the artillery harmony and clear regulations, not far behind Europe in this regard.
It seems that the description of French artillery late XVII- the beginning of the 18th century is of particular interest in this regard. So to speak, in order to understand “where the ears grow from” and be able to compare. And this, in turn, makes it clear that in building the Army, Emperor Peter did not blindly copy the experience of Europeans, but only used it to create Russian artillery that met the conditions of Russia.
Note that I am not using the original French book, but its translation into Russian, made by Field Marshal Count Munnich in 1732. Hence I am not able to indicate the names in the original language. The names are given as Minich translated them.
The book contains quite a lot of figures indicating the sizes and weights of products. However, it is unclear from the book exactly which units of measurement are used in the text. Either Minich changed French measures to Russian ones, or he made a translation without changing anything.
On top of that, right up to the introduction in France of a single metric system measures, which happened only at the end of the 18th century, there was complete discrepancy in this matter. Although the names of the units of measurement were generally the same, literally every province had its own pounds, feet, and inches. Worse, in the same area they could change over time.
The difference is not particularly big, but it still exists. I think that Minich did not bother with recalculations, but gives the data in French measures, leaving the reader to figure out exactly what pounds and feet the French author had in mind.
For the convenience of readers, I give sizes both in French and in our usual units, recalculating from French.
For reference:
*1 Russian inch = 2.54 cm (divided into 10 lines),
*1 French inch = 2.71 cm (divided into 12 lines),
*1 Russian foot = 0.3048 m.,
*1 French foot = 0.3001 m.,
*1 French royal foot = 0.3248 m.
*1 Russian pound = 409.51 grams,
*1 French pound = 489.502 grams,
*1 French artillery pound = 491.4144 gr.
*1 French ounce = 30.588 gr.
In addition, it is advisable to indicate the names of the elements of gun barrels:
A - the bottom or treasury with its own nail.
B - flat frieze and bottom decoration.
C - ignition field.
D- astragalus or friezes fuse.
E-first ledge.
F-flat hoop and decoration, or frieze of the first ledge.
G - second ledge.
H - dolphins or ears.
I- trunnions.
K-flat hoop and decoration, or frieze of the second ledge.
L - belt or decoration, or frieze near the muzzle end.
M-banded astragalus or frieze.
N-izlet sound.
O- islet astragalus or frieze.
P-neck.
Q - burleite or muzzle decoration, or frieze.
R-barrel.
S-shell in which the fuse.
The gun barrel is divided into three main parts, called ledges:
-the “first ledge” is highlighted in brown,
-the “second ledge” is highlighted in green
-blue color“Izlet yadrovoy” is highlighted.
The difference between these parts is mainly in the outer diameter, and accordingly, in the wall thickness. The greatest pressure of powder gases is in the first ledge, and therefore this part of the table should be the most durable.
The second ledge experiences, in addition to the internal pressure of powder gases (which is already less than in the first ledge), also external forces, since this is where the trunnions are located, with the help of which the barrel is secured to the carriage.
This structure of the gun barrel ensures its lighter weight with the same strength in comparison with more ancient guns that had a barrel of the same diameter along the entire length.
From the author. I give these difficult-to-remember names of the elements of gun barrels so as not to obscure the text below, explaining each time what, say, “frieze”, “trunnions” or “astragalus” are. The reader himself will have to take the trouble to either remember these terms or refer to this picture every time.
And at the same time, from here the reader can learn and understand some of the terms found in military historical literature.
And further. From the book it follows that at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries in France, guns were either copper, or cast iron. There were no bronze cannons. There were attempts to make cannons from wrought iron and there were quite a lot of enthusiasts of such guns, but the first experiments were unsuccessful and at the beginning XVIII centuries, the attitude towards them was generally negative.
Attention! The text of the book is not perfect and there are mathematical errors in it. Some of them are awkward and very obvious. I have corrected them whenever possible, but the reader should take into account that the data presented in the book may differ from other sources. This is the result of either errors by the author of the book, or the result of different readings of units of measurement. In addition, the low quality of printing in some cases makes it difficult to read the numbers and you have to guess based on logic and similar data from different places in the book.
End of the preface.
Comment.
In artillery there is a term “caliber”, which indicates the characteristics of the projectile being sent, i.e. gun power. Today, caliber is usually determined by the internal diameter of the gun barrel and the outer diameter of the projectile used, and it is measured in millimeters. However, until the advent of rifled guns and oblong shells (and in England even during the Second World War), the caliber of guns was determined by the weight of the cannonball, which was placed in the barrel of the gun. It was measured in pounds.
But the caliber of mortars was measured in inches and lines, i.e. along the diameter of the bore.
From the author. A very, very inconvenient way to calibrate guns. First of all, pounds were different in different countries. Secondly, kernels of the same weight could have different diameters depending on the material from which they were made. For example, the density of the same cast iron today ranges from 6.8 to 7.3 tons/cub.m.
Hence, weighing captured, and even our own, cannonballs did not give anything in terms of answering the question - will these cannonballs fit our guns?
The solution to the problem is very simple - you need to measure the diameter of the core and compare it with the inner diameter of the trunk. This is what was done in practice. For this purpose, the artillerymen had special tools. In particular, artillery compasses and templates. In the artillery arsenals, or magazines, as they were called then, and in the shelves there were templates, i.e. wooden, copper or iron rings with handles, which were called “kugellers”. The hole of the kugeller was of the exact size, and the caliber to which it corresponded was stamped on the frame. These simple measuring instruments were used to control the size of nuclei.
I use one of the tables (page 61 of Memoria), which gives the diameters of barrels in inches and lines depending on the caliber defined in pounds, to convert the calibers indicated in pounds into millimeters that are more familiar and understandable to us.
Please keep in mind that the pounds used here are French artillery pounds (different from regular French pounds). The caliber listed in inches and lines in millimeters is only approximate and indicative.
Guns produced in the 16th-17th centuries and out of use by the end of the 17th century
De Saint-Rémy points out that at the beginning of the 18th century these cannons could still be found in fortresses, in particular in Brest and Strasbourg, as well as in the French colonies. I took the liberty of giving double numbers in the table (converting pounds and feet into our usual kilograms and meters) in order to make it easier to imagine the weight and size of the guns.
| Gun name | Caliber | Weight lbs/tons |
Length feet/meters |
|
| pounds/kilogram | millimeters | |||
| Basilisk (Basilisk) | 48 / 23.59 | 192.5 | 7200 / 3.54 | 10 / 3.25 |
| Dragon (Snake) | 40 / 19.66 | 181.3 | 7000 / 3.44 | 16.5 / 5.36 |
| Dragon Shuttlecock (Flying Serpent) | 32 / 15.73 | 168.8 | 7200 / 3.54 | 22 / 7.15 |
| Serpentina (Zmeeevka) | 24 / 11.79 | 153.0 | 4300 / 2.13 | 13 / 4.22 |
| Culverina (Hose) | 20 / 9.83 | 143.6 | 7000 / 3.54 | 16 / 5.2 |
| Pasmur | 16 / 7.86 | 133.2 | 4200 / 2.06 | 18 / 5.91 |
| Aspid | 12 / 5.9 | 121.3 | 4250 / 2.09 | 11 / 3.61 |
| Half-culverine (Half-hose) | 10 / 4.9 | 114.1 | 3850 / 1.89 | 13 / 4.27 |
| Passando | 8 /3.93 | 106.0 | 3500 / 1.72 | 15 / 4.93 |
| Pelican | 6 / 2.95 | 96.2 | 2400 / 1.18 | 9 / 2.96 |
| Sakr | 5 / 2.46 | 90.6 | 2850 / 1.4 | 13 / 4.27 |
| Secret | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | 2550 / 1.25 | 12.5 / 4.11 |
| Fokon (Falcon) | 3 / 1.47 | 76.3 | 2300 / 1.13 | 8 / 2.63 |
| Fokono (Sokolets) | 2 / 0.98 | 66.8 | 1350 / 0.663 | 10.5 / 3.45 |
| Ribadekin big | 1 / 0.49 | 53.0 | 750 / 0.387 | 8 / 2.63 |
| Ribadekin small | 0.5 / 0.246 | 42.0 | 450 / 0.221 | 6 / 1.97 |
| Emirlon | 0.25 /0.123 | 33.3 | 400 /0.197 | 4 or 5 / 1.31 or 1.64 |
There is no information in the book about the metal from which the old type guns were made. Based on their weight, we can assume that these guns were cast iron.
The transition to a new scale of artillery calibers at the end of the 17th century was accompanied by the fact that artillery pieces
have lost the proper name for each caliber.
Guns produced since the end of the 17th century
In this scale, 48 and 40 pound guns were excluded as too heavy, but having no special advantage over 33 pounders. The length of the trunks was sharply reduced. If previously the longest trunk was more than 7 meters, now maximum length was 3.32 meters. In turn, this led to a significant reduction in the mass of the guns and an increase in their mobility while reducing the number of horses in the team.
In addition, the number of gun models was reduced from 17 to 14, and the number of calibers from 17 to 10. The latter greatly facilitated the work of ammunition supply services.
Classic copper cannons
| Cannon sample | Caliber | Weight lbs/tons |
Length feet/meters |
|
| pounds/kilogram | millimeters | |||
| French 33-pounder | 33 / 16.22 | 170.0 | 6200 / 3.05 | 11 / 3.32 |
| Half-cartown Spanish 24-pounder | 24 / 11 .79 | 153.0 | 5100 / 2.51 | 11/ 3.32 |
| Half Cart French (Hose) 16-lb. | 16 / 7.86 | 133.2 | 4100 / 2.02 | 10.8 / 3.31 |
| Quarter cart Spanish 12 pounder | 12 / 5 .9 | 121.3 | 3400 / 1.67 | 10.8 / 3.31 |
| Quarter Frenchman. (Batard) 8-lb. | 8 / 3.93 | 106.0 | 1950/0.958 | 10 / 3.28 |
| Short 8lb | 8 / 3.93 | 106.0 | ? | 8.5 / 2.65 |
| Medium 4 lb. | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | 1300 / 0.639 | 10.8 / 3.31 |
| Short 4lb | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | ? | 8.5 / 2.65 |
| Fokon (Falcon) 2-pounder | 2 / 0.98 | 66.8 | 800 / 0.393 | 7 / 2.3 |
| Other Fokon (Other Falcon) 2-pounder | 2 / 0.98 | 66.8 | 700 / 0.344 | 7 / 2.3 |
| Faucon (Falcon) 1 1/2-pound | 1.5 / 0.74 | ? | 500 / 0.245 | 7 / 2.3 |
| Fokonets (Sokolets) 1-pound | 1 / 0.491 | 53.0 | 400 / 0.197 | 7 / 2.3 |
| Other fokonets (Other Sokolets) 1-pound | 1 / 0.491 | 53.0 | 200 / 0.098 | 7 / 2.3 |
| Fokonets (Sokolets) 1/2 - pound | 0.5 / 0.245 | 42.0 | 150 /0.074 | 7 / 2.3 |
The firing range of copper classical cannons, according to de Saint-Rémy, was:
*33-pounder gun: sighting range 600 steps, maximum range 6000 steps,
*24-pounder gun: sighting range 800 steps, maximum range 6000 steps,
*16-pounder gun: sighting range 800 steps, maximum range 8000 steps,
*12-pounder gun: sighting range 450 steps, maximum range 5000 steps,
*8-pounder gun: sighting range 400 steps, maximum range 4500 steps,
*4-pounder gun: sighting range 300 steps, maximum range 3000 steps,
*2-pounder gun: sighting range 150 steps, maximum range 1500 steps.
Copper new invention guns
As of 1706, in addition to the cannons described above, cannons were already cast the latest model, called in the book “guns of a new invention (new invention).” These newly invented guns differed from the classic ones in that the breech of the barrel was made oval shape chamber for gunpowder, which provided an increase in the powder charge in comparison with classic guns, and hence an increased firing range.
This also made it possible to make the barrel shorter and significantly reduce the weight of the gun. For example, the weight of a 24-pound gun decreased from 2.5 tons to 1.5, and the length from 3.3 to 2 meters.
The new guns were distinguished by an increased outer diameter of the first ledge because increased strength was required.
From the author. It seems that the new invention guns required more durable metal, since the problem of increasing the powder charge cannot be solved by simply thickening the walls of the breech. It was also necessary new technology drilling barrels, as well as higher quality gunpowder, which has more complete combustion, because It is quite difficult to remove unburned powder particles from the charging chamber.
Obviously, these moments predetermined that with the start of production of new innovation guns, the production of old ones was not curtailed.
Copper cannons of a new invention.
| Cannon sample | Caliber | Weight lb/ton |
Length feet/meters |
|
| pounds/kilogram | millimeters | |||
| 24 lb. | 24 / 11.79 | 153.0 | 3000 / 1.47 | 6.6 / 2.01 |
| 16 lb. | 16 / 7.86 | 133.2 | 2200 / 1.08 | 6.2 / 1.98 |
| 12 lb. | 12 / 5.9 | 121.3 | 2000 / 0.98 | 6 /1.97 |
| 8 lb. | 8 / 3.93 | 106.0 | 1000 / 0.49 | 4.9 / 1.37 |
| 4 lb. | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | 600 / 0.295 | 4.8 / 1.34 |
According to tests carried out by Lieutenant General Mense in Flanders, the maximum firing range from cannons of the new invention with a powder charge of 1/3 of the weight of the cannonball and a barrel elevation angle of 45 degrees) was:
*24-pounder gun - 2250 toise (4386 m.),
*16-pounder gun - 2020 toise (3937 m.),
*12-pounder gun -1870 toise (3645 m.),
*8-pounder gun - 1660 toise (3235 m.),
*4-pounder gun -1520 toise (2963 m.).
At the same time, de Saint-Rémy writes that the standard powder charge of the guns was half of the maximum and the aimed firing range did not exceed 300 toises (585 meters). As the guns wore out, the powder charge had to be reduced to a quarter of the maximum and the firing range was reduced to 102 toises (200 meters). The same had to be done when reaching half daily value shots, i.e. after 40-50 shots.
From the author. This generally reminds huge difference between technically possible maximum speed modern cool foreign cars are 250-300 km/h and the realistically possible driving speed in the city is 60-100 km/h. Of course, there are reckless drivers who accelerate to these maximum speeds, but final result always extremely sad - the car is a pile of twisted iron, and the driver is in a cemetery. Same with guns.
De Saint-Rémy notes that in addition to standardized calibers, it is possible to find guns of larger calibers. (one of the cannons of the Strasbourg fortress has a caliber of 96 pounds), as well as cannons of intermediate calibers. These are mainly captured guns or guns cast privately.
Cast iron cannons.
It was believed that their use was no longer practical due to the poor quality of the metal, which rusted too quickly, especially from inside the barrel, thereby increasing the actual caliber of the gun. Or fistulas form in the metal, which makes shooting from cast iron guns dangerous.
Of all the cast iron cannons during this period, they were approved for use in French artillery only cannons cast at the Se-Gervais foundry, since the cast iron that is melted there is very soft and tough. And even then, only a few coastal cities and towns in the mountains were supposed to be equipped with cast-iron cannons.
From the author. I believe that the French returned to the production of cast iron cannons for reasons of economy. Copper was very expensive in those days. It is no coincidence that small denomination coins were stamped from copper and their denomination was determined by their weight.
Cast iron cannons are noticeably heavier than copper ones. If the classic 24-pound copper cannon weighed 2.5 tons, the new invention 1.5 tons, then the cast iron one weighed 2.7 tons.
The book gives the characteristics of the following cast iron cannons:
| Cannon sample | Caliber | Weight lb/ton |
Length feet/meters |
|
| pounds/kilogram | millimeters | |||
| 24 lb. | 24 / 11.79 | 153.0 | 5550 / 2.73 | ? |
| 16 lb. | 16 / 7.86 | 133.2 | 4500 / 2.21 | ? |
| 8 lb. | 8 / 3.93 | 106.0 | 2250 / 1.1 | ? |
| 4 lb. | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | 1300 / 0.64 | ? |
In addition, in January 1693, 90 cast iron cannons cast in private forges were purchased in the cities of Angoumoa and Perigio:
| Cannon sample | Purchased guns |
Caliber | Weight lb/ton |
Length feet/meters |
|
| pounds/kilogram | millimeters | ||||
| 36 lb. | 3 | 36 / 17.69 | 174.9 | 7100 /3.49 | ? |
| 24 lb. | 25 | 24 /11.79 | 153.0 | 5730 / 2.82 | ? |
| 18 lb. | 14 | 18 / 8.85 | 138.9 | 4370/ 2.15 | ? |
| 12 lb. | 23 | 12 / 5.9 | 121.3 | 3610 /1.78 | ? |
| 8 lb. | 25 | 8 /3.93 | 106.0 | 2310 / 1.14 | ? |
The cost of the purchased guns was 710 livres for 36-pound guns, 573 livres for 24-pound guns, and for smaller calibers from 354 to 185 livres apiece.
From the author. So, for a general idea, so that you can understand the scale of prices in France at that time and to understand that war is a very expensive business:
Livre - currency unit France until 1795. There are 20 soldi in 1 livre (sous, salt), in 1 soldo there are 12 deniers.
Prices - pound of bread - 2-3 sous; a pound of beef or a liter of wine - 2-3 sous, chicken - 15 sous; pound of butter - 5-8 sous, steam men's shoes- 3 livres, children's - 14 sous; a dozen wooden clogs - 25 sous.
A worker who received a livre per day was considered a wealthy person.
One 36-pound cast iron cannon thus cost 246 pairs of boots or two years' salary of a skilled worker. But copper cannons, which were the majority, were much more expensive.
Successful tests of the purchased cast iron cannons and the depletion of the royal treasury prompted the government to order the production of another 300 cast iron cannons of some calibers for the field troops. Their characteristics are as follows:
| Cannon sample | Guns manufactured | Caliber | Weight lb/ton |
Length feet/meters |
|
| pounds/kilogram | millimeters | ||||
| 12 lb. | ? | 12 / 5.9 | 121.3 | 3600 / 1.77 | 8.5 / 2.79 |
| 12 lb. | ? | 12 / 5.9 | 121.3 | 3700 / 1/82 | 9 / 2.96 |
| 8 lb. | ? | 8 /3.93 | 106.0 | 2400 / 1/18 | 8 / 2/63 |
| 8 lb. | ? | 8 /3.93 | 106.0 | 2600 /1.28 | 8.5 / 2/79 |
| 4 lb. | ? | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | 1400 / 0/689 | 6.5 / 2/14 |
On turn of the XVIII-XVIII there are quite exotic guns. For example, a twin 4-pounder gun. It consisted of two barrels cast together, 5 feet 4 inches (1.65 m) long, with a common ignition channel. The cannon could fire both regular cannonballs and interconnected rods (the rods were each inserted into its own barrel, and the connecting jumper remained outside). The length of this twin ammunition is 12 feet (3.95 m) and weighs 65 pounds (32 kg).
From the author. The book does not provide other data (firing range, damaging capabilities, etc.). Obviously, this invention remains exotic, since there are few places where you can find information about such guns. I dare to suggest that one of the reasons was that it is difficult to achieve synchronization of shots from both barrels. Apparently, the paired rods flew away aimlessly or even separated from each other during the flight, or worse, damaged the barrels when fired.
There was an option in which a third barrel was located slightly higher in the hollow between the two trunks, and also an option in which the barrel was cast in an oval shape and two channels were drilled into it A. Such guns had a common charging chamber.
De Saint-Rémy writes that cast-iron semi-cartan cannons (24- and 16-pounders) can fire from 90 to 100 shots per day in the summer, and 65-75 shots in the winter. However, according to information from artillery officers, they sometimes fired up to 150 rounds per day. But this is fraught with damage to the machine and swelling of the ignition channel.
16- and 12-pounder copper cannons can fire up to 200 shots in 9 hours or 138 shots in 5 hours. But these are technical capabilities since such shooting does not leave time for proper aiming of the gun.
Ammunition
The main type of ammunition for all guns was spherical all-metal cannonballs.
The translator of de Saint-Rémy's book calls them simply nuclei.
Core. They were usually cast from cast iron. The diameter of the core should be slightly smaller than the diameter of the barrel so that the core can freely roll into the barrel without delay. For example, with a bore diameter of an 8-pound gun of 106.026 mm. the core diameter for it should be 102.36 mm according to the table.
The core hits targets only due to its kinetic energy, i.e. mass and speed.
The cost of a thousand cast iron cannonballs at the turn of the century was about 3 livres.
Hard core. It is a regular core, which is heated to a red glow over a fire before loading. Designed to create fires in a besieged city or fortress. In order to be able to use a hardened cannonball in a cannon, a castle made of crumpled clay is placed between it and the powder charge. This lock also plays the role of a wad.
The use of hardened balls is permitted only in 8-pounder and 4-pounder guns. Cannonballs of smaller calibers cool down too quickly on the trajectory and cannot ignite anything. Larger caliber kernels (12-pounds or larger) are too heavy, difficult to heat to the desired temperature, and are prone to cracking and destruction due to uneven heating.
Empty core. It is a metal cylinder with a diameter of the caliber of a gun and a length of 2.5 calibers. Part of the internal space (one and a half caliber) was filled with lead, and the rest contained a powder charge. At the end of the cylinder, which, when loading the gun, looked towards the powder charge of the gun, a hole was drilled into which a copper ignition tube filled with slowly burning gunpowder was screwed. The outer end of the ignition tube was covered with turpentine (a mixture of pine resin and essential oil).
When fired from a flash cannon powder charge the pyrotechnic composition in the ignition tube caught fire, the cylinder flew out of the cannon, and after this composition burned out, an explosion occurred.
For example, a 24-pound empty cannonball had a total weight of 79 pounds (38.32 kg), i.e. more than three times the weight of a typical 24-pound round ball. In the total weight of this projectile, gunpowder was 6 pounds (2.95 kg), metal body 60 pounds (29.5 kg), 19 pounds (9.34 kg). The projectile diameter is 153 mm, length is about 382.5 mm, wall thickness is 27 mm.
From the author. From de Saint-Rémy’s book it turns out that oblong, and even explosive shells with remote fuse existed at the end of the 17th century. Of course, this cylinder tumbled along its trajectory and flew at a distance three times less than an ordinary cannonball. The accuracy was very unsatisfactory. But such shells existed.
Along the way, de Saint-Rémy briefly mentions (p. 105) that in design these “empty cannonballs” are very similar to some land mines or “undermines” installed on the ground. Unfortunately, he does not develop this thesis and does not describe it in detail. But the conclusion suggests itself that anti-personnel mines and minefields, precisely in the sense in which we understand them today, were used in the 18th century.
But just as today they write very little and in passing about mines, so it was with them in those distant times.
Core messenger. Basically it is a means of delivering written documents to and from a besieged fortress.
This is a hollow screwed spherical core coated with lead or made of lead.
Chain core (nipple). There were several types of knipples. The simplest is two cores 
connected by a rigid jumper (similar in shape to modern sports dumbbells). The nipple could be immediately cast in this mold. There were options when two half-nuclei were connected by a chain. Or the half-cores were hollow, and the chain was laid in the cavities of the half-cores before firing.
In de Saint-Rémy's book, only one option is given - simply two cores connected by a chain.
Nipples are effective at relatively short distances and mainly on ships, where they are good at destroying spars and rigging. On land they were sometimes used to fire at fortified camps or approaching infantry.
The accuracy of shooting with nipples (apparently consisting of two cores with a chain) on land is unsatisfactory, and the firing range 
half as much as with regular cores.
De Saint-Rémy gives in his book a variant of a nipple consisting of two half-cores connected by a rigid jumper. However, he points out that this type of pin is intended for use as an incendiary projectile.
A cannonball filled with an incendiary composition (incendiary nipple). It is a nipple on 
rigid jumper (shown just above), The gap between the half-cores is filled with a solid rosin-based incendiary composition and wrapped in several layers of canvas impregnated with resin. When fired, the canvas ignites from the gunpowder charge, and falling near the target creates a fire.
There is an option in which an ignition tube similar to the tube of the empty core is screwed into one of the two semi-cores through a drilled hole. In this case, the nipple shell is made of lead.
From the author. De Saint-Rémy does not provide descriptions of incendiary compositions. One of the books describes that powder balls could be placed inside the train, which, when fire reached them, exploded and scattered the burning composition, thereby increasing the source of the fire.
Interesting feature. The diameter of the cylindrical part of the nipple was slightly larger than the diameter of the half-cores, due to which the nipple was inserted into the gun barrel with force. This made it possible not to use a wad, since the canvas of the nipple performed its role.
De Saint-Rémy points out that incendiary nipples and “empty cannonballs” generally did not live up to the hopes placed on them due to the low reliability of the ignition system (ignition tubes). When fired, they either did not light up at all, or, on the contrary, ignited the filling prematurely. Their use was more of a one-time or test nature.
From the author. From these lines from the author of the book (p. 106) it becomes clear why incendiary nipples and cylindrical explosive shells, although they existed at the turn of the century, are little known and are not mentioned at all in most historical literature. Large weight, short firing range, unreliable operation, and difficulty in manufacturing did not contribute to their introduction into artillery practice.
The use of empty cannonballs generally posed a danger to the guns. Often, the pressure of the powder gases during a shot squeezed the ignition composition inside the projectile, which led to the rupture of the projectile in the barrel.
These shortcomings will be eliminated much later.
Modern military historical literature often mentions hollow cores filled with gunpowder that explode at the target. They are usually called bombs and grenades. However, if we rely on de Saint-Rémy’s book, then in France at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries the guns did not have such ammunition.
Bombs were used only in mortars, and the bomb's fuse tube was ignited separately before firing. And the core was inserted so that the ignition tube looked not in the direction of the powder charge, but in the opposite direction,
De Saint-Rémy calls grenades similar products, but which were used in fortresses for throwing them into the ditch by hand in order to destroy enemy soldiers who had penetrated the ditch and which could no longer be removed from cannons and rifles.
"MEMORIES OR ARTILLERY NOTES which describe MORTARS, PETARDS, DOPPEL jacks, muskets, fuses, and everything that belongs to all these weapons. bombs, frames and grenades, and other castings of cannons, saltpeter and gunpowder, bridges, mines, carries, carts and horses, and in general everything that concerns artillery both at sea and on the land route: disposing of stores, creating charges and stations in armies and in warehouses, marching order, and their disposition in all battles way to defend the fortress and the position of Officer, etc. THROUGH MR. SUREREY DE SEINT REMI VOLUME ONE. TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH LANGUAGE PRINTED IN ST. PETERSBURG in the Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1732."
Page 137-142.
Kartuz, Its varieties are called - cartouche, garguzh, gargush, garguss, buckshot. 
Garguzh (gargush, garguss) is a cap made of canvas. It is a fabric shell inside which a sample of gunpowder is placed and a core or lead bullets can be placed.
Kartuz (cartouche) differs from garguzh in that it is made of parchment or multi-layer paper. It can also contain only gunpowder or, in addition to gunpowder, also a core or lead bullets.
Cartuses made of tin and wood are called, respectively, “tin buckshot” and, respectively, “wooden buckshot.” They are necessarily equipped with a cannonball or lead bullets.
From the author. From here the origin and essence of the term “buckshot” (in modern spelling - buckshot) becomes clear. Buckshot is an artillery shot (that is, a set) which necessarily includes a certain number of ready-made destructive elements (lead, cast iron bullets, nails, metal fragments, etc.). When fired, the destructive elements fly out of the barrel in a diverging beam and hit enemy personnel.
We are used to calling only the round bullets themselves buckshot, but it turns out that this is not so. Bullets are just an element of a grape shot.
Along the way. Gunners call a shot both the very phenomenon of the ejection of a certain projectile from a gun, and the set of products for producing this ejection.
Caps made of parchment are considered the best because, unlike canvas and paper, parchment only curls when there is a flash of gunpowder, but does not catch fire and does not leave smoldering scraps stuck to the barrel walls and does not require cleaning the barrel (boiling) before each new loading. When using parchment caps, it is quite enough to clean the barrel (ban) only after three shots.
Reference. Parchment - thoroughly cleaned and degreased thin leather. It was used before the invention of paper, and partly later for writing (documents, books, etc.).
End of help.
The advantage of a parchment cap over a tin and wooden one is that there is no problem of removing a spent cap from a cannon and, moreover, it does not require skilled labor for its production.
The diameter of the cap is equal to the caliber of the gun.
The length of a cap made of parchment, paper or canvas, depending on the mass of the gunpowder charge, reaches six calibers if the cap contains a cannonball or bullets, or four calibers if the cap contains only gunpowder.
The length of a cap made of tin or wood is up to three calibers, of which one caliber is reserved for gunpowder, and two calibers for buckshot.
Cartridge loading is used in cases where hasty shooting is required and it is not possible, for this reason or due to weather conditions, to carry out the usual standard loading of guns (filling gunpowder into the barrel using a shotgun (schaufell), compacting using a hammer, inserting a wad and a cannonball or buckshot).
From the author. Please note - at the beginning of the 18th century, the main method of loading cannons was still pouring gunpowder into the barrel using a special spoon (shuffle).
Cartuz loading, according to the author of the book, is a necessary measure when shooting hastily or shooting at bad weather conditions(strong wind, rain, snowfall). Obviously due to the fact that after a shot, smoldering remains of a textile or paper shell may remain in the barrel bore.
Various sources provide drawings of caps that differ from those shown by me. I don't dare argue about this. I am making reconstructions of caps based on the drawings given in de Saint-Rémy’s book. It is very possible, and most likely, he will not 
The goal was to show in the book all the possible options for caps that could exist in different countries.
Unfortunately, de Saint-Rémy does not explain how, when fired, the fire from the ignition channel of the gun reached the powder charge in a wooden or tin cap. It is not advisable to make a hole in the cap in advance, since when loading it is almost impossible to align the channel with the hole. Obviously, the hole was made with a wire seeder.
Also, the author does not explain how, after firing, the empty wooden, and especially tin, cap was removed from the cannon barrel. The latter is especially difficult, because... when fired, it resounds and is pressed tightly against the walls of the barrel.
Buckshot.
From the author. Although wooden and tin caps are called buckshot above, there are
Also, buckshots are, so to speak, “capless”. Such buckshot is placed in a cannon instead of a cannonball when it is necessary to hit a mass of infantry at a relatively short distance (up to 100-200m). I found it more convenient to highlight these products in independent species cannon ammunition.
The buckshot is round and oblong.
Designed to defeat enemy soldiers at close ranges. It is a kind of projectile that has a wooden pallet as a base with a diameter equal to the caliber of the gun. A cannonball with a caliber smaller than the caliber of a cannon is placed on it. The core is lined with lead bullets. To hold the core and bullets on the pallet, they are filled with pine resin or tar (tar with resin, resin with lard, tar with lard and soap).
The projectile is given the appearance of a truncated cone one and a half caliber long
To strengthen the projectile and maintain its shape when high temperature air is put on the projectile so-called. shirt, in other words, a canvas shell is glued on.
Caps of this type are preferable for ship guns, since they have a double effect - destruction of ship sides and damage to personnel.
De Saint-Rémy describes a simplified method for preparing such buckshot. A cannonball with a caliber smaller than the caliber of the cannon is taken, dipped in melted resin, after which the cannonball is rolled over a layer of lead bullets. After the bullets stick to the core from all sides, all this is placed together on a wooden pallet with the diameter of the gun's caliber, the bullets and resin that exceed the caliber are removed, and the resulting projectile is inserted into the gun.
Buckshot grazdovik (buckshot in the form of a grape brush).
Designed to defeat enemy soldiers at close ranges. It is a kind of projectile that has a wooden pallet as a base with a diameter equal to the caliber of the gun. A wooden rod the length of the projectile is embedded in the pallet. Lead bullets are placed around the rod. To hold the bullets on the pallet, they are filled with pine resin or tar (tar with resin, resin with lard, tar with lard and soap).
The projectile is given the appearance of a truncated cone one and a half to two calibers long.
To strengthen the projectile and maintain its shape at high air temperatures The resin projectile is wrapped with twine, from which a mesh is formed. The outside of the mesh can be covered with glued canvas.
As soon as this projectile leaves the bore, the bullets fly forward in an expanding beam.
The book also states that for shooting at close ranges, lead bullets, nails, broken chains, and various metal fragments can be placed in the barrel instead of a cannonball.
From the author. The literature describes many variants of buckshot. However, some of them refer either to other times or to other countries. I limit myself to the types of buckshot described in de Saint-Rémy's book. I’m not sure that he described all the types available at that time in the French artillery, but I do not think it is possible to expand this list, since it is easy to mislead the reader as to where and when certain types of buckshot were used.
At the same time, I would like to describe one more ammunition, which does not relate to cannon ammunition, but is described in the book. It is called "musketeer buckshot" or "musketeer buckshot". It is a musket bullet, which is tied to a paper bag with gunpowder by its sprue. The length of the pouch is determined to be 4 musket calibers. De Saint-Rémy emphasizes that after the bullet is cast, its sprue is not removed, but is used to connect it to the musket's powder charge.
From the author. De Saint-Rémy speaks of Musketeer's buckshot as a recent invention and notes that when loading the gun, the far end of the casing is bitten off, gunpowder is poured into the barrel, and the bullet and paper are sent after. The paper shell plays the role of a wad. In the text, he calls this product a cartridge and notes that this significantly speeds up the loading of the gun. Obviously this product was improved later. They began to use the bullet without a sprue and placed it in the bag itself.
Thus, the introduction of a paper rifle cartridge into practice should be dated back to the end of the 17th century. At least in France.
Thus, at the turn of the century for French guns used:
* ordinary all-metal spherical cannonballs, which were fired both cold and hot,
* explosive cylindrical shells ("empty cannonballs"),
*messenger kernels,
* chain cannonballs (nipples), which could be equipped with incendiary compounds,
*various types of grapeshot shells.
Ball-shaped explosive cores were not used in cannons.
Note. All books on the history of artillery say that initially artillery used gunpowder pulp, and then they learned to granulate gunpowder. And they say fine-grained gunpowder was better suited for guns, and coarse-grained gunpowder was better suited for cannons and mortars. So, they say, since then only coarse-grained gunpowder has been used in artillery.
I don’t presume to argue on this score, but in de Saint-Rémy’s book we find that in 1685, Marc de la Fresiliere conducted a series of experiments with various gunpowders and discovered that a significant part of the large powder grains flew out of the cannon barrel without even igniting, then how small grains burn completely. A charge made from fine-grained powder provides a greater firing range than one from coarse-grained powder.
Based on the results of the experiments, it was decided to produce medium-grain gunpowder, which is equally suitable for muskets and cannons.
End note.
Production of cannon firing.
Gun crew (speaking modern language) guns of 12-24 pound caliber consists of two gunners and six gandlangers.
The first gunner (on the command post diagram) is located to the right of the cannon. He carries a natruka (vessel) with seed powder and two pickles (knitting needles for cleaning the gun's ignition channel). His main responsibilities include filling the gun with a powder charge using a shuffle and filling the seed powder into the gun's ignition channel.
The second gunner (in the CL diagram) is located to the left of the cannon. He carries with him a stick (a pole with a burning wick at the end) and a leather bag for gunpowder (the bag is called the captain's armus). His main responsibilities are delivering a powder charge from a small powder magazine, pouring it into the chuffle held by the first gunner, and firing a shot on the orders of the commissar.
Gundlangers are positioned in threes on the left and right sides of the cannon.
The order of loading the gun calibers 12 - 24 pounds:
1. The first gundlangers (1p and 1l) ban the cannon with a bannik, after which the third left gundlanger (3 l) inserts the primer into the ignition channel of the gun and takes the shuffle.
2. At this time, the second gunner (KL), accompanied by the third right gunner (3p), brings a bag of gunpowder from a small magazine, which he pours into the shuffle held by the first gunner (KP).
3. The first gunner (KP) pours gunpowder into the cannon.
4. At this time, the second gunner (KL) puts the leather bag in a safe place and prepares the coat.
5. The second right handlanger (2p) puts a powder wad into the cannon.
6. The first gandlangers (1p and 1l) put the hammer into the barrel together and strike them 8-10 times on the wad.
7. The second left handlanger (2 l) rolls a cannonball into the cannon.
8. The first gundlangers (1p and 1l), together with a hammer, push the cannonball deep into the trunk.
9. The second right handlanger (2p) puts a wad of cannonballs into the cannon.
10. The first gandlangers (1p and 1l) together insert a hammer into the barrel and apply 4 blows to the wad of the cannonball.
11. The first ganglangers (1p and 1l) take the levers in 
readiness to insert them between the spokes in front of the wheels to turn the gun left or right in the direction of the target.
12. The second ganglangers (2p and 2l) take the levers and stand behind the wheels in readiness to move the cannon forward to the loophole.
13. The third gunlangers (3 l and 3 p) with levers are located at the rear of the machine, ready to turn the gun to the left or right.
14. The first gunner (KP) removes the priming agent from the ignition channel and pours seed powder into it from the powder. He also uses a lever placed along the rear wheel to fix the position of the gun.
15. The second gunner (KL) holds his pistol with a burning fuse in readiness to fire a shot on the order of the commissar.
The order of firing a shot.
After loading the gun and installing it in place, it is aimed at the target. To do this, according to the commands of the commissar, who places a quadrant on the barrel, the second gunlangers (2p and 2l), acting with levers and wedges, give the barrel the desired elevation angle. At the same time, the third ganglangers (3p and 3l), again at the commands of the commissar, standing at the trunk of the machine and using levers, aim the cannon horizontally.
At the command of the commissar, the second gunner (KL) touches the burning fuse of the gun to the fuse of the cannon and fires a shot. The process of loading the gun is repeated.
From the author. The staff of officers on the battery is very unclear. From the book it follows that the battery is commanded by a commissar (Komi sar - in the spelling of 1732). He is assisted by two provincial commissioners, one ordinary and one extraordinary commissioner. There are a total of five officers on the battery. And there are six guns on a standard battery. It follows from this that when firing, the commissars move from gun to gun, and do not each command one gun, as is done in mortar batteries.
August 2016
Sources and literature
1.U. fon Cranachs. Deliciae Cranachianae oder rare und kunstreiche Fried-und Krieges-Inventiones, bestehende in XI Kupfferstiche. Hamburg.1672
2.J.J. fon Wallhausen.Manuale Militare oder Kriegs Manual. Auctorius.Frankfurt. 1616
3. Website "StandingWellBack" (www.standingwellback.com/home/2014/9/11)
4.P.S.de Saint-Rémy. Memories or artillery notes. Volume one Academy of Sciences St. Petersburg. 1732
