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Slavic languages. To which group of world languages does the Russian language belong?

Russian language is the largest language in the world. In terms of the number of people speaking it, it ranks 5th after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish.

Origin

Slavic languages, to which Russian belongs, belong to the Indo-European language branch.

At the end of the 3rd – beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The Proto-Slavic language, which is the basis for the Slavic languages, separated from the Indo-European family. In the X – XI centuries. The Proto-Slavic language was divided into 3 groups of languages: West Slavic (Czech, Slovak arose from it), South Slavic (developed into Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian) and East Slavic.

During feudal fragmentation, which contributed to the formation of regional dialects, and the Tatar-Mongol yoke, three independent languages emerged from the East Slavic: Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian. Thus, the Russian language belongs to the East Slavic (Old Russian) subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European language branch.

History of development

During the era of Muscovite Rus', the Middle Russian dialect arose, the main role in the formation of which belonged to Moscow, which introduced the characteristic “akan”, and the reduction of unstressed vowels, and a number of other metamorphoses. The Moscow dialect becomes the basis of Russian national language. However, a unified literary language had not yet emerged at that time.

In the XVIII–XIX centuries. Special scientific, military, and naval vocabulary received rapid development, which was the reason for the appearance of borrowed words, which often clogged and burdened the native language. There was a growing need to develop a unified Russian language, which took place in the struggle of literary and political movements. The great genius M.V. Lomonosov in his theory of “three” established a connection between the subject of presentation and the genre. Thus, odes should be written in a “high” style, plays and prose works in a “medium” style, and comedies in a “low” style. A.S. Pushkin in his reform expanded the possibilities of using the “middle” style, which now became suitable for ode, tragedy, and elegy. It is from the language reform of the great poet that modern Russian traces its history literary language.

The emergence of Sovietism and various abbreviations (prodrazverstka, people's commissar) are associated with the structure of socialism.

The modern Russian language is characterized by an increase in the number of special vocabulary, which was a consequence of scientific and technological progress. At the end of XX - beginning of XXI centuries The lion's share of foreign words enters our language from English.

The complex relationships between the various layers of the Russian language, as well as the influence of borrowings and new words on it, have led to the development of synonymy, which makes our language truly rich.

Russian language refers to largest languages world: in terms of the number of speakers it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. Belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread. All Slavic languages show great similarities among themselves, but the ones closest to the Russian language are Belarusian and Ukrainian. The three of these languages form the East Slavic subgroup, which is part of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

Name the two most characteristics grammatical structure of the Russian language

The first feature that creates the complexity of Russian morphology is the variability of words, that is, the grammatical design of words with endings. The endings express the case and number of nouns, the agreement of adjectives, participles and ordinal numbers in phrases, the person and number of verbs of the present and future tense, the gender and number of verbs of the past tense.

The second feature of the Russian language is word order. Unlike other languages, the Russian language allows greater freedom in word arrangement. The subject can come either before the predicate or after the predicate. Other members of the sentence can also be rearranged. Syntactically related words can be separated by other words. Of course, this or that word order is not at all random, but it is not regulated by purely grammatical rules, as in other European languages, where it is used to distinguish, for example, such functions of words as subject and object.

Why do you think the Russian language is difficult for an Englishman?

The main difficulty lies in the variability of the word. Russian people, of course, do not notice this, because for us it is natural and simple to say now EARTH, then EARTH, then ZEMLE - depending on the role of the word in the sentence, on its connection with other words, but for speakers of languages of a different system - this is unusual and difficult. The point, however, is not at all that there is something superfluous in the Russian language, but that those meanings that are conveyed in Russian by changing the form of a word are conveyed in other languages in other ways, for example, using prepositions, or word order, or even a change in the intonation of a word.

Does the Russian language need foreign words?

The lexical wealth of a language is created not only by its own capabilities, but also by borrowing from other languages, since political, economic and cultural connections. The Russian language is no exception. In different historical periods Words from various languages penetrated into the Russian language. There are very ancient borrowings. Speakers may not even be aware of this. For example, “foreign” words are: sugar (Greek), candy (Latin), August (Latin), compote (German), jacket (Swedish), lamp (German) and many other familiar words. Starting from the era of Peter the Great, for obvious reasons (“window to Europe”), borrowings from European languages intensified: German, French, Polish, Italian, English. Currently - the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century - the vocabulary of the Russian person is replenished with Americanisms, that is in English words, which came from the American version in English. The flow of borrowings in different historical periods is more or less active, sometimes it becomes rapid, but over time its activity is lost. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries there were many borrowings from the French language. By borrowing words from any language, the Russian language adapts them to its structure, that is, foreign words are mastered. So, in particular, nouns acquire Russian endings, acquire gender, and some begin to decline.

Why do Russian people so often make mistakes when using numerals?

Russian numerals represent an extremely complex system. This applies not only to their changeability. The names of numbers have different structures and represent different types declination. Wed. one (inflected as an adjective), two, three, four (a special type of declension), five (inflected as a noun of 3 declensions, but not in numbers), forty, ninety and one hundred have only two forms: in all oblique cases the ending is a: forty, one hundred. However, if one hundred is part of a compound numeral, it changes differently, cf: five hundred, five hundred, about five hundred.

At the moment, for example, there is a very noticeable tendency to simplify the declension of numerals: many Russians decline complex numerals only by half: cf. with fifty-three instead of the correct one with fifty-three. The system of declension of numerals is clearly being destroyed, and this is happening before our eyes and with our participation.

6. Name one of the changes in sounds and two changes in morphology known from the history of the Russian language (optional)

Naturally, the sounding speech of a Russian person in that ancient era was not recorded by anyone (there were no corresponding technical methods), however, science knows the main processes that have occurred in the Russian language over the centuries, including processes that change the sound structure of the language, its phonetic system. It is known, for example, that the words forest and day until about the 12th century had not three sounds, but four, and that the first syllable of these two words had different vowel sounds. No one who speaks Russian today can accurately reproduce them, including phonetic specialists. but experts know what they roughly sounded like. This is because linguistics has developed methods for studying ancient languages.

The number of types of declension of nouns has been significantly reduced: now, as is known, there are 3 of them, but there were much more - in different periods different quantities. For example, a son and a brother leaned differently for some time. In a special way such nouns as heaven and word were declined (the features were preserved in the forms heaven, word), etc.

Among the cases there was a special case - “vocal”. This case form was used to address: father - father, old man - elder, etc. In the prayers in Church Slavonic it sounded: “our father”, who art in heaven..., glory to you, Lord, heavenly king.... The vocative case has been preserved in Russian fairy tales and other works of folklore: Kotik! Brother! Help me out! (Cat, rooster and fox).

The Old Russian verb was significantly different from the modern one: there was not one past tense, but four. - each with its own forms and meaning: aorist, imperfect, perfect and plusquaperfect. Three tenses have been lost, one has been preserved - the perfect, but it has changed its form beyond recognition: in the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” we read: “because you went to sing and took all the tribute” (why are you going again? - after all, you have already taken all the tribute) - auxiliary verb (esi) disappeared, only the participle form with the suffix L remained (here “caught”, i.e. took), which became for us the only past tense form of the verb: walked, wrote, etc.

7. In what area of the Russian language system are changes most noticeable and understandable: in phonetics, morphology or vocabulary. Why?

Different sides of the tongue change with to varying degrees activity: vocabulary changes most actively and most noticeably for speakers. Everyone knows the concepts of archaisms/neologisms. The meanings of words and their compatibility change. The phonetic structure and grammatical structure of the language, including Russian, are much more stable, but changes occur here too. They are not immediately noticeable, not like changes in the use of words. But specialists, historians of the Russian language, have established very important, profound changes that have occurred in the Russian language over the past 10 centuries. The changes that have taken place over the last two centuries, since the time of Pushkin, are also known; they are not so profound. For example, a certain type of entity. husband. p changed the plural form. numbers: in the times of Zhukovsky and Pushkin they said: houses, teachers, breads with the emphasis on the first syllable. The replacement of the ending Y with a stressed A first occurred only in individual words, then more and more words began to be pronounced this way: teacher, professor, haystack, workshop, mechanic. It is characteristic that this process is still ongoing and involves more and more words, i.e. You and I, who speak Russian now, are witnesses and participants in this process.

8. What is the essential difference between changes in language and changes in writing?

As we see, there is a fundamental, fundamental difference between changes in writing (graphics) and changes in language: no king, no ruler can change the language by his own will. You cannot order speakers not to utter certain sounds or not to use certain cases. Changes in language occur under the influence various factors and reflect the internal properties of language. They occur against the will of the speakers (although, naturally, they are created by the speaking community itself). We are not talking about changes in the style of letters, in the number of letters, or in spelling rules. The history of language and the history of writing are different stories. Science (the history of the Russian language) has established how the Russian language has changed over the centuries: what changes have occurred in the sound system, morphology, syntax and vocabulary. Development trends are also studied, new phenomena and processes are noted. New trends arise in living speech - oral and written.

9. Is it possible for a language to exist without writing? Give reasons for your answer

In principle, a language can exist without writing (although its possibilities in this case are limited). At the dawn of mankind, at first there was only oral speech. There are still peoples in the world who do not have a written language, but they naturally have a language. Other proofs of the possibility of language without writing can be given. For example: young children speak a language without writing (before they go to school). So, language existed and exists primarily in oral form. But with the development of civilization, it also acquired another form - written. The written form of speech developed on the basis of oral speech and existed primarily as its graphic representation. In itself, it is a remarkable achievement of the human mind to establish a correspondence between an element of speech and a graphic icon.

10. In what other way, besides writing, can speech be preserved and transmitted over a distance in our time? (There is no direct answer in the textbook)

Nowadays speech can be recorded - saved on various audio and video media - disks, cassettes, etc. And later it can be transmitted on such media.

11. Is writing reform possible in principle? Give reasons for your answer

Yes, it can be changed and even reformed. Writing is not part of the language, but only corresponds to it, serves to reflect it. It is invented by society for practical purposes. With the help of a system of graphic icons, people record speech, save it and can transmit it over a distance. The letter can be changed according to the will of the people, reformed if a practical need arises. The history of mankind knows many facts about changes in types of writing, that is, methods of graphically transmitting speech. There are fundamental changes, for example, the transition from a hieroglyphic system to an alphabetic one or within an alphabetic system - the replacement of the Cyrillic alphabet with Latin alphabet or vice versa. Smaller changes in writing are also known - changes in the style of letters. Even more specific changes are the elimination of some individual letters from the practice of writing, and the like. An example of changes in writing: for the Chukchi language, writing was created only in 1931 based on the Latin alphabet, but already in 1936 the writing was translated into Russian graphics.

12. What historical event is associated with the emergence of writing in Rus'? When did it happen?

The emergence of writing in Rus' is associated with the official adoption of Christianity in 988.

13. Why is the Slavic alphabet called “Cyrillic”?

Russian adaptation of the Greek alfabetos, composed of the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet - alpha and beta - in the Slavic version az and buki. It is generally accepted that the names of the Slavic letters were invented by the creator Slavic alphabet Cyril in the 9th century. He wanted the name of the letter itself not to be a meaningless complex of sounds, but to have meaning. He called the first letter azъ - in ancient Bulgarian “I”, the second - simply “letter” (this is what this word looked like in ancient times - bouki), the third - vede (from the ancient Slavic verb veti - “to know”). If we translate the name into modern Russian language first three letters of this alphabet, it turns out “I recognized the letter.” Slavic alphabet (Cyrillic) was developed by a team of missionary scientists under the leadership of the brothers Cyril and Methodius, when the adoption of Christianity by the Slavic peoples required the creation of church texts in their native language. The alphabet quickly spread in Slavic countries, and in the 10th century it penetrated from Bulgaria to Rus'.

14. Name the most famous monuments of Russian writing

Monuments of ancient Russian literature about ancient Russian writing and literature: The Tale of Bygone Years, Degree Book, Daniil Zatochnik, Metropolitan Hilarion, Kirill of Turov, Life of Euphrosyne of Suzdal, etc.

15. What significance do “birch bark letters” have for the history of Russian writing?

Birch bark documents are both material (archaeological) and written sources; their location is as important a parameter for history as their content. The charters “give names” to the silent finds of archaeologists: instead of the faceless “estate of a noble Novgorodian” or “traces of a wooden canopy,” we can talk about “the estate of the priest-artist Olisey Petrovich, nicknamed Grechin” and about “traces of a canopy over the premises of the local court of the prince and mayor.” . The same name in documents found on neighboring estates, mentions of princes and other statesmen, mentions of significant sums of money, geographical names - all this says a lot about the history of buildings, their owners, their social status, about their connections with other cities and regions.

SLAVIC LANGUAGES, a group of languages belonging to the Indo-European family, spoken by more than 440 million people in Eastern Europe and Northern and Central Asia. The thirteen currently existing Slavic languages are divided into three groups: 1) the East Slavic group includes Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages; 2) West Slavic includes Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian (spoken in a small area in northern Poland) and two Lusatian (or Serbian) languages - Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian, spoken in small areas in eastern Germany; 3) the South Slavic group includes: Serbo-Croatian (spoken in Yugoslavia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina), Slovenian, Macedonian and Bulgarian. In addition, there are three dead languages - Slovinian, which disappeared at the beginning of the 20th century, Polabian, which died out in the 18th century, as well as Old Church Slavonic - the language of the first Slavic translations of the Holy Scriptures, which is based on one of the ancient South Slavic dialects and which was used in worship in the Slavic Orthodox Church, but was never everyday spoken language (cm. OLD SLAVONIC LANGUAGE).

Modern Slavic languages have many words in common with other Indo-European languages. Many Slavic words are similar to the corresponding English ones, for example: sister –sister,three – three,nose – nose,night – night and etc. In other cases common origin words are less obvious. Russian word see cognate with Latin videre, Russian word five cognate with German fünf, Latin quinque(cf. musical term quintet), Greek penta, which is present, for example, in a borrowed word pentagon(lit. "pentagon") .

An important role in the system of Slavic consonantism is played by palatalization - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be either hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). In the field of phonetics, there are also some significant differences between the Slavic languages. In Polish and Kashubian, for example, two nasal vowels have been preserved - ą And ERROR, disappeared in other Slavic languages. Slavic languages vary greatly in stress. In Czech, Slovak and Sorbian the stress usually falls on the first syllable of a word; in Polish – to the penultimate; in Serbo-Croatian, any syllable except the last one can be stressed; in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, stress can fall on any syllable of a word.

All Slavic languages, except Bulgarian and Macedonian, have several types of declension of nouns and adjectives, which vary in six or seven cases, in number and in three genders. The presence of seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative or prepositional and vocative) indicates the archaic nature of the Slavic languages and their closeness to the Indo-European language, which supposedly had eight cases. An important feature of Slavic languages is the category of verbal aspect: every verb belongs to either the perfective or imperfective form and denotes, respectively, either a completed, or a continuing or repeating action.

The territory inhabited by Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe in the 5th–8th centuries. AD expanded rapidly, and by the 8th century. The common Slavic language spread from the north of Russia to the south of Greece and from the Elbe and the Adriatic Sea to the Volga. Up to the 8th or 9th century. it was basically a single language, but gradually the differences between territorial dialects became more noticeable. By the 10th century. There were already predecessors to modern Slavic languages.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Federal State Autonomous educational institution higher education

"CRIMEAN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER V.I. Vernadsky" (Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education "KFU named after V.I. Vernadsky")

TAURIDE ACADEMY

Faculty of Slavic Philology and Journalism

on the topic: Modern Slavic languages

in the discipline: “Introduction to Slavic philology”

Completed by: Bobrova Marina Sergeevna

Scientific supervisor: Malyarchuk-Proshina Ulyana Olegovna

Simferopol - 2015

Introduction

1. Modern Slavic languages. General information

1.1 West Slavic group

1.2 South Slavic group

1.3 East Slavic group

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

2.2 Czech language

2.3 Slovak language

2.4 Serbian Sorbian language

2.5 Polabian language

3. South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian language

3.2 Slovenian language

3.3 Bulgarian language

3.4 Macedonian language

4. East Slavic group of languages0

4.1 Russian language

4.2 Ukrainian language

4.3 Belarusian language

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

SlaviclanguageAnd--a group of related languages of the Indo-European family (see. Indo-European languages). Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is over 290 million people. They are distinguished by a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the root word, affixes, word structure, use grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics, system of regular sound correspondences, morphonological alternations. This closeness is explained both by the unity of origin of the Slavic languages and by their long and intensive contacts at the level of literary languages and dialects. There are, however, differences of a material, functional and typological nature, due to the long-term independent development of Slavic tribes and nationalities in different ethnic, geographical and historical-cultural conditions, their contacts with related and unrelated ethnic groups.

Slavic languages, according to the degree of their proximity to each other, are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian), South Slavic (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and Western Slavic (Czech, Slovak, Polish with a Kashubian dialect that has retained a certain genetic independence , Upper and Lower Sorbians). Small local groups of Slavs with their own literary languages are also known. Not all Slavic languages have reached us. At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. The Polabian language disappeared. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics (see East Slavic languages, West Slavic languages, South Slavic languages). Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its stylistic, genre and other varieties and its own territorial dialects.

1 . Modern Slavic languages. ABOUTgeneral information

1. 1 West Slavic group

The West Slavic group includes Polish, Kashubian, Czech, Slovak and Serbo-Sorbian languages (Upper and Lower). Polish is spoken by about 35 million people living in Poland, and about 2 million Poles abroad (including about 100 thousand in Czechoslovakia - in Cieszyn Silesia and Orava). The Kashubians live in Poland on the coast of the Vistula current, mainly in the Morskaya and Kartuzy regions. Their number reaches 200 thousand. The closely related Czech and Slovak languages are represented on the territory of Czechoslovakia: In the western regions there are about 10 million. people use Czech; in the east, about 5 million speak Slovak. About 1 million people live outside Czechoslovakia. Czechs and Slovaks.

The Serbian Sorbian language is widespread in western Germany along the upper reaches of the river. Spree. The Upper Lusatians are part of the state of Saxony; The lower Lusatians live in Brandeburg. Lusatians are a national minority of the former GDR; before the Second World War there were about 180 thousand; Currently, their number is estimated at 150 thousand.

Thus, about 50 million people use West Slavic languages, which is approximately 17% of the total number of Slavs and about 10% of the total population of Europe.

In the territory of eastern Germany, West Slavic languages underwent German assimilation in the 12th-16th centuries and disappeared. Data from modern toponymy indicate an ancient Slavic population of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Saxony and some other areas. Back in the 18th century. Slavic speech was preserved on the Elbe, in the Lyukhovsky district on the river. Etse. The language of the Polabian Slavs is reconstructed on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, small recordings of live speech made in the 17th-18th centuries, and small dictionaries of that time. In Slavic studies it is called the “Polabian language”.

1.2 South Slavic group

The South Slavic group includes Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian and Macedonian languages. They are distributed throughout most of the Balkan Peninsula. From Eastern Slavs the southern ones are distant from the territory of Romania, from the western ones - Hungary and Austria.

Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian languages are represented on the territory of Yugoslavia. The Slovenian language is spoken by about 1.5 million Slovenians living in Slovenia. 500 thousand Slovenians live outside Yugoslavia. The Kajkavian dialect is a transitional language from Slovenian to Serbo-Croatian.

The Serbo-Croatian language is spoken by over 18 million people, uniting Serbs and Croats, as well as Montenegrins and Bosnians. They use a single literary Serbo-Croatian language. The Serbo-Croatian language is separated from the Bulgarian language by a wide belt of transitional and mixed dialects stretching from the mouth of the river. Timok through Pirot Vranje, all the way to Prizren.

Macedonian is spoken by populations south of Skopje in Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria. In the west, the territory of distribution of this language is limited by the Ohrid and Presnyansky lakes, in the east - the river. Struma. The total number of Macedonians is difficult to establish, but it is unlikely to exceed 1.5 million in total. The Macedonian language received literary treatment only after the Second World War.

Bulgarian is spoken by about 9 million people living in Bulgaria. In addition to the Macedonians living in Greece, it should be noted that one hundred people live outside of Bulgaria and Yugoslavia: Slovenes in Trieste, Italy, Austria, Serbs and Croats (about 120 thousand) in Hungary and Romania, Bulgarians in Moldova and Ukraine. The total number of South Slavs is about 31 million people.

1.3 East Slavic group

East Slavic languages are used as the main languages throughout the East European Plain north of the Black and Caspian Seas and Caucasian ridge, east of the Prut and Dniester rivers. The Russian language, which is a means of interethnic communication many Slavs (over 60 million).

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

Poles use Latin script. To convey some sounds, diacritics for Latin letters and combinations of letters are used.

There are eight vowel sounds in the literary language. Nasal vowels are not always pronounced the same way; in some positions the nasal sound is lost.

Distribution area Polish language is divided into five dialect groups: Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Silesian, Masovian and Kashubian. The most extensive territories are occupied by the dialects of Greater Poland, Lesser Poland and Mavsosha.

The division into dialects is based on two features of Polish phonetics: 1) mazurenization, 2) features of interword phonetics. Masuria dominates in Mavsoshia, Lesser Poland and the northern part of Selesia.

The most significant features characterize the Kashubian dialect, which is widespread to the west of the lower Vistula. The number of speakers of this dialect reaches 200 thousand people. Some scholars believe that the Kashubian dialect should be perceived as an independent language and classified as a West Slavic subgroup.

Features of the dialect:

1. Place of stress different from Polish. In the southern part of the Kashubian region the stress falls on the initial syllable, in the north the stress is free and widespread.

2. Pronunciation of hard words s,dz.

3. Pronunciation of vowels i (y), and like е.

4. The presence of a soft consonant before the group - ar-.

5. Loss of nasality after soft consonants and before all consonants except d, n, s, z, r, t.

6. Partial preservation of vowel differences in length and shortness.

2.2 Czech

Czech graphics use the Latin alphabet. To convey Czech sounds, some changes and innovations have been made based on the use of superscripts.

Czech writing is dominated by the morphological principle, but there are a number of historical writings.

Distribution area Czech language characterized by dialect diversity. The most important dialect groups are: Czech (Bohemia and Western Moravia), Middle Moravian and Polish (Silesia and north-eastern Moravia). This classification is based mainly on differences in the pronunciation of long vowels. Within the noted dialect groups, smaller dialect units are distinguished (in the Czech group there are: Central Bohemian, North Bohemian, West Bohemian and North-East Bohemian dialects; dialect diversity is especially great in Moravia). It should be noted that many dialects of eastern Moravia are close to the Slovak language

2 . 3 Slovak language

Distributed in the eastern regions of Czechoslovakia. It is closest to the Czech language, with which it shares common grammatical structure and a significant part of the main vocabulary (the names of natural phenomena, animals, plants, parts of the year and day, many household items, etc. are identical).

The Slovak language consists of three dialects: Western Slovak, many of whose features are close to the neighboring Moravian dialects of the Czech language, Central Slovak - the dialectal basis of the modern literary language, Eastern Slovak, some dialects of which indicate Polish or Ukrainian influence.

2. 4 Serbolous Sorbian languagesTo

The Lusatian Serbs are descendants of the Western Slavs, who in the past occupied the territories between the Odra and the Elbe and underwent Germanization. They speak rather sharply different dialects: Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian, which is why there are two corresponding literary languages. In addition, it should be noted the presence of the East Lusatian (Muzhakovsky) dialect.

Writing in both Lusatian languages arose in the 16th century.

Lusatian graphics are Latin.

2.5 Polabian language

From the language of the tribes that once occupied the territory between the Oder and the Elbe, only information has been preserved about the language of the Drevlyan tribe, who lived on the left bank of the Elbe in the vicinity of Luneburg (Hannovrer). The last speakers of the Polabian language died out at the end of the 18th century, and our information about it is based on records and dictionaries of that language made by German lovers of folk art.

The entire region of the Polabian Slavs is usually divided into Veletian, Obodritian and Drevlyanian dialect groups, but there is no exact information about the first two.

3 . South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian language

The Serbo-Croatian language is used by three nations - Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins, as well as Bosniaks, residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Currently, the only differences between the Serbian and Croatian versions of the literary language are vocabulary and pronunciation. The graphic form of these options differs; Serbs use the Cyrillic alphabet, which goes back to the Russian civil alphabet, and Croats use the Latin alphabet. The Serbo-Croatian language is characterized by significant dialect diversity. It is customary to distinguish three major dialects: Shtokavian, Chakavian and Kajkavian. They received these names based on the relatively insignificant feature of the interrogative pronoun that The Shtokavian dialect occupies most of the territory of the Serbo-Croatian language. The Chakavian dialect currently occupies a relatively small territory of the Serbo-Croatian language: the coast of Dalmatia, the western part of Croatia, part of Istria and the coastal islands of Krk, Rab, Brac, Korcula, etc. The Kajkavian dialect is located in the northwestern part of the Serbo-Croatian territory in Croatia (the center of Croatia is Zagreb is located in the territory of this adverb).

3.2 Slovenian language

The Slovenian literary language uses Croatian script.

The territory of the Slovenian language is distinguished by extreme dialect diversity. This is explained by the fragmentation of the people and partly by the nature of the terrain. Up to six dialect groups are distinguished: 1) Khorutan (extreme north-west); 2) seaside (west of Slovenia); 3) Vekhnekrainskaya (northwest of Ljubljana in the valley of the Sava River); 4) Nizhnekrainskaya (southeast of Ljubljana); 5) Styrian (in the northeast between Drava and Sava); 6) Pannonian (extreme northeast) with a Zamurian (beyond the Mura River) dialect, which has a long literary tradition.

3. 3 Bulgarian language

Bulgarians use the Cyrillic alphabet, which is derived from the Russian civil alphabet. The Bulgarian alphabet differs from the Russian alphabet in the absence of letters s And uh.

A characteristic feature that allows Bulgarian dialects to be grouped is the pronunciation of replacements for the old ? . In this regard, pan-Bulgarian dialects are divided into Western and Eastern. The border separating these two dialects comes from the mouth of the river. Vit through Pleven, Tatar-Pasardzhik, Melnik to Thessaloniki. Northeastern dialects are also distinguished.

3. 4 Macedonian language

The youngest and Slavic literary languages. Its development began in 1943, when, during the liberation struggle against Hitlerism, a decision was made to transform Yugoslavia into a federal state on the basis of national equality of all its peoples, including the Macedonians. The basis of the new literary language was the central dialects (Bitol, Prilep, Veles, Kichevo), where the influence of the Serbian and Bulgarian languages was relatively weaker. In 1945, a unified spelling was adopted, which was brought closer to graphics in 1946. The first school grammar was published.

In addition to the central one, there are also northern and southern dialects. A northern dialect extending north from Skopje and Kumanovo, as well as occupying Dolni Polog, characterized by features similar to the Serbian language. The southern dialect is diverse.

4. East Slavic group of languages

4.1 Russian language

Russians use graphics that go back to the Cyrillic alphabet. At the direction of Peter I (1672-1725), the Slayan alphabet was replaced by the so-called “civil” alphabet. The letters were given a more rounded and simple form, convenient for both writing and printing; a number of unnecessary letters have been eliminated. The civil alphabet, with some modifications, is used by everyone Slavic peoples who do not use the Latin alphabet. The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological, although we often find elements of phonetic and traditional spelling.

The Russian language is divided into two main dialects - Northern Great Russian and Southern Great Russian, between which Central Great Russian dialects stretch in a narrow strip from the gray-west to the southeast, forming a passage between the two dialects. Transitional dialects for the most part have a northern basis, on which later (after the 16th century) southern Russian features were layered.

The Northern Great Russian dialect is characterized by three main features common to all its dialects: okanye, vowel distinction A And O not only under stress but also in unstressed positions, by the presence G explosive and - T(hard) at the end of the 3rd person present tense of verbs. There are also clicking and clinking sounds (not distinguishing ts And h).

The South Great Russian dialect is characterized by akanye, the presence of r fricative and -t" (soft) in the 3rd person verbs. Yakanye is characteristic.

4.2 Ukrainian language

Ukrainian graphics are basically the same as in the Russian language. The peculiarity of e is, first of all, the absence of letters e, b, s, e. For transmission e in Ukrainian the combination is used yo And yo. In the meaning of a separating solid ъ an apostrophe is used.

The territory of the Ukrainian language is divided into three dialects: northern (to the north from the line Sudzha - Sumy - Kanev - Bila Tserkva - Zhitormir - Vladimir-Volynsky), southwestern and southeastern (the border between them goes from Skvira through Uman, Ananyev to the lower currents of the Dniester). The southeastern dialect formed the basis of the Ukrainian literary language. Its features basically coincide with the system of the literary language.

4.3 Belarusian language

The Belarusian alphabet differs from the Russian alphabet in the following features: vowel th always indicated by the letter i; letter ъ is absent and the dividing meaning is conveyed by an apostrophe; to convey non-syllabic y, a superscript is used; missing letter sch, since in Belarusian there is no such sound, but there is a combination shch. The Belarusian spelling is based on the phonetic principle.

The territory of the Belarusian language is divided into two dialects: southwestern and northeastern. The approximate border between them goes along the line Vilnos - Minsk - Rogachev - Gomel. The principle of division is the character of Akanya and some other phonetic features. The southwestern dialect is characterized primarily by non-dissimilative akan and yakan. It should be noted that on the border with Ukrainian language There is a wide range of transitional Ukrainian-Belarusian dialects.

Slavic language phonetic morphological

Conclusion

The emergence of Slavic writing in the second half of the 9th century. (863) was of great importance for the development of Slavic culture. A very advanced graphic system was created for one of the types of Slavic speech, work began on translating some parts of the Bible and creating other liturgical texts. Old Church Slavonic language became common language due to Western influence and the transition to Catholicism. Therefore, further use Old Slavonic language associated primarily with the Slavic south and east. The use of Old Church Slavonic as a literary language led to the fact that this language was primarily subjected to grammatical processing.

The Proto-Slavic language has gone through a long history. It was during the existence of the Proto-Slavic language that all the main characteristic features Slavic languages. Among these phenomena, the main phonetic and morphological changes should be noted.

Literature

1. Kondrashov N.A. Slavic languages: Textbook. A manual for students of philology. specialist, ped, inst. - 3rd edition, revised. and additional - M.: Enlightenment, 1986.

2. Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary edited by V.N. Yartseva

3. Kuznetsov P. S. Essays on the morphology of the Proto-Slavic language. M., 1961.

4. Nachtigal R. Slavic languages. M., 1963

5. Meie A. Common Slavic language, trans. from French, M., 1951.

6. Trubachev O.N. Ethnogenesis and culture of the ancient Slavs: linguistic studies. M., 1991.

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Origin

Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are most closely related to the Baltic languages. The similarities between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of “Balto-Slavic proto-language”, according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language first emerged from the Indo-European proto-language, which later split into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long-term contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.

It has not been established in what territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European/Balto-Slavic occurred. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. For a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialectal variants arose later.

The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, during the formation of the early Slavic states in the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of different geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions, the Slavs entered into relationships with the inhabitants of these territories, who stood at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of Slavic languages.

Separation time

Gray and Atkinson

Atkinson and Gray performed statistical analysis related words 103 living and dead Indo-European languages (out of approximately 150 known), using a lexical-statistical database (created from Swadesh lists by Isidore Dayen) and additional information.

And the Slavic linguistic unity, according to the results of their research, fell apart 1300 years ago, that is, around the 8th century AD. The Balto-Slavic linguistic unity collapsed 3400 years ago, that is, around the 15th century BC.

Gray and Atkinson's methods and results have been heavily criticized from various quarters.

Chang, Cathcart, Hall and Garrett

Kasyan, Dybo

In September 2015, A. S. Kasyan and A. V. Dybo, as part of an interdisciplinary study on Slavic ethnogenesis, published a lexicostatistical classification of Slavic languages, built on high-quality 110-word Swadesh lists collected according to the standard of the Global Lexicostatistical Database project "and processed by modern phylogenetic algorithms.

The resulting dated tree is in agreement with the traditional Slavic point of view on the structure of the Slavic group. The tree suggests the first division of the Proto-Slavic language into three branches: eastern, western and southern. The moment of collapse is dated to ca. 100 AD e., this is consistent with the opinion of archaeologists that at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. e. the Slavic population occupied a fairly vast territory and was no longer monolithic. Further, in the V-VI centuries. n. e., the three Slavic branches are almost simultaneously divided into more fractional taxa, which corresponds to the rapid spread of the Slavs throughout Eastern Europe and the Balkans in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. e. (Slavicization of Europe).

The Slovene language was excluded from the analysis, since Ljubljana Koine and literary Slovene show a mixture of South Slavic and West Slavic lexical features (presumably this may indicate an original West Slavic attribution of the Slovene language, which for a long time was influenced by neighboring Serbo-Croatian dialects), and qualitative Swadesh lists for Slovenian dialects were not collected at that time. Due to the lack or unreliability of lexical data, the study did not cover the so-called. Old Novgorod dialect, Polabian language and some other Slavic idioms.

History of development

IN early period During the development of the Slavic proto-language, a new system of vowel sonants was formed, consonantism was significantly simplified, the reduction stage became widespread in ablaut, and the root ceased to be subject to ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is part of the satem group (sрьдьce, pisati, prositi, cf. lat. cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zьrno, znati, zima, cf. lat. granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was not fully realized: cf. Praslav *kamy, *kosa. *gǫsь, *gordъ, *bergъ, etc. Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent to the name.

Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: eastern, western and southern. From them the corresponding languages were then formed. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. There were 3 subgroups in the West Slavic group: Lechitic, Serbo-Sorbian and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was the most differentiated in terms of dialect.

The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period of the history of the Slavs, when the tribal social system dominated. Significant changes occurred during the period of early feudalism. In the XII-XIII centuries, further differentiation of the Slavic languages took place; the super-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь, characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language, were lost. In some cases they disappeared, in others they became fully formed vowels. As a result, significant changes occurred in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.

Phonetics

In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages.

Most Slavic languages have lost the long/short vowel opposition, while Czech and Slovak (excluding the North Moravian and East Slovak dialects) have lost literary standards Shtokavian group (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), and also partly in the Slovenian language, these differences are preserved. The Lechitic languages, Polish and Kashubian, retain nasal vowels, which are lost in other Slavic languages (nasal vowels were also characteristic of the phonetic system of the extinct Polabian language). For a long time nasals were retained in the Bulgarian-Macedonian and Slovenian language areas (in the peripheral dialects of the corresponding languages, relics of nasalization are reflected in a number of words to this day).

Slavic languages are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). Due to a number of depalatalization processes, the opposition of hard/soft consonants in the languages of the Czech-Slovak group is significantly limited (in Czech the opposition t - t', d - d', n - n', in Slovak - t - t', d - d', n - n', l - l', while in the West Slovak dialect due to assimilation t', d' and their subsequent hardening, as well as hardening l', usually only one pair is presented n - n', in a number of Western Slovak dialects (Povazski, Trnava, Zagorje) paired soft consonants are completely absent). The opposition of consonants in terms of hardness/softness did not develop in the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian and Western Bulgarian-Macedonian linguistic areas - of the old paired soft consonants, only n' (< *nj), l' (< *lj) did not undergo hardening (primarily in the Serbo-Croatian area).

Stress is implemented differently in Slavic languages. In most Slavic languages (except Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian), the polytonic Proto-Slavic stress was replaced by a dynamic one. The free, mobile nature of the Proto-Slavic stress was preserved in the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, as well as in the Torlak dialect and the northern dialect of the Kashubian language (the stress was also mobile in the extinct Polabian language). In Central Russian dialects (and, accordingly, in the Russian literary language), in the South Russian dialect, in Northern Kashubian dialects, as well as in the Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, this type of stress caused a reduction of unstressed vowels. In a number of languages, primarily in Western Slavic, a fixed stress has been formed, assigned to a specific syllable of a word or tact group. The penultimate syllable is stressed in the standard Polish language and most of its dialects, in the Czech North Moravian and East Slovak dialects, in the southwestern dialects of the southern dialect of the Kashubian language, as well as in the Lemko dialect. The stress falls on the first syllable in the Czech and Slovak literary languages and most of their dialects, in the Lusatian languages, in the South Kashubian dialect, as well as in some Gural dialects of the Lesser Poland dialect. In the Macedonian language, the stress is also fixed - it falls no further than the third syllable from the end of the word (accent group). In the Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian languages, the stress is polytonic, varied, and the tonic characteristics and stress distribution in word forms are different among dialects. In the Central Kashubian dialect, the stress varies, but is assigned to a specific morpheme.

Writing

The Slavic languages received their first literary treatment in the 60s. 9th century. The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Constantine the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavic for the needs of Great Moravia. The new literary language was based on the South Macedonian (Thessalonica) dialect, but in Great Moravia it acquired many local linguistic features. It was later further developed in Bulgaria. In this language (usually called Old Church Slavonic) a wealth of original and translated literature was created in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, Rus', and Serbia. There were two Slavic alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From the 9th century Slavic texts not preserved. The most ancient ones date back to the 10th century: the Dobrudzhan inscription of 943, the inscription of King Samuil of 993, the Varosha inscription of 996 and others. Starting from c. More Slavic monuments have survived.

Similarities and differences between Slavic languages

Due to historical reasons Slavic languages managed to maintain significant similarity relative to each other. At the same time, almost each of them has a number of unique features.

	Eastern group			Western group			Southern group
	Russian	Ukrainian	Belorussian	Polish	Slovak	Czech	Serbo-Croatian	Bulgarian	Macedonian	Slovenian
Number of carriers	250	45	6,4	40	5,2	9,5	21	8,5	2	2,2
Nearest	Belorussian	Ukrainian	Kashubian	Czech	Slovak	Serbo-Croatian	Macedonian	Bulgarian	Slovenian
Writing	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	Latin	Latin	Latin	Cyrillic / Latin	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	Latin
Differences from others Slavic languages	reduction of unstressed vowels (akanie); Preservation of soft consonants [g’], [k’], [d’], [p’]	alternation o-i, e-i in a closed syllable	phonetic principle in spelling; extreme reduction of vowels (akanye)	two rows of sibilant consonants; stress is fixed on the penultimate syllable	ascending diphthongs	the stress is fixed on the first syllable; separation of long and short vowels;		loss of cases; variety of verb forms; lack of infinitive	loss of cases; variety of verb forms; lack of infinitive	the presence of a dual number; high heterogeneity (more than 40 dialects)
Accent type	free dynamic	free dynamic	free dynamic	fixed to penultimate	fixed noe on the per-	fixed noe on the per-	free musical	free dynamic	fixed third layer ha from the end of the word)	free musical
Morphology: vocative form (case)	No	There is	There is	There is	No	There is	There is	There is	There is	No

Literary languages

In the era of feudalism, Slavic literary languages, as a rule, did not have strict norms. Sometimes the functions of the literary language were performed by foreign languages (in Rus' - the Old Church Slavonic language, in the Czech Republic and Poland - the Latin language).

The Russian literary language has experienced centuries-long and complex evolution. It absorbed folk elements and elements of the Old Church Slavonic language, and was influenced by many European languages.

In the Czech Republic in the 18th century. literary language, which reached in the XIV-XVI centuries. great perfection, has almost disappeared. The German language was dominant in the cities. During the period of national revival in the Czech Republic, the language of the 16th century was artificially revived, which at that time was already far from vernacular. History of the Czech literary language XIX - centuries. reflects the interaction between the old book language and the spoken language. The Slovak literary language had a different history; it developed on the basis of the folk language. In Serbia until the 19th century. Church Slavonic was dominant. In the 18th century the process of bringing this language closer to the folk one began. As a result of the reform carried out

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