Works of Copernicus. Nicolaus Copernicus and his heliocentric system

Biography

early years

The question of the ethnicity of Copernicus is still the subject of a (rather unpromising) discussion. His mother was German (Barbara Watzelrode), he wrote in Latin and German, not a single document in Polish written by him has not been found. Probably, ethnically Copernicus was a German, although he most likely considered himself a Pole (according to territorial and political affiliation); in any case, the list of students at the University of Padua shows that he listed himself among the Poles who studied there.

In the Copernicus family, besides Nicholas, there were three more children: Andrei, later a canon in Warmia, and two sisters: Barbara and Katerina. Barbara went to a monastery, and Katerina got married and gave birth to five children, to whom Nicolaus Copernicus was very attached and took care of them until the end of his life.

Having lost his father as a 9-year-old child and remained in the care of his maternal uncle, Canon Luke ( Lucas) Watzelrode (Watzenrode), Copernicus entered the University of Krakow in 1491, where he studied mathematics, medicine and theology with equal zeal, but he was especially attracted to astronomy.

To continue his education, Copernicus leaves for Italy () and enters the University of Bologna. In addition to theology, law and ancient languages, he also has the opportunity to study astronomy there. It is interesting to note that one of the professors in Bologna was then Scipio del Ferro, with whose discoveries the revival of European mathematics began. Meanwhile, thanks to the efforts of his uncle, in Poland Copernicus is elected in absentia as a canon in the diocese of Warmia.

When necessary, Copernicus devoted his strength and practical work: according to his project, a new monetary system was introduced in Poland, and in the city of Frombork, he built a hydraulic machine that supplied water to all houses. Personally, as a doctor, he is engaged in the fight against the plague of 1519. During the Polish-Teutonic War (-) organized a successful defense of the bishopric from the Teutons. At the end of the conflict, Copernicus took part in peace negotiations (), which ended with the creation of the first Protestant state on the order lands - the Duchy of Prussia, a vassal of the Polish crown ().

Death

The book of Copernicus has remained as an outstanding monument to inquisitive human thought. From that moment dates the beginning of the first scientific revolution.

grave

Location of the tomb of Copernicus long time remained unknown, but in November 2008 DNA analysis confirmed the discovery of his remains.

Scientific activity

heliocentric system

Celestial spheres in the Copernican manuscript

Title page of "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium"

In the preface to the book, Copernicus writes:

Considering how absurd this teaching must seem, I hesitated for a long time to publish my book and thought whether it would not be better to follow the example of the Pythagoreans and others, who transmitted their teaching only to friends, spreading it only through tradition.

The Nuremberg theologian Osiander, to whom Rheticus entrusted the printing of the book of Copernicus, out of caution provided it with an anonymous preface, in which he announced new model conditional mathematical technique invented to reduce calculations. At one time, this preface was attributed to Copernicus himself, although he resolutely refused to make such a reservation in response to Osiander's request. The preface is followed by a letter of praise from Cardinal Schoenberg and a dedication to Pope Paul III.

In structure, the main work of Copernicus almost repeats the Almagest in a somewhat abridged form (6 books instead of 13). The first part speaks of the sphericity of the world and the Earth, and instead of the position of the immobility of the Earth, another axiom is placed - the Earth and other planets rotate around an axis and revolve around the Sun. This concept is argued in detail, and the "opinion of the ancients" is convincingly refuted. From heliocentric positions, he easily explains the return motion of the planets.

The second part provides information on spherical trigonometry and the rules for calculating the apparent positions of stars, planets and the Sun in the firmament.

The third one talks about the annual movement of the Earth and precession (precession of the equinoxes), and Copernicus correctly explains it by the displacement of the earth's axis, which is why the line of intersection of the equator with the ecliptic moves.

In the fourth - about the Moon, in the fifth - about the planets in general, and in the sixth - about the reasons for changing the latitudes of the planets. The book also contains a star catalog, an estimate of the size of the Sun and Moon, the distances to them and to the planets (close to true), the theory of eclipses.

Ratings

• “In depth of considerations, Copernicus was the greatest astronomer of his time, but he was not a very good practitioner; however, this is not his fault: he had few funds at his disposal and he made all the tools with his own hands.
• F. Engels ranked Copernicus among the titans "by the power of thought, passion and character, by versatility and learning."

The complete work of Copernicus was published by Baranowski in Warsaw in 1854 in Latin and Polish.

On the central square of the Polish Torun there is a monument to Copernicus, on which there is an inscription: "He who stopped the Sun - moved the Earth."

The minor planet 1322 Copernicus is named after Copernicus. An explanation is needed here: double p in the name corresponds to the surname of Copernicus' father (Koppernigk, Koppernig), as well as the Latin signature of Copernicus himself at the beginning of his life: Coppernicus. AT last years Copernicus shortened the signature to Copernicus.

see also

Notes

Literature

N. Copernicus on stamps of Poland and Mongolia

Compositions

• Copernicus Nicholas. On the rotation of the celestial spheres. Per. I. N. Veselovsky. Moscow: Nauka, 1964.

About him

• Ambartsumyan V. A. Copernicus and contemporary astronomy. Report at the Anniversary Meeting of the General Meeting of the USSR Academy of Sciences, dedicated to the 500th anniversary of the birth of N. Copernicus, March 6, 1973. Bulletin of the USSR Academy of Sciences, No. 5, 1973, pp. 46-56.
• A. V. Akhutin The Copernican Innovation and the Copernican Revolution. In the book: A. V. Akhutin Struggling about being. M.: RFO, 1997, p. 181-243.
• Bely Yu. A. Copernicus, Copernicanism and the Development of Natural Science, IAI, Vol. XII, pp. 15. Read
• Veselovsky I. N., Bely Yu. A. Copernicus, 1473-1543. Moscow: Nauka, 1974.
• Gerasimenko M.P. Nicolaus Copernicus is an outstanding economist of the era of early capitalism. Kyiv: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, 1953.
• Grebenikov E. A. Nicholas Copernicus. Moscow: Nauka, 1982.
• Idelson N.I. Studies in the history of celestial mechanics. Moscow: Nauka, 1975.
• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543). On the 400th anniversary of death. M.-L.: Ed. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1947.
• Engelgardt M. A.

It was Copernicus who first stated that the Earth is not in the center of the Universe, but is a planet and revolves around the Sun. Despite the fact that this theory has gained many supporters among scientists, it has faced sharp opposition from the church. Most likely, the Copernicus family came from the village of Copernicus, located in Upper Silesia. At the end of the XIV century, the ancestors of Nicholas moved to Krakow. The father of the great astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus, was a wealthy merchant who moved to Torun. There he married Barbara Wachenrod, the daughter of a rich Torun patrician, who bore him four children - Andrzej, Barbara, Katarzyna and Nikolai.

The boy's carefree childhood ended immediately after the death of his father. The mother's brother, Lukasz Wachenrode, at that time the canon of the chapter in Wloclawek, the main city of the Polish province of Kuyavia, took care of the orphaned family. It was he who cared about the future fate of his nephew. Wachenrode believed that it was best for Nicholas to choose a spiritual career and, in order to make it easier for the boy to receive a high church position in the future, provided him with an appropriate education. After graduating from the cathedral school, Nikolai entered the Faculty of Liberal Arts at the Jagiellonian University in Krakow, where he thoroughly became acquainted with geometry, arithmetic and astronomy.

Krakow University at that time experienced a period of its highest prosperity. It is possible that already during his studies in Krakow, Copernicus became convinced of the need for fundamental changes in the theory of the universe. He got acquainted with the works of Wojciech Brudzewski, one of the most prominent astronomers in Krakow, who, although he did not doubt the correctness of the theory of Claudius Ptolemy, however, noticed some contradictions in it. Copernicus continued his studies at the universities of Bologna, Padua and Ferrara, attending lectures on canon law and medicine in accordance with the will of his uncle. However, the study of law did not attract him too much, and he was not able to complete it in a predetermined period.

He was much more interested in astronomy, as well as the writings of ancient philosophers. In Bologna, Copernicus became close to the Italian astronomer Domenico di Novara, with whom he observed the movement of the moon. It was then that he became convinced that the astronomical theory incorrectly explains the movement of celestial bodies. Copernicus received a doctorate in canon law. Lukasz Wachenrode, then Bishop of Warmia, appointed his beloved nephew as his secretary, adviser and personal doctor, and Nicholas settled in the episcopal palace in Lidzbark. Despite being busy, he found time for scientific work- in particular, he wrote a short study "Small Commentary", where he first cited sketches new theory the structures of the world. However, to confirm it, evidence was needed, and this required long and systematic observations of the sky.

Copernicus left Lidzbark and assumed the duties of a canon in Frombork, where he spent the most fruitful years of his life. In keeping with the spirit of the Renaissance, Copernicus possessed varied knowledge in many fields. He talked about poetry, processed maps of Poland and Lithuania, as well as Warmia and the western part of the Vistula floodplain. In addition to astronomy, the learned canon was interested in mathematics, philosophy and economics (). Copernicus prepared a draft monetary reform, which he outlined in a treatise. In it, he formulated a rule stating that the worst coin forces the best coin out of circulation.

The scientist noticed that the best coins were withdrawn and melted down for the worst, containing less silver, and the income from this went to the cities that had the right to mint coins. To prevent the falsification of money, Copernicus proposed the introduction of a single coin throughout Prussia, and also proposed methods for protecting money from devaluation. Treatise on the coin was not the only economic work of Copernicus.

At the request of the Warmian Chapter, who was trying to find out the causes of the difficulties of the villagers, the scientist analyzed the prices of bread. The result of these studies was the work. It followed that the prices of bread were too low compared to the prices of other commodities. Copernicus believed that the cost of bread should correspond to the cost of labor and the actual cost of purchased raw materials. To do this, he calculated the cost of the baking process and compiled a table of fair prices for baking.

Most likely, Nicolaus Copernicus was not ordained, but had only a lower consecration. He never applied for a higher ecclesiastical position, but he performed various duties many times. responsible duties- for several years he was the manager of the property of the chapter and was even forced to temporarily settle in Olsztyn. When the Polish-Teutonic War began, he was again called to this post and instructed to prepare the city for defense against the attack of the Teutonic Knights. The measures taken by him turned out to be so effective that the crusaders, led by the Grand Master Albrecht of Brandenburg, failed to occupy Olydtyn.

On behalf of the chapter, Copernicus writes a letter to King Sigismund I the Old with assurances of loyalty and a request for military assistance. The Chapter of Warmia appreciated the merits of the energetic canon and appointed him commissar of Warmia. As early as the 3rd century BC, Greek philosophers assumed that the earth could be spherical and revolve around its own axis. In antiquity, these views did not receive recognition, since they contradicted the teachings of Aristotle, which at that time was recognized as the only correct one. Almost until the end of the 15th century, the opinion prevailed that the Earth was a flat disk located in the center of the Universe, around which the Sun, Moon and planets revolve.

The Bible clearly spoke about the location of the Earth in the center of space. Nicolaus Copernicus created a completely different image of the world around him. He pointed out that the central star is the Sun, and it is it, and not the Earth, that is the center of the universe. Earth turned out to be just one of the planets of a huge system. The heliocentric system explained all hitherto incomprehensible astronomical phenomena - the change of day and night, the rise and fall of the moon, and the movement of the planets. Copernicus was a theorist, and crucial to his discovery were mathematical calculations. The astronomer did not have any precise instruments - all his instruments were made of spruce wood.

To observe the height of the Sun, the scientist used the solar quadrant, and to determine the position of the Moon and planets, Copernicus used the armillary sphere, which consisted of six wooden rings. With the help of a parallactic triangle of three bars forming an isosceles triangle with a variable base, the astronomer could measure the distances between the Earth and the Moon. Some instruments for observation Copernicus invented and made independently. For example, on the parapet of the castle gallery in Olsztyn, a scientist placed a mirror that reflected a sunbeam on the opposite wall, on which lines with marked degrees were drawn - with the help of such an astronomical table, the scientist studied the phenomenon of the equinox. He observed eclipses of the Sun with the same original method - he drilled a small hole in the shutter of his workshop, through which the sun's rays entered the darkened room and created a picture of the phenomenon on the opposite wall.

Despite the fact that Copernicus had very simple instruments, his observations and measurements were so accurate that they surprised many scientists in later times.

But such a device as an anemometer was invented after Copernicus, in the 19th century. The device is used in different areas life, more often in metrology, construction, food industry. In the last few years, you can notice an increase in the number of devices in the Russian markets, for example, you can buy an anemometer in St. Petersburg. An anemometer is used to determine the flow rate of air or gas.

Copernicus was slow to publish his theses. He knew that his discovery would meet resistance from his contemporaries. Only before his death, the scientist succumbed to the persuasion of his friends and agreed to publish his work. Georg Joachim von Lauchen, a professor at the University of Wittenberg, who took the name Rhetik, lived in Frombork and was interested in the theory of Copernicus.

It was he who handed over the manuscript to the printing house in Nuremberg. At first, she did not officially condemn the new theory, so as not to give it fame. Written in Latin and provided with complex calculations, the study was understandable only to the initiated. Only at the end of the 16th century, thanks to the Italian scientist Giordano Bruno, the world realized the turning point in the teachings of Copernicus. Discussions began that went far beyond mathematical problems and concerned more questions of religion and philosophy.

Supporters of the new system of the structure of the universe found themselves in conflict with the church. For supporting the theory of Copernicus, Giordano Bruno burned at the stake. Pope Paul V added "On Conversions", as well as all other writings that develop and promote the teachings of Copernicus, to the list of banned books. The repetition of the fate of Giordano Bruno was able to avoid the astronomer Johannes Kepler, in late XVII century, who confirmed the fidelity of the heliocentric system by discovering the laws of planetary motion. The theory of Copernicus was promoted by the philosopher and astronomer Galileo.

The Tribunal of the Inquisition recognized the views of Galileo as inconsistent with church postulates, and under the threat of torture, the 69-year-old scientist was forced to publicly renounce the teachings of Copernicus. Galileo lived in isolation until the end of his days under the supervision of the Inquisition. Only Pope John Paul II officially declared that the church was wrong in condemning Galileo.

The world fundamental science is based on conjectures, theories and works of scientists who were sent from above to become pioneers. Such a unique person to the world was the Polish canon Nicholas Copernicus (1473 - 1543). The guesses and predictions of the thinker, formalized over more than half a century in only a few fundamental scientific papers, brought many talented followers and popularizers of his theories to the medieval fire of the Inquisition. He was born in the 15th century, too early for the alchemists and pseudoscientists to recklessly admit the correctness of his scientific conclusions.

The breadth of his scientific outlook is truly unimaginable. The main works and discoveries made in the field of economics, mathematics and astronomy. At the University of Krakow, where he entered in 1491, the main emphasis, of course, was on medicine and theology. But young Nikolai immediately found a branch of science that he liked - astronomy. degree in Krakow he failed to receive, and from 1497 he continued his education at the University of Bologna. Domenico Novara supervised his astronomical observations. Copernicus was lucky to have a mentor in Bologna - he was lectured by the father of the European medieval mathematical school, Scipio del Ferro.

The same period includes works devoted to another field of science - economics. Treatise on Coins (1519), Monetae cudendae ratio (1528).

Fortress of Copernicus

Copernicus completed his education in 1503 at the University of Padua. In those years, the worldview of a young admirer of astronomy began to take shape, which he could safely engage in, turning the northwestern tower of the Frombork fortress in the Baltic into an observatory.

The scientific works of Nicholas, dated to the beginning of the 16th century, were devoted to a new theory of the construction of the world - heliocentric. It was first presented in the monograph "Small commentary ..." (lat. Commentariolus). In 1539, a student of Copernicus, Georg von Rethik, simply and plain language spoke in his book about the meaning of opening a mentor. The main book, on which Copernicus worked for more than forty years, was called "On the rotation of celestial bodies." He constantly made corrections to it, based on increasingly accurate astronomical calculations.

Having read Ptolemy's reflections on the structure of the world for the first time, Copernicus immediately noticed that the conclusions of the scientific ancient thinker are very controversial, and the way of presentation is very complicated and incomprehensible to a simple reader. The conclusion of Copernicus was unequivocal - the center of the system is the Sun, around which the Earth and all the planets known at that time revolve. Some elements of Ptolemy's theory still had to be recognized - the Pole could not know what the orbits of the planets were.

The work on the fundamental postulates of the heliocentric system was first published by Georg Retik in Nuremberg in 1543 under the title "On the rotation of the celestial spheres." Fearing persecution by the Inquisition, the theologian Andreas Osiander, the publisher of the book, wrote a preface to it. He called the theory a special technique of a mathematical nature, designed to simplify the process of astronomical calculations. The monograph of Copernicus as a whole resembles Ptolemy's Almagest, only there are fewer books - six instead of thirteen. Copernicus easily substantiated that the planets move back, that is, in circular orbits.

The mathematical part of the book contains information about the calculation of the location of the stars, the Sun and planets in the sky. The principles of the Earth's orbit around the Sun are described by Copernicus using the rule of precession of the equinoxes. Ptolemy could not explain it, but Copernicus absolutely accurately speaks about this from the point of view of kinematics. Mentions in his work Copernicus about the principles and laws of motion of the Moon and planets, considers the nature and causes of solar eclipses.

Finally, the theory of the heliocentric theory of the world of Nicolaus Copernicus was formed in the form of seven postulates, which completely swept aside the geocentric system. She had a great influence on the formation of the worldview of the descendants of Copernicus in the study of the astronomical picture of the world.

Five hundred years of recognition

Active scientific activity of Copernicus continued until 1531. He concentrated on medicine, and as far as possible tried, finally, to prepare his book for publication. scientific theory. Historians and biographers of Copernicus do not agree on the question of whether he managed to see the book printed. On May 24, 1543, he died in a coma after a severe stroke. The remains of the grave of a brilliant Pole were discovered in Frombork Cathedral in 2005, identified and reburied with grandiose honors in the same place on May 20, 2010. Only in 1854 did Jan Baranowski publish the complete works of Copernicus in Polish and Latin.

Nicolaus Copernicus is immortalized by descendants in hundreds of monuments and names. transuranium element Periodic system Mendeleev No. 112 is called "Copernicus". In the vastness of the universe lives a small planet (1322) Copernicus.

Copernicus Nicholas (1473-1543) - an outstanding Polish astronomer, physician, mechanic, theologian, mathematician and economist. Lived and made discoveries during the Renaissance. He is the author of the heliocentric system of the world, Nicholas refuted the geocentric system of the ancient Greeks and suggested that the Sun is the central celestial body in the Universe, and the Earth and other planets revolve around it. Thus, having changed the model of the universe, Copernicus laid the foundation for the first scientific revolution.

Childhood

Nicholas was born in Torun, Royal Prussia, on February 19, 1473. His father, Nicolaus Copernicus Sr., was a merchant from Krakow. Mom, Barbara Watzenrode, was of German descent.

More than five hundred years have passed, the borders of states and their names have changed, so there are still disputes in which country the great astronomer was born and who he is by nationality. The city of Torun, only seven years before the birth of Copernicus, became part of the Kingdom of Poland. The nationality of the father is not known for certain.

The roots of the mother give full grounds for the assertion that ethnically Nikolai was at least half German. Perhaps because of his political and territorial affiliation, he himself considered himself a Pole. Only one thing is certain: Copernicus never wrote a single document in Polish, only in Latin and German.

Nikolai was the fourth child in the family. Two girls and a boy were born before him. One of the sisters (Barbara), becoming an adult, took her hair as a nun; the second (Katerina) got married and left Torun. She had five children, whom Nikolai loved very much. He took care of them until the end of his life, as if they were his own. Brother Andrzej became Nikolai's faithful companion and colleague, together they studied at universities, then traveled around half of Europe.

Since the father was a merchant, the family lived in abundance. But this happiness did not last long. When the youngest of the children, Nikolai, was only nine years old, a plague broke out in Europe, which claimed tens of thousands human lives. Terrible disease overtook the head of the Copernicus Sr. family, as a result of which he died. All worries about the family now fell on the shoulders of Barbara. It was hard for a woman to cope with everything, and she and her children were taken care of native brother Lucas Watzenrode. In 1489, the mother also died, the children remained complete orphans in the care of their uncle.

Lukash was a local Catholic bishop, he was considered a skilled diplomat and was entrusted with various delicate assignments of a political nature. Uncle was very well-read and intelligent, doctor of canon law at the University of Bologna, master at the Krakow Jagiellonian University. Lukash's temperament was cool, while he loved his younger nephew Nikolai very much, gave him fatherly warmth and often spoiled him. In the younger Copernicus, the uncle saw his successor, so he instilled in him an interest in learning and a desire for education.

Education

Nicholas was fifteen years old when he graduated from school hometown, received further education at the Cathedral School of Włocławska. It was here that he began to take a keen interest in astronomy. This was facilitated by a teacher who had an unusual surname Vodka. The teacher himself adhered to a sober lifestyle and asked his colleagues and students to call him Abstemius, which is translated from Latin means "refraining". Teacher Vodka did an excellent job sundial. Communicating with him, Copernicus first thought about the fact that the Earth in relation to the Sun is located mutually.

In 1491, uncle Lukash made a patronage for his nephews Nicholas and Andrzej to enter the Krakow Jagiellonian University. This institution at that time was famous for its curricula in astronomy, mathematics and philosophy. The guys were admitted to the university at the faculty of art. Here an approach to science from a philosophical point of view was encouraged. The Copernicus brothers were engaged in an in-depth study of mathematics, theology, astronomy, medicine and theology. There was an intellectual atmosphere in the educational institution, which developed students' critical thinking.

At the University of Krakow, young Copernicus took up astronomy no longer on the level of idle interest, but quite seriously. He attended lectures by famous scientists.

In 1494, Nicholas graduated from the university, but did not receive any academic title. Together with his brother, he wanted to go to Italy to continue his studies. But there was no money for such a trip, and the brothers planned that their uncle Lukash, who by that time had become the Bishop of Emerland, would help them financially. However, the uncle said that he had no free money. He offered his nephews to earn money by becoming canons in his diocese, and then go to study abroad with the funds received.

Copernicus worked for a little over two years and in 1497 went to Italy. Uncle Lukash contributed to the fact that the nephew was given a three-year leave for study, was given an advance salary, and was also elected a canon in absentia to the diocese of Warmia.

Nikolai entered the oldest educational institution in Europe - the University of Bologna. He chose the Faculty of Law, where he studied canon ecclesiastical law. Students were taught ancient languages ​​(especially Nicholas was fascinated by the Greek language) and theology, and he again got the opportunity to study astronomy. The young Copernicus was also fascinated by painting, since then a canvas has survived to this day, which is considered a copy of his self-portrait. In Bologna, Nicholas met and began to communicate closely with the Italian scientist Scipio del Ferro, whose discoveries marked the beginning of the revival of European mathematics.

But decisive in the fate of Copernicus was the meeting with Professor of Astronomy Domenico Maria Novara de Ferrara. Together with a teacher, Nikolai made the first astronomical observation in his life, as a result of which they concluded that the distance to the Moon in quadrature is the same on the full moon and the new moon. After this observation, Copernicus for the first time doubted the validity of Ptolemy's theory, according to which the Earth is the center of the Universe with celestial bodies rotating around it.

After studying at the University of Bologna for three years, Nikolai had to return to his homeland, as the period of leave granted to him for study had ended. He again did not receive a diploma and a title. Arriving in 1500 at the place of service in the city of Frauenburg, they, together with their brother, again asked to postpone their return to work and provide leave in order to complete their studies.

In 1502, the request of the Copernicus brothers was granted, and they again went to Italy to further study medical science at the University of Padua.

In 1503, at the University of Ferrara, Nicholas nevertheless passed the exams and left educational institution Doctor of Canon Law. Uncle Lukash allowed him not to return home, and Nikolai took up medical practice in Padua, Italy.

Scientific activity

In 1506, Copernicus received a letter stating that his uncle's condition had worsened (perhaps it was far-fetched). Nikolai went home. For the next six years, he lived in the bishop's castle of Heilsberg, acting as a confidant and secretary for Uncle Lukas, and was also his doctor. At the same time, he managed to engage in teaching activities in Krakow, conducted astronomical observations and developed a treatise on monetary reform.

In 1512 uncle Lukash died. Nicholas had to move to a small town on the banks of the Vistula Lagoon Frombork, where he was listed as a canon. Here he began to fulfill his church duties, and continued to engage in scientific observations. He worked alone, did not use any outside help or a consultation. There were no optical instruments then, and Copernicus conducted all his research from the northwestern tower of the fortress, which was located near the wall of the monastery. Here he set up his observatory.

When the new astronomical system clearly presented itself to his mind, Nikolai set to writing a book in which he decided to describe a different model of the world. He did not make a secret of his observations, he shared them with his friends, among whom there were many like-minded people.

By 1530, Nicholas had completed his first great work, On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres. In this work, he assumed that the Earth rotates around its axis during one day, and around the Sun during a year. For the time, it was an unimaginably fantastic idea. Until then, everyone considered the motionless Earth to be the center of the Universe, around which the stars, planets and the Sun revolve.

The news of a new outstanding astronomer quickly spread throughout Europe. At first, there was no persecution of the concept he proposed. First, Nikolai formulated his ideas very carefully. Secondly, the church fathers long time they themselves could not decide whether to consider the heliocentric model of the world a heresy. So Copernicus was more fortunate than his followers Galileo Galilei and Giordano Bruno.

Copernicus was in no hurry to publish his book, since he was a perfectionist by nature, and believed that his observations should be double-checked several times. In total, he worked on the book for forty years, made changes, corrections and clarifications, and was engaged in the preparation of new calculated astronomical tables. The main work of the scientist was published in 1543, but he never found out about it, because he was already in a coma on his deathbed. Some details of this theory were corrected and finalized by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler in the future.

Copernicus was engaged not only in scientific, but also in practical activities:

• He developed a project, according to which a new monetary system was introduced in Poland.
• During the Polish-Teutonic War, he became the organizer of the defense of the bishops from the Teutons. After the conflict ended, he took part in peace negotiations, which resulted in the creation of the first Protestant state - the Duchy of Prussia.
• Designed new system water supply in the city of Frombork, thanks to which a hydraulic machine was built and all houses were supplied with water.
• In 1519, as a doctor, he threw his forces into the elimination of the plague.

Since 1531, Nicholas devoted all his time only to the heliocentric system and gratuitous medical practice. As his health was getting worse, in many ways Copernicus was helped by like-minded people, friends and students.

Illness and death

In 1542, Copernicus became much worse, completely paralyzed on the right side. In March 1543, he fell into a coma and remained in it until his death. On May 24, 1543, as a result of a stroke, the heart of the great scientist stopped.

For a long time the place of his burial was unknown. In 2005, archaeological excavations were carried out in the city of Frombork, as a result of which human remains were discovered - leg bones and a skull. The reconstruction of the skull, carried out by special methods, corresponded to the signs of Copernicus himself. It is known that the scientist had a broken bridge of the nose, and there was a scar above his left eye, such marks were also found on the found skull. The examination also determined that the skull belonged to a man who died at the age of seventy. We conducted a comparative DNA analysis of the discovered remains and hair found earlier in one of the books of Copernicus (this rarity was kept in the library of the Swedish University). As a result, it was revealed that these are indeed the remains of a great astronomer.

In 2010 they were reburied in Frombork Cathedral. A lot of monuments were erected to Copernicus throughout Poland, the university in Torun and the international airport in the city of Wroclaw bear his name. On one of the monuments there is an inscription: "He who stopped the Sun - moved the Earth."

The discoveries of the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus not only created a new scientific paradigm, but also made a real revolution in human mind, becoming the basis for a new picture of the world. The Renaissance, during which the scientist worked, became a turning point for the life of all of Europe. It was then that the most progressive representatives of mankind made a breakthrough in many areas of knowledge. The works of Copernicus marked the beginning of another scientific revolution and became part of a new natural science.

short biography

The famous canon and astronomer was born in the city of Torun in a wealthy merchant family on February 19, 1473. Since Torun at the turn of XV-XVI several times passed from hand to hand, becoming the property of either the Teutonic Order or the Polish king, Germany and Poland are still arguing about what nationality Copernicus was. Torun is now part of Poland.

In the early 1480s, a plague epidemic broke out in Europe, killing many thousands of people, including Nicolaus Copernicus Sr., the father of the future scientist. In 1489, the mother of the family also died. The guardianship of the remaining orphans was taken over by their uncle, Lukasz Wachenrode, who was a bishop of the diocese of Varma. He gave a very good education to his nephews - Nikolai and his older brother Andrzej.

After the young people graduated from school in Torun, they continued their education at the cathedral school in the city of Wloclawska, and then went to Krakow, where they entered the Jagiellonian University at the Faculty of Arts. Here Nikolai met the famous astronomer of that time - Professor Wojciech Brudzewski. Brudzevsky believed that a scientist should respect the works of his predecessors, but at the same time not stop at the empty reproduction of other people's theories, but move on and learn to compare the works of the classics with the latest hypotheses. Brudzevsky's approach largely determined the future scientific path of Copernicus himself.

In 1495, the brothers graduated from the university, became canons in their uncle's diocese, and went to Italy. Here they continued their education at the Faculty of Law of the University of Bologna. Within the walls of Bologna, Nicolaus Copernicus met astronomy teacher Domenico Maria di Novara. Together with the teacher, Copernicus began to regularly observe the stars. It was then that he noticed that the real movement of the heavenly bodies does not correspond to the scheme of the geocentric Universe described by Ptolemy.

After studying in Bologna, the Copernicans continued to travel around Italy. For some time, Nikolai lectured on mathematics in Rome and communicated with representatives of the Italian nobility. In the early 1500s, Copernicus was also educated in Padua and Ferrara. Here he became acquainted with medicine and received a doctorate in divinity. A few years later, at the insistence of his uncle, the scientist returned to Poland and became the personal secretary and at the same time the family doctor of Bishop Wachenrode. In parallel, he continued his studies in astronomy in Krakow. Nearly a ten-year stay in Italy made Copernicus comprehensively erudite person who have absorbed recent achievements all major applied sciences.

In 1516, after the death of Bishop Wachenrode, Nicolaus Copernicus moved to Frombork and took up the usual duties of a canon, at which time he began to develop his heliocentric system.

However, Poland remembered Nicolaus Copernicus not only as a brilliant astronomer and clergyman. He also:

• developed some economic laws that made it possible to carry out monetary reform in Poland,
• how the doctor successfully fought the plague,
• made up detailed maps Poland, Lithuania and the Vistula (now Kaliningrad) Bay,
• came up with a system for supplying water to the houses of Frombork,
• during the years of the Polish-Teutonic War led the defense of the city.

In addition to astronomy, Nicolaus Copernicus was fond of painting, studying foreign languages and mathematics.

Since the works of Copernicus, dedicated to his heliocentric system, were published at the very end of the scientist's life, Catholic Church didn't have time to accept necessary measures against a dissident astronomer. Nicolaus Copernicus died of a stroke on May 24, 1543, surrounded by his friends and students.

Development of the heliocentric system

Medieval Europe inherited ancient ideas about the structure of the cosmos, namely the geocentric system of Claudius Ptolemy, developed in the 2nd century AD. e. Ptolemy taught that:

• The earth is at the center of the universe;
• She is motionless;
• All celestial bodies revolve around the earth at a constant speed. certain lines epicycles and deferents.

The Greek scientist left notes that also related to the calculations of the distance between space objects and the speed of their movement. For many centuries, the Ptolemaic system was generally accepted throughout Europe. Based on it, people calculated the fairways of ships, determined the length of the year and made calendars.

The first attempts to create other ideas about the Universe arose even before the birth of Ptolemy. Some ancient astronomers believed that the Earth, like other celestial bodies, revolves around the Sun, which is at the center of the world. However, these theories are not widely accepted.

While still studying starry sky under the guidance of Novara, Nicolaus Copernicus noticed that the paths he observed along which the planets moved did not correspond to Ptolemy's epicycles. Initially, the scientist wanted only to make minor corrections to the system of his predecessor, however, the observations gave stunning results. The real movement of the planets in orbits clearly indicated that they did not revolve around the Earth, but around the Sun.

Astronomical observations, already carried out in Frombork, were not easy for Copernicus. In addition to the fact that he devoted most of his time to his direct duties as a canon, the astronomer was greatly interfered with weather. Frombork was located on the banks of the Vistula Lagoon, so thick sea fogs constantly stood over the town. For his work, Copernicus used mainly only two tools:

• Triquetrum - a special ruler that made it possible to determine the zenith distances of astronomical objects;
• Horoscopy, with which it was possible to determine the height of heavenly bodies above the horizon.

Despite the fact that Copernicus' arsenal of astronomical instruments was not so great, the scientist managed to make complex and very accurate calculations, which laid the foundation for the formation of a new scientific paradigm. It is curious that the technical tools to directly prove the rotation of the Earth around the Sun appeared only 200 years after the death of the scientist.

Copernicus was a sane person and understood that his revolutionary conclusions could lead to accusations of heresy. Therefore, although the scientist did not make much secret from his observations, all his formulations were quite careful and streamlined. His hypotheses were outlined in a small work - "Small comments". This book was not intended for a wide range of readers and passed from hand to hand among the friends of Copernicus.

The astronomer was also saved by the fact that the Catholic Church had not yet come to a consensus: whether to consider the supporters of heliocentrism as heretics or not. In addition, the Catholic hierarchs needed the services of Copernicus: at the beginning of the 16th century, the question arose of creating a new calendar and establishing exact dates. church holidays. First of all, it was required to develop a formula for calculating exact date Easter. The old Julian calendar complicated the calculations, because it did not take into account about 8 hours a year, and required reworking. Copernicus, who was invited for this purpose, declared that such a serious work should be based on careful astronomical observations. In particular, it was necessary to establish the exact duration of the year and the trajectories of the Sun, Moon and neighboring planets.

While working on the new calendar, Copernicus finally became convinced of the falsity of the geocentric system. Many of Copernicus' solutions were ideal for a situation in which the Earth revolved around the sun, and not vice versa.

In the early 1530s, Copernicus decides to present his ideas in a finished and edited version. This is how work begins the most important work the whole life of the scientist - "On the revolutions of celestial bodies." Copernicus did not forget about caution, therefore he presented his conclusions as just one of the possible theories of the structure of the Universe. The book included not only the results of astronomical observations, but also the very essence of the philosophical views of Copernicus. He wrote that:

• The earth has a spherical shape, it revolves around the sun and is just one of many planets, and not the center of the universe;
• Movement is relative, it is possible to talk about it only if there is a reference point;
• Space is much larger than the area visible from Earth, and most likely infinite.

At the same time, the scientist did not abandon the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bcreating the world by a divine essence.

"On the Revolutions of Celestial Bodies" was published a few days before the death of the astronomer - in May 1543. Thus, Copernicus devoted almost 40 years to the development of the heliocentric system - from the moment the first inaccuracies in the works of Ptolemy were discovered to the formulation of the final version of his views.

The fate of the scientific heritage of Nicolaus Copernicus

At first, the book of Copernicus did not cause much concern in the Catholic environment. This was due to two reasons. Firstly, the abundance of formulas, figures and diagrams was incomprehensible to an unprepared person. Secondly, the scientist very subtly presented his ideas in the form of just an alternative view. Therefore, the work of the astronomer freely spread throughout Europe for a long time. A few years later, the hierarchs realized the full danger of the teaching set forth in "On the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies". But this, however, did not prevent them from using the results of the work of Copernicus to compile a new calendar. In 1582, despite the fact that the late Copernicus was considered a heretic, Europe began to gradually switch to the modern Gregorian calendar, based on the calculations of the disgraced astronomer.

The revolutionary ideas of Copernicus contradicted the picture of the world, which was strongly supported by the Catholic Church. To accept the heliocentric system meant to recognize that:

• The earth, which was God's creation, is not in the center, but on the periphery of the universe;
• There is no heavenly hierarchy;
• The idea of ​​anthropocentrism is debatable;
• There is no cosmic prime mover.

However, for a long time the name of Copernicus was forgotten. At the end of the 16th century, the Italian Dominican monk Giordano Bruno was engaged in popularizing the ideas of Copernicus. Unlike the Polish astronomer, he was not afraid to hide his views and openly preach them. This led Bruno to death at the stake, but at the same time made a real revolution in the minds of progressive Europeans. They started talking about Copernicus, and the best minds of that time began to get acquainted with his system.

Only in 1616, a special commission of inquisitors decided to include the book of Copernicus in the Index of Forbidden Books. However, the spread of heliocentrism was already unstoppable. Despite all the prohibitions and inertia of religious dogmas, the doctrine of the central position of the Sun in the Universe by the beginning of the 17th century had become generally accepted.